HIT MITT UITI UNITI
32101 073337998
D. 295

vopy 1031
Handbook
of
Mesopotamia
Vol. III


Library of

Dei
Viget
Sub Numine
Princeton University.








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성
​


CONFIDENTIAL
This book is the property of H.M. Government.
It is intended for the use of officers generally, and may in
certain cases be communicated to persons in H.M. Service
below the rank of commissioned officer who may require to
be acquainted with its contents in the course of their duties.
The officers exercising this power will be held responsible
that such information is imparted with due caution and reserve.








Confidential.
Attention is called to the penalties attaching to any infraction
of the Official Secrets Act.
A HANDBOOK OF
MESOPOTAMIA
Volume III
CENTRAL MESOPOTAMIA
WITH SOUTHERN KURDISTAN AND THE
SYRIAN DESERT
Prepared on behalf of the Admiralty and
the War Office
ADMIRALTY WAR STAFF
INTELLIGENCE DIVISION
(C.B. 295.)
January, 1917





si
truriar 4,6!
۷۰
.403
) 79





NOTE
Mesopotamia is treated in four volumes. The first volume contains
matter of a general nature. The other volumes are devoted to the
detailed description of the river and land routes. The second volume
covers the regions of the Shatt el-'Arab and Kārūn, and of the Tigris
and Euphrates up to Baghdad and Fellūjeh. To the third volume
are assigned the Tigris and Euphrates from Baghdad and Fellajeh
to Mosul and Meskeneh, the Lesser Zāb, the country East of the
Tigris towards the Persian frontier, and the routes running westward
from the Euphrates valley across the Syrian Desert. The fourth
volume treats of the country North of the line joining Rowanduz,
Mosul, Meskeneh, and Aleppo up to Van, Bitlis, Diarbekr, and
Marash.
All estimates of mileage must be considered as approximate only.
In most cases they are based on the rough calculations of travellers,
or on the times given by travellers, or on sketch-maps or incomplete
surveys. The question-marks placed beside some of the figures
indicate that these are peculiarly doubtful: it is not implied that
other figures may be regarded as exact.
It is necessary to emphasize the fact that in the circumstances the
information given cannot be complete, and that conditions are con-
stantly undergoing change. The Admiralty will be glad to receive
corrections and additions.
Maps to accompany these volumes will be issued separately.


ABBREVIATIONS
In the itineraries the following abbreviations and conventional
signs may be noted :-
r. = right. l. = left.
h.w. = high water. l.w. = low water.
I. = Island.
T.L. = telegraph line.
T.0. = telegraph office.
P.0. = post office.
m. = miles.
The following signs are used to distinguish distance :-* by river ;
+ by road or track ; ^ crow-fly.
Distances are given throughout in statute miles.
Alt. = altitude, which is given in feet above sea-level unless other-
wise stated.








CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION. THE ROUTE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL MESOPO-
TAMIA, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . 9
ITINERARIES
RIVER ROUTES
ROUTE
The Tigris and Lesser Zāb.
III D. BAGHDAD-SAMARRA
III E. SAMARRA -- MOSUL .
III F. THE LESSER ZĀB.
. 76
The Euphrates.
GENERALINTRODUCTION ON THE RIVER BETWEEN FELLŪJEH
AND MESKENEH .
IV E. FELLUJEH-HIT . . .
96
IV F. HIT -ĀNAH . .
100
IV G. AnaH-DEIR EZ-ZOR ..
114
IV H. DEIR EZ-ZOR-MESKENEH
128
:
LAND ROUTES
...
29.
The Tigris Valley with Region to East.
25 a. BAGHDAD—MOSUL (via SALĀHIYEH, KIRKUK, AND ERBIL). .142
25 b. BAGHDAD-MOSUL (via RIGHT BANK OF THE TIGRIS)
167
TEKRIT-KIRKUK .
179
27. Qal'ah SHERGHAT-ALTUN KÖPRÜ .
179
28 a. BAGHDAD-KIRMANSHAH (via KHANIKIN) .
182
28 b. BAGHDAD-KIRMANSHAH (via MANDALI)
194
MANDALI-KHANIKIN . .
205
30. BAGHDAD-BELEDRUZ (ria BAHRIZ)
206
31. BAGHDADYBĀQÜBEH . . .
207
KHANIKIN-SALĀHIYEH. .
209
32 b. SALĀHIYEH-KHANIKIN ..
214
QASR-I-SHIRĪN-SALĀHIYEH .
215
34 a. SALĀHIYEH - SULEIMĀNIYEH (via ZAGIRMEH PASS)
220
34b. SULEIMĀNIYEH-SALĀHIYEH (via DĀR) .
229
35. SULEIMĀNIYEH-KIRMANSHAH .
232
36a. SULEIMANIYEH-SENNA (via MAMA KULAN AND PENJEVIN). 236
36 b. SULEIMĀNIYEH-PENJEVIN (via HARMALEH)
239
36c. PENJEVIN-BANAH . . . . . . . . .
240
37. KIRKUK-SULEIMANIYEH . . . . . . .
241
38. SULEIMĀNIYEH_BANIYEH . . . . . . . 246
· · · · · · ·
..........
32 a.
· · · · · ·
33.


CONTENTS
.
:
257
43 a.
E
264
ROUTE
PAGE
39. Kör SANJAQ-SULEIMĀNIYEH. . . . . . . 251
40. ALTUN KÖPRÜ-RANIYEH . . . . .
253
.
41.
RANIYEH_BANAH .
42. ERBIL-KÖI SANJAQ .
261
ERBIL-RowANDUZ (via SHAKHLAWA AND BĀTĀS) . .
43 b. ERBIL-ROWANDUZ (via BAHIRKA AND THE BĀBĀ CHICHEK
DĀGH .
268
44 a. ROWANDUZMRANIYEH (via THE BEJĀN PASS AND BALASSAN) 269
44 b. ROWANDUZ - RANIYEH (via KHATA, WITH BRANCH TO Kör
SANJAQ).
272
. .
44 c. RANIYEH - ROWANDUZ (via THE NALKEWAN VALLEY) . 273
45 a. Mosul-- RowANDUZ (via 'AQREH AND QANDİL FERRY) . 278
45 b. Mosul-ROWANDUZ (ria GIRDAMAMIK)
285
The Euphrates Valley.
BAGHDAD—ALEPPO (via THE EUPHRATES VALLEY) .
ĀNAH-MESKENEH (via LEFT BANK OF THE EUPHRATES).
46.
47.
288
299
Connexions between Tigris and Euphrates Valleys.
48. ANAH-BAGHDAD .
301
49 a. MOSUL-DEIR EZ-ZOR (via 'AIN EL-GHAZAL).
308
49 b. Mosul,DEIR EZ-ZOR (via BELED SINJAR AND SHEDĀDI). 311
49 c. SEKENIK - SHEDĀDI (ria SHILLO Pass). .
317
49 d. SEKENIK — THE KHABÜRATTEL-ARABĀN(via UMM EDH-DHIBAN) 320
MINOR DESERT ROUTES IN SOUTHERN JEZĪREH .
321
..
324
325
329
331
338
.
.
.
56.
· · · · · · · · · · ·
..........
341
.
.
The Syrian Desert.
51. Hit-RAHĀLİYEH . . . . . .
HIT-DAMASCUS ,
ABU KEMĀL_TADMOR
DEIR EZ-ZOR - DAMASCUS
RAQQAH-HAMA (via RUSAFEH)
RUSAFEH--SUKHNEH .
57. SUKHNEH-ALEPPO. .
58 a. TADMOR- Homs (via QARYATEIN).
58 b. TADMOR - HOMs (via ALA HALİYET)
58 c. TADMOR-Homs (via KHIRRET EL-HANŪREH)
59. TADMOR- SELEMİYEH . . . .
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS .
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE :
TRANSLITERATION OF NAMES
GLOSSARY.
APPENDIX (Baghdad - Samarra Railway, &c.).
INDEX
SKETCH-MAP OF ROUTES . . . . .
.
342
344
346
348
.
.
349
.
·
·
·
378
·
·
.
·
·
·
.
380
·
·
·
.
388
·
·
395
·
.
·
·
·
.
400
. at end
·
.
.
·








INTRODUCTION
THE ROUTE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL MESOPOTAMIA,
WITH SOUTHERN KURDISTAN AND THE SYRIAN
DESERT.
General Remarks. (a) The Plains. The conditions of movement
and transport in the country N. of Baghdad are on the whole very
different from those prevailing in Lower Mesopotamia. The Tigris
and the Euphrates are still important as affording main lines of
advance, but as waterways they are far less useful, at least for
up-stream navigation, than in Irak, owing to the more rapid current,
shallower depths, and numerous rocks and small rapids which
characterize their middle courses. On the other hand, the surface
of the plains which extend from Syria on the W. to the hills of
Kurdistan on the E. is much better suited to movement by land
than that of the alluvial desert and marsh of Irak and Arabistan.
There had indeed been hardly any road-making in these plains
before the present war: a short stretch of the Baghdad-Aleppo
caravan-route north of Deir ez-Zor seems to have been the only
metalled carriage-road. But, in dry weather at least, tracks that
need little or no improvement to make them passable for wheels can
generally be found. In wet weather the region where the tracks
suffer most is the alluvial plain N. and NE. of Baghdad. The clay
that predominates in the plains E. of the Tigris and N. of Samarra
also makes bad going after rain. The Southern Jezíreh between the
Euphrates and the Tigris, and the Syrian Desert W. of the Euphrates,
consist for the most part of hard ground which is comparatively
little affected by rain : though even here soft going may be found in
patches of deep sand, or along streams like the Belikh and Khabūr
and the brooks that water the plain under the Sinjar Hills. In the
valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris are strips of alluvium.
The chief obstacles in the plains are, first, the two great rivers
and their large tributaries (Diyāleh, 'Adheim, the two Zābs, Khabūr,
and Belikh), and, secondly, the numerous wadis. These latter appear


10
INTRODUCTION
to be generally passable for wheels or easily made so by a little
ramping, &c. In winter and spring, however, some of them at
times contain considerable torrents. Irrigation-cuts are not common
except in the cultivated areas of the alluvial plain N. and NE. of
Baghdad, where a good deal of bridging and ramping might be
necessary here and there. South of the Sinjar the only important
line of hills is the low but rugged Jebel Hamrín. Broken hilly
ground is also found along the edges of the desert-plateau over-
looking the Tigris and Euphrates.
The principal and very serious difficulty attending movement in
the plains is the prevailing lack of water and supplies. The effect
of this on the direction of main routes, &c., will be discussed below.
(6) The Kurdish Hills.—The hill-country of Kurdistan S. of
Rowanduz may be divided roughly into two zones which gradually
merge into each other : the zone of the foot-hills and down-country,
and the zone of the higher ranges.
In the first, movement is generally fairly easy. Open rolling
downs, low ridges, and wide valleys of clay, gravel, sandstone, &c.,
form its principal features. Most of the tracks as far as Salāhiyeh,
Suleimāniyeh, Raniyeh, and Rowanduz, where not already passable
for wheels, could be improved fairly easily. The chief obstacles are
the Greater and Lesser Zāb (both fordable here and there in the low-
water season), and their principal affluents, which are for the most
part easily fordable except when in spate from rain or melted snow.
A certain amount of work may be needed to make the banks of some
of the stream-beds and wadis passable for wheels. Water in this
region is generally plentiful, there is good grazing in spring, and
the country, though much under-cultivated, is sufficiently tilled and
populated to support a number of small towns.
Eastwards the ranges become gradually higher and more rugged ;
the tracks through the hills more stony, steep, and narrow. The
mountains enclose small fertile plains, but these are often damp and
muddy. The higher passes are blocked with snow in winter.
Stretches of road passable for wheeled transport become more and
more rare, until by the time the Persian frontier is reached only
mule-tracks ranging in quality from fair to bad may be found.
Supplies are scanty, but water and fuel are plentiful, and there is
a good deal of grazing.
The Main Routes from Baghdad into Upper Mesopotamia.—The
desert character of most of the plain country has the effect of limiting
to three the main lines of movement between Baghdad and Upper
Mesopotamia : (a) the line of the Euphrates, towards Aleppo, &c.;








INTRODUCTION
(b) the line of the Tigris to Mosul ; and (c) through the foot-hills of
the Kurdish ranges via Salāhiyeh (Kufri), Kirkuk, and Altun Köprü
to Mosul.
(a) The Line of the Euphrates.-The Baghdad-Aleppo caravan-
route runs from Baghdad westward to the Euphrates at Fellūjeh,
with a Decauville railway to Ridhwāniyeh to S. of it. It then follows
the r. (Western) side of the river to Meskeneh, where it turns W. to
Aleppo. This road is passable for vehicles in all weathers, though
before the war it was unmetalled except for a few miles N. of Deir
ez-Zor, and was therefore liable after rain to become soft and heavy
for wheeled vehicles. A good many wadis, some of which are rather
difficult, have to be crossed. There was a fair amount of wheeled
traffic passing over it at all seasons, and the journey between Baghdad
and Aleppo had been occasionally made by motors before 1914.
Water is plentiful, chiefly from the river. Supplies are limited,
though there is some cultivation along the valley. There is good
grazing in the neighbourhood of the river during spring. Fuel is
Fery scarce in some parts ; in others it is supplied by tamarisk, &c.
Whether transport could be obtained would depend on the atti-
tude of the neighbouring nomads and semi-nomads. (See further,
Route 46.)
On the 1. bank there is no regular route, but from the reports of
the few travellers who have ridden over parts of this side of the
Euphrates the country appears to be generally open and easy, with
the usual wadis, patches of soft sand and alluvium, &c. The Belikh
and Khabūr tributaries are the chief obstacles on the E. side of
the river. (See Route 47.)
As a water-way, the middle Euphrates has been much used for
down-stream traffic. Above Hit it cannot be ascended by sailing-
craft owing to the rapidity of the current. It has been occasionally
navigated up-stream by steamers and motor-boats; but even for
these it would be very difficult if not impossible to ascend the river
when it was at its highest or lowest. Blasting, &c., might improve
some of the places where rocks have formed rapids. (See further,
Routes IV F, G, H.)
(b) The Line of the Tigris. —The section of the Baghdad Railway
between Baghdad and Mosul will follow the r. (western) side of the
Tigris Valley. At present only the part of the line between Baghdad
and Samarra appears to have been completed.
From Samarra to Tekrit and from Tekrit to Mosul the land route
on the r. bank goes through very sparsely inhabited country where





INTRODUCTION
(6) the line of the Tigris to Mosul ; and (c) through the foot-hills of
the Kurdish ranges via Salāhiyeh (Kufri), Kirkuk, and Altun Köprü
to Mosul.
(a) The Line of the Euphrates.—The Baghdad-Aleppo caravan.
route runs from Baghdad westward to the Euphrates at Fellūjeh,
with a Decauville railway to Ridhwāniyeh to S. of it. It then follows
the r. (western) side of the river to Meskeneh, where it turns W. to
Aleppo. This road is passable for vehicles in all weathers, though
before the war it was unmetalled except for a few miles N. of Deir
ez-Zor, and was therefore liable after rain to become soft and heavy
for wheeled vehicles. A good many wadis, some of which are rather
difficult, have to be crossed. There was a fair amount of wheeled
traffic passing over it at all seasons, and the journey between Baghdad
and Aleppo had been occasionally made by motors before 1914.
Water is plentiful, chiefly from the river. Supplies are limited,
though there is some cultivation along the valley. There is good
grazing in the neighbourhood of the river during spring. Fuel is
very scarce in some parts ; in others it is supplied by tamarisk, &c.
Whether transport could be obtained would depend on the atti-
tude of the neighbouring nomads and semi-nomads. (See further,
Route 46.)
On the l. bank there is no regular route, but from the reports of
the few travellers who have ridden over parts of this side of the
Euphrates the country appears to be generally open and easy, with
the usual wadis, patches of soft sand and alluvium, &c. The Belikh
and Khabūr tributaries are the chief obstacles on the E. side of
the river. (See Route 47.)
As a water-way, the middle Euphrates has been much used for
down-stream traffic. Above Hit it cannot be ascended by sailing-
craft owing to the rapidity of the current. It has been occasionally
navigated up-stream by steamers and motor-boats; but even for
these it would be very difficult if not impossible to ascend the river
when it was at its highest or lowest. Blasting, &c., might improve
some of the places where rocks have formed rapids. (See further,
Routes IV F, G, H.)
(6) The Line of the Tigris.—The section of the Baghdad Railway
between Baghdad and Mosul will follow the r. (western) side of the
Tigris Valley. At present only the part of the line between Baghdad
and Samarra appears to have been completed.
From Samarra to Tekrit and from Tekrit to Mosul the land route
on the r. bank goes through very sparsely inhabited country where


INTRODUCTION
supplies are almost wholly lacking. Moreover, where the Tigris
breaks through the Jebel Hamrin, the route has to turn aside from
the river and runs some 38 m. through desert very scantily supplied
with water. There is grazing on the route in spring, but fuel is very
scarce. The Jebel Hamrin, which is crossed SE. of Qal'ah Sherghat,
is broken and rugged, and there are stretches of broken ground else-
where, e.g. near Tekrit. Nevertheless, before the war the route had
been traversed by light wheeled vehicles occasionally, and once even
by a motor. On the l. bank there was no regular route over the
whole distance from Baghdad to Mosul, though caravans travelled
sometimes on that side of the river between Baghdad and Samarra,
between Samarra and Dūr, and between the Great Zāb near its
mouth and Mosul. The chief disadvantage of the 1. bank as a line
for a through route from Baghdad to Mosul appears to be the
necessity of crossing near their mouths the three large tributaries of
the Tigris, the 'Adheim, and the two Zābs. The Tigris was bridged
before the war at Baghdad, Samarra, and Mosul.
There was much down-stream raft-traffic on the Middle Tigris
before the war, but sailing vessels did not as a rule go up-stream to
Samarra. The possibilities of steamer navigation between Samarra
and Mosul are very uncertain. The conditions appear to be more
unfavourable than those on the Euphrates above Hit. (See Route
III E.)
(c) The Salāhiyeh-Kirkuk Line.—The disadvantages of the Tigris
line mentioned above, and also the former insecurity of the Tigris
Valley, have brought into existence a caravan-route from Baghdad
to Mosul along the foot-hills of the Kurdish mountains, where there
are a few towns (Salāhiyeh, Kirkuk, Altun Köprü, Erbil, besides
a number of large villages) and a certain amount of cultivation, so
that sufficient supplies are generally obtainable in normal times for
fair-sized parties of troops or travellers. Before the present war this
road apparently needed only slight improvements here and there,
and some bridging (particularly at the Great Zāb) to make it passable
throughout for guns and carts. In spring, troops might be held up
by floods on a number of streams which at other times would be
easily fordable. Water is apparently abundant in spring and sufficient
at other seasons. There is good grazing on the route in spring. (See
Route 25 a.)
Lateral Communications between the main routes from Baghdad
into Upper Mesopotamia may be summarized as follows :-
(a) Communications across Lower Jezireh.—These include the routes








INTRODUCTION
13
between the Middle Euphrates and the Tigris valleys. In general it
may be said that the difficulties of communication across the Jezireh
are due not to the ground but to lack of water and supplies. North of
the Baghdad—Fellūjeh line which is traversed by the Baghdad-
Aleppo caravan-route the southern part of the Lower Jezīreh is a very
arid desert, hardly passable except by camel-caravans, small parties of
horsemen, or motor-cars. The going seems to be firm and easy
except at occasional wadis. Very little is known of the tracks
across this region used by the Arabs. For a desert route from Anah
to Baghdad, see Route 48. It is possible that the line of the Wādi
Tartar would be found useful in traversing the Lower Jezireh from
SW. to NE. or vice versa (e. g. between Hit and Qalah Sherghat or
Mosul). There seems to be water (brackish ?) even in the lower
(southern) part of the Wadi Tartar for at least most of the year.
- Nearer the Sinjar Hills conditions improve, and a number of fairly
well frequented routes over open easy country connect Mosul with
Deir ez-Zor. The chief obstacle is the River Khabūr, which seems,
however, to be fordable here and there in the low-water season.
Water is less scarce than in the southern part of Lower Jezīreh. It
is always to be found in abundance in the Khabūr River, and
a number of small streams run down from the Sinjar Hills into the
plain, but these may dry up in summer. There are also a fair
number of springs in the desert. The water in some of the streams and
springs is rather brackish or sulphurous, though usually drinkable.
Good grazing may be found in this region in spring. Fuel is obtain-
able in the Sinjar Hills. The lines preferred by guides in crossing
this country vary with the season, the condition of wells, &c. The
route from Mosul to Deir via 'Ain el-Ghazal and Tel es-Sawwār is
certainly passable for wheels, but it is reported that infantry would
not be able to use the route in summer owing to scarcity of water.
(See Route 49 a.) The more northerly route (49 b) lies under the Sinjar
Hills, passing through Beled Sinjar and Sekenik. This appears to
be passable for vehicles, though the track may become heavy after
rain and would perhaps need improvement at wadis. The direct
routes between Sekenik and the Khabūr at Shedādi or Tel 'Arabán
(see Routes 49 c, d) appear to suffer from lack of water. A circuitous
way from Sekenik to the Khabūr which crosses between the Jebel
Sinjar and the Jebel Jereibeh by the Shillo Pass and then turns W.
along the northern side of the hills, may be better provided with
water, but the quality of the supply seems to be poor. The Shillo
Pass is the main passage across the hills, and, though stony, seems to
need little improvement for wheels. There are other tracks over the
Sinjar range, but they are said to be difficult. The Sinjar Mountains


14
INTRODUCTION
are fairly well populated : the inhabitants (Yezidis) are said to have
been raiding the Deir- Mosul route since the outbreak of the war.
The direct lines across the desert from Tel es-Sawwār or Shedādi on
the Khabar to Deir ez-Zor seem to be poorly supplied with water,
and it might therefore be preferable to make a détour to the S.,
descending the Khabūr to its junction with the Euphrates, and
thence ascending the Euphrates Valley.
() Communication between the Tigris Valley and the Baghdad- Kirkuk
--Mosul Route.—North of the partially cultivated area that lies between
the Tigris and the Lower Diyaleh, there stretches between the Tigris
and the hills an open plain of clay and gravel traversed successively
by the 'Adheim, the Hamrin Hills, the Lesser Zāb, and the
Great Lab.
As far as the Lesser Zāb this plain is apparently inhabited only
by a very sparse nomadic population, who may practise a little
desultory cultivation here and there on the banks of the rivers or
where there are rain-water wells and springs. There is grazing in
this region in spring, but in summer both water and grass are
probably very scarce. The road between Salāhiyeh (Kufri) and
Kirkuk might perhaps be reached by following the 'Adheim towards
the point where it emerges from the hills and then striking NW.
or W. across the Jebel Hamrín : but there is no evidence as to this
as a possible route. For a slight account of a route from Tekrit to
Kirkuk, see Route 26.
Probably the easiest line would be along the course of the Lesser
Zāb from the neighbourhood of Qal'ah Sherghat to Altun Köprü. Here
water could always be obtained from the river and the country on
both banks appears to be open and easy. There is a down-stream
raft traffic on the Lower Zāb, but whether steamers could ascend the
river to Altun Köprü even in fairly high water seems very doubtful.
(See Route III F.)
North of the Lesser Zāb the population, though at first semi-
nomadic, seems to become more numerous. Thus in 1903 Sykes
saw numerous villages on the plain between Qalah Sherghat and
Makhmūr, though these were then (temporarily ?) deserted owing
to drought and locusts. For the route from Qal'ah Sherghat to
Altun Köprü via Makhmūr, see Route 27.
The plain S. and SW. of Erbil appears to be fairly well cultivated
(grain is exported thence to Baghdad) and between the Great Zāb and
Mosul there are numerous villages, Moslem, Christian, and Yezidi.
Here over the open country are numerous tracks, and communica-
tion between the Tigris and the Erbil-Mosul road should be easy.





10
INTRODUCTION
to be generally passable for wheels or easily made so by a little
ramping, &c. In winter and spring, however, some of them at
times contain considerable torrents. Irrigation-cuts are not common
except in the cultivated areas of the alluvial plain N. and NE. of
Baghdad, where a good deal of bridging and ramping might be
necessary here and there. South of the Sinjar the only important
line of hills is the low but rugged Jebel Hamrín. Broken hilly
ground is also found along the edges of the desert-plateau over-
looking the Tigris and Euphrates.
The principal and very serious difficulty attending movement in
the plains is the prevailing lack of water and supplies. The effect
of this on the direction of main routes, &c., will be discussed below.
(6) The Kurdish Hills.—The hill-country of Kurdistan S. of
Rowanduz may be divided roughly into two zones which gradually
merge into each other : the zone of the foot-hills and down-country,
and the zone of the higher ranges.
In the first, movement is generally fairly easy. Open rolling
downs, low ridges, and wide valleys of clay, gravel, sandstone, &c.,
form its principal features. Most of the tracks as far as Salāhiyeh,
Suleimāniyeh, Raniyeh, and Rowanduz, where not already passable
for wheels, could be improved fairly easily. The chief obstacles are
the Greater and Lesser Zāb (both fordable here and there in the low-
water season), and their principal affluents, which are for the most
part easily fordable except when in spate from rain or melted snow.
A certain amount of work may be needed to make the banks of some
of the stream-beds and wadis passable for wheels. Water in this
region is generally plentiful, there is good grazing in spring, and
the country, though much under-cultivated, is sufficiently tilled and
populated to support a number of small towns.
Eastwards the ranges become gradually higher and more rugged ;
the tracks through the hills more stony, steep, and narrow. The
mountains enclose small fertile plains, but these are often damp and
muddy. The higher passes are blocked with snow in winter.
Stretches of road passable for wheeled transport become more and
more rare, until by the time the Persian frontier is reached only
mule-tracks ranging in quality from fair to bad may be found.
Supplies are scanty, but water and fuel are plentiful, and there is
a good deal of grazing.
The Main Routes from Baghdad into Upper Mesopotamia.—The
desert character of most of the plain country has the effect of limiting
to three the main lines of movement between Baghdad and Upper
Mesopotamia : (a) the line of the Euphrates, towards Aleppo, &c.;








INTRODUCTION
(b) the line of the Tigris to Mosul ; and (c) through the foot-hills of
the Kurdish ranges via Salāhiyeh (Kufri), Kirkuk, and Altun Köprü
to Mosul.
(a) The Line of the Euphrates.—The Baghdad-Aleppo caravan-
route runs from Baghdad westward to the Euphrates at Fellūjeh,
with a Decauville railway to Ridhwāniyeh to S. of it. It then follows
the r. (western) side of the river to Meskeneh, where it turns W. to
Aleppo. This road is passable for vehicles in all weathers, though
before the war it was unmetalled except for a few miles N. of Deir
ez-Zor, and was therefore liable after rain to become soft and heavy
for wheeled vehicles. A good many wadis, some of which are rather
difficult, have to be crossed. There was a fair amount of wheeled
traffic passing over it at all seasons, and the journey between Baghdad
and Aleppo had been occasionally made by motors before 1914.
Water is plentiful, chiefly from the river. Supplies are limited,
though there is some cultivation along the valley. There is good
grazing in the neighbourhood of the river during spring. Fuel is
very scarce in some parts ; in others it is supplied by tamarisk, &c.
Whether transport could be obtained would depend on the atti.
tude of the neighbouring nomads and semi-nomads. (See further,
Route 46.)
On the l. bank there is no regular route, but from the reports of
the few travellers who have ridden over parts of this side of the
Euphrates the country appears to be generally open and easy, with
the usual wadis, patches of soft sand and alluvium, &c. The Belikh
and Khabūr tributaries are the chief obstacles on the E. side of
the river. (See Route 47.)
As a water-way, the middle Euphrates has been much used for
down-stream traffic. Above Hıt it cannot be ascended by sailing-
craft owing to the rapidity of the current. It has been occasionally
navigated up-stream by steamers and motor-boats ; but even for
these it would be very difficult if not impossible to ascend the river
when it was at its highest or lowest. Blasting, &c., might improve
some of the places where rocks have formed rapids. (See further,
Routes IV F, G, H.)
(b) The Line of the Tigris.—The section of the Baghdad Railway
between Baghdad and Mosul will follow the r. (western) side of the
Tigris Valley. At present only the part of the line between Baghdad
and Samarra appears to have been completed.
From Samarra to Tekrit and from Tekrit to Mosul the land route
on the r. bank goes through very sparsely inhabited country where


12
INTRODUCTION
supplies are almost wholly lacking. Moreover, where the Tigris
breaks through the Jebel Hamrin, the route has to turn aside from
the river and runs some 38 m. through desert very scantily supplied
with water. There is grazing on the route in spring, but fuel is very
scarce. The Jebel Hamrin, which is crossed SE. of Qalʼah Sherghat,
is broken and rugged, and there are stretches of broken ground else-
where, e.g. near Tekrit. Nevertheless, before the war the route had
been traversed by light wheeled vehicles occasionally, and once even
by a motor. On the l. bank there was no regular route over the
whole distance from Baghdad to Mosul, though caravans travelled
sometimes on that side of the river between Baghdad and Samarra,
between Samarra and Dūr, and between the Great Zāb near its
mouth and Mosul. The chief disadvantage of the l. bank as a line
for a through route from Baghdad to Mosul appears to be the
necessity of crossing near their mouths the three large tributaries of
the Tigris, the 'Adheim, and the two Zābs. The Tigris was bridged
before the war at Baghdad, Samarra, and Mosul..
There was much down-stream raft-traffic on the Middle Tigris
before the war, but sailing vessels did not as a rule go up-stream to
Samarra. The possibilities of steamer navigation between Samarra
and Mosul are very uncertain. The conditions appear to be more
unfavourable than those on the Euphrates above Hit. (See Route
III E.)
(c) The Salāhiyeh-Kirkuk Line.—The disadvantages of the Tigris
line mentioned above, and also the former insecurity of the Tigris
Valley, have brought into existence a caravan-route from Baghdad
to Mosul along the foot-hills of the Kurdish mountains, where there
are a few towns (Salāhiyeh, Kirkuk, Altun Köprü, Erbil, besides
a number of large villages) and a certain amount of cultivation, so
that sufficient supplies are generally obtainable in normal times for
fair-sized parties of troops or travellers. Before the present war this
road apparently needed only slight improvements here and there,
and some bridging (particularly at the Great Zāb) to make it passable
throughout for guns and carts. In spring, troops might be held up
by floods on a number of streams which at other times would be
easily fordable. Water is apparently abundant in spring and sufficient
at other seasons. There is good grazing on the route in spring. (See
Route 25 a.)
Lateral Communications between the main routes from Baghdad
into Upper Mesopotamia may be summarized as follows :-
(a) Communications across Lower Jezireh. —These include the routes








INTRODUCTION
13
between the Middle Euphrates and the Tigris valleys. In general it
may be said that the difficulties of communication across the Jezíreh
are due not to the ground but to lack of water and supplies. North of
the Baghdad-Fellūjeh line which is traversed by the Baghdad-
Aleppo caravan-route the southern part of the Lower Jezíreh is a very
arid desert, hardly passable except by camel-caravans, small parties of
horsemen, or motor-cars. The going seems to be firm and easy
except at occasional wadis. Very little is known of the tracks
across this region used by the Arabs. For a desert route from Anah
to Baghdad, see Route 48. It is possible that the line of the Wādi
Tartar would be found useful in traversing the Lower Jezīreh from
SW. to NE. or vice versa (e. g. between Hit and Qalah Sherghat or
Mosul). There seems to be water (brackish ?) even in the lower
(southern) part of the Wādi Tartar for at least most of the year.
- Nearer the Sinjar Hills conditions improve, and a number of fairly
well frequented routes over open easy country connect Mosul with
Deir ez-Zor. The chief obstacle is the River Khabūr, which seems,
however, to be fordable here and there in the low-water season.
Water is less scarce than in the southern part of Lower Jezireh. It
is always to be found in abundance in the Khabūr River, and
a number of small streams run down from the Sinjar Hills into the
plain, but these may dry up in summer. There are also a fair
number of springs in the desert. The water in some of the streams and
springs is rather brackish or sulphurous, though usually drinkable.
Good grazing may be found in this region in spring. Fuel is obtain-
able in the Sinjar Hills. The lines preferred by guides in crossing
this country vary with the season, the condition of wells, &c. The
route from Mosul to Deir via 'Ain el-Ghazal and Tel es-Sawwār is
certainly passable for wheels, but it is reported that infantry would
not be able to use the route in summer owing to scarcity of water.
(See Route 49 a.) The more northerly route (49 b) lies under the Sinjar
Hills, passing through Beled Sinjar and Sekenik. This appears to
be passable for vehicles, though the track may become heavy after
rain and would perhaps need improvement at wadis. The direct
routes between Sekenik and the Khabūr at Shedādi or Tel 'Arabän
(see Routes 49 c, d) appear to suffer from lack of water. A circuitous
way from Sekenik to the Khabūr which crosses between the Jebel
Sinjar and the Jebel Jereibeh by the Shillo Pass and then turns W.
along the northern side of the hills, may be better. provided with
water, but the quality of the supply seems to be poor. The Shillo
Pass is the main passage across the hills, and, though stony, seems to
need little improvement for wheels. There are other tracks over the
Sinjar range, but they are said to be difficult. The Sinjar Mountains


14
INTRODUCTION
are fairly well populated : the inhabitants (Yezidis) are said to have
been raiding the Deir- Mosul route since the outbreak of the war.
The direct lines across the desert from Tel es-Sawwār or Shedādi on
the Khabür to Deir ez-Zor seem to be poorly supplied with water,
and it might therefore be preferable to make a détour to the S.,
descending the Khabūr to its junction with the Euphrates, and
thence ascending the Euphrates Valley.
(b) Communication between the Tigris Valley and the Baghdad-Kirkuk
--Mosul Route.-North of the partially cultivated area that lies between
the Tigris and the Lower Diyaleh, there stretches between the Tigris
and the hills an open plain of clay and gravel traversed successively
by the 'Adheim, the Hamrin Hills, the Lesser Zāb, and the
Great Zāb.
As far as the Lesser Zāb this plain is apparently inhabited only
by a very sparse nomadic population, who may practise a little
desultory cultivation here and there on the banks of the rivers or
where there are rain-water wells and springs. There is grazing in
this region in spring, but in summer both water and grass are
probably very scarce. The road between Salāhiyeh (Kufri) and
Kirkuk might perhaps be reached by following the 'Adheim towards
the point where it emerges from the hills and then striking NW.
or W. across the Jebel Hamrin : but there is no evidence as to this
as a possible route. For a slight account of a route from Tekrit to
Kirkuk, see Route 26.
Probably the easiest line would be along the course of the Lesser
Zab from the neighbourhood of Qal'ah Sherghat to Altun Köprü. Here
water could always be obtained from the river and the country on
both banks appears to be open and easy. There is a down-stream
raft traffic on the Lower Zāb, but whether steamers could ascend the
river to Altun Köprü even in fairly high water seems very doubtful.
(See Route III F.)
North of the Lesser Zāb the population, though at first semi-
nomadic, seems to become more numerous. Thus in 1903 Sykes
saw numerous villages on the plain between Qal'ah Sherghat and
Makhmūr, though these were then (temporarily ?) deserted owing
to drought and locusts. For the route from Qal'ah Sherghat to
Altun Köprü via Makhmūr, see Route 27.
The plain S. and SW. of Erbil appears to be fairly well cultivated
(grain is exported thence to Baghdad) and between the Great Zāb and
Mosul there are numerous villages, Moslem, Christian, and Yezidi.
Here over the open country are numerous tracks, and communica-
tion between the Tigris and the Erbil-Mosul road should be easy.








INTRODUCTION
15
Routes towards Persian Frontier.—North-east of Baghdad, in the
neighbourhood of Khanikin and Qasr-j-Shirin, lies the main depression
in the mountain system which divides the plateau of Iran (Persia)
from the Mesopotamian plains. Through this depression runs the
Baghdad—Kirmanshah caravan-route by Bāqubeh, Qizil Ribat, Kha-
nikin, and Qasr-i-Shirin. This before the war was the only route
passable for wheeled transport between Mesopotamia and Persia,
and even this was not easy for vehicles beyond the Persian frontier.
In the plain between Baghdad and Khanikin the going was good
except after rain. (See Route 28 a.) A much more difficult alter-
native route (28 b) to Kirmanshah runs by Beledrūz and Mandali to
join the main road at Khorāsābād. This is liable to become very
bad in the plains in wet weather, and is merely a mule-track in
the hills. For connexions between these routes, see Routes 29 and
28 b, m. 1221, 147), 1563.
Khanikin and Qasr-i-Shīrīn on the main Baghdad-Kirmanshah road
are connected by easy though unmade tracks with Salahiyeh (Kufri)
on the Baghdad-Mosul road. The only serious obstacle on this set
of tracks is the Diyaleh River. (See Routes 32 a, b; 33.)
There is a made road passable for wheels from Qasr-i-Shirin to
the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's wells at Chiah Surkh : and there
is a fairly easy line over the Zohab Plain between Qasr-i-Shirin and
the Suleimāniyeh-Kirmanshah route mentioned below.
To the N. of Qasr-i-Shirin the first principal route-centre of
Kurdistan is Suleimāniyeh, a considerable town lying in a fertile
though under-cultivated plain some 60-70 m. E. of Kirkuk. The..
easiest approach to Suleimaniyeh from the W. is from Kirkuk over
stony rolling hills through Chemchemal and the Baziyan Pass.
Between Kirkuk and Chemchemal and between the Baziyan Pass and
Suleimāniyeh there appears to be a number of possible tracks; and
there seems to have been before the war at least one route from
Kirkuk to Suleimāniyeh which was just passable for wheels
throughout though in need of improvement. (See Route 37.) From
the SW. Suleimāniyeh can be approached from Salahiyeh (Kufri) by
mule-tracks which are bad in parts. From the NW. mule-tracks
over a more mountainous country under the Pīr 'Omar Gudrun Dagh
lead to Suleimāniyeh from Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh : these cross the
Lesser Zāb by ferries at Dukhan or Khānābi. (See Routes 39, 38.)
South-east from Suleimāniyeh a route leads by Halehjeh across
the Persian frontier to Kirmanshah : this is fairly easy for pack-
1 As far as Bāqūbeh (where it crosses the Diyāleh by a bridge) it is identical
with the better road from Baghdad to Delli 'Abbās on the Baghdad-Kirkuk-
Mosul route. See Route 25 a.


16
INTRODUCTION
animals until the mountains overlooking the Ab-i-Shirwan (Upper
Diyāleh) are reached. Difficult paths lead through these hills : but
beyond them comparatively easy, mule-roads run to Kirmanshah.
(See Route 35.) Lastly, eastwards from Suleimāniyeh, a route which
in parts is practicable for led animals only leads by Penjevin over
the frontier to Senna. (See Route 36 a.)
It has been stated that the best line for a military road or railway
from the Tigris Valley into the Urmia district and NW. Persia
would run by the Lesser Zāb Valley from Altun Köprü to Köi
Sanjaq, thence to Raniyeh, and on by Pishder Plain to the Wazneh
Pass, from there to El-Watan and the Lahjān Plain, and so to Ushnu
and Urmia. In the present volume this line is described as far as
Raniyeh. Before the war the road from Altun Köprü to Köi Sanjaq
and Raniyeh does not seem to have been passable for wheels
throughout, but it appears to have been capable of being easily
improved into a carriage-road. It traverses down-country and fairly
low ridges, running over clay and gravel. (See Route 40.) Beyond
Raniyeh the route to Urmia is described in vol. iv: it may be men-
tioned here that at any rate in 1905 the road was not practicable
throughout for all arms, and it was reported that much labour and
expense would be needed to make it passable for large forces : the
passes beyond Raniyeh are blocked by snow in winter.
From Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh roads for pack-animals lead, as has
been said, to Suleimāniyeh, and mule-tracks which are difficult in
parts and are mostly blocked by snow in winter connect these places
with Rowanduz to the N. (See Routes 44 a-c.) From Raniyeh a
route runs by Ser Desht to Banah. (See Route 41.) A difficult mule-
track connects Ser Desht with Penjevin on the Suleimāniyeh-
Senna road. (See Route 36 c.)
The last road-centre in the area here in question is Rowanduz.
This place lies, shut in among high steep hills, on the Rowanduz
Chai, which here flows in a narrow, deep valley. The approaches to
it before the present war were difficult even for pack-animals, but
from Harir (below) a cart-road has been made. In the present
volume are described routes to Rowanduz from Mosul. One goes by
'Aqreh and across the Great Zāb by the Qandıl ferry, the other
crosses the Zāb by the Girdamamik ferry farther south, and then
turns NE, to join the northern route near Harir, not far from Qandil.
Thence hilly country is crossed to the Khalifān gorge, by which the
difficult valley of the Rowanduz Chai is reached. The southern
route, if not already passable for wheels as far as Girdamamik, could
probably be made so with a few improvements. (See Routes 45 a, b.)
From Erbil one route runs to join the Mosul-Rowanduz route in








INTRODUCTION
17
the neighbourhood of Hartr, another leads over the hills to Sha-
khlawa and thence to the Khalifan gorge, where it too connects with
the Mosul-Rowanduz route. These roads from Erbil are impassable
for wheels except perhaps in the Erbil Plain.
For the routes leading from Rowanduz NW. to Amadiyeh, north
to Neri, and NE. towards El-Watan and Urmia, see vol. iv.
The Syrian Desert. West of the Euphrates stretches the northern
part of the Hamad, a bare stony desert which slopes gradually from
Syria and Arabia NE. to the Euphrates Valley. The ground is
almost flat, broken only here and there by wadis, easy undulations,
or low ranges of hills. The surface is generally sand or shingle with
occasional outcrops of volcanic rock. In the north, however, beyond
the line Raqqah-Hama, the nature of the soil changes and becomes
more capable of cultivation, and the country between Meskeneh and
Aleppo is already fairly well populated and tilled.
In the desert the pools or wells, which occur at long intervals,
contain water that is frequently bad and infested with leeches, &c.,
and generally brackish. Conditions for travel are best during a few
weeks in spring. At that season there is much pasture in the hollows
of the Hamād, and water-holes (known to the Bedouin) are available
then which are dry later in the year. Most of the grass is shrivelled
up by the middle of April.
The direction of routes across the desert is generally determined
by the position of water. The tracks are often badly defined or
quite indistinguishable, as, owing to the easy nature of the ground,
there is usually no need to follow a definite path. Towards Tadmor
and Damascus the country becomes hillier, and directions are here
determined to some extent by the trend of the valleys, but the chief
factor is still the water-supply.
Owing to the scarcity of water, Syria cannot be approached from
the Euphrates Valley south of the line Meskeneh-Aleppo except by
small parties or by the aid of camel-transport on a large scale. Of
the routes described in this volume those which run almost due W.
from Hit to Damascus (Route 52) and from Abu Kemāl to Tadmor
(Route 53) are difficult even for small parties. Nothing is known of
the route by the Wadi-Haurān from Jibbeh ; but in 1907 it was
said that Damascus could be reached in six days from the Euphrates
by this route. Route 52 is important only as a route for the camel-
post. The main desert-route is that from Deir ez-Zor to Damascus
which is part of a regular caravan-route between Damascus and
Baghdad. (See Route 54.)
On the route from Raqqah to Hama it might be possible to
MES. 11
B


18
INTRODUCTION
improve the water-supply. It has been stated that there is probably
an underground stream flowing N. from Rusafeh to the Euphrates,
and that water might be obtained from it by boring. This water,
if found, would probably be brackish. Beyond Seriyeh the country
seems to have been formerly well populated; water might be
obtained by clearing old wells or sinking new ones.
Notes on old routes between Basra and Damascus or Aleppo,
which are very little used at the present day, will be found in vol. ij.





14
INTRODUCTION
are fairly well populated : the inhabitants (Yezidis) are said to have
been raiding the Deir- Mosul route since the outbreak of the war.
The direct lines across the desert from Tel es-Sawwār or Shedādi on
the Khabūr to Deir ez-Zor seem to be poorly supplied with water,
and it might therefore be preferable to make a détour to the S.,
descending the Khabūr to its junction with the Euphrates, and
thence ascending the Euphrates Valley.
(6) Communication between the Tigris Valley and the Baghdad- Kirkuk
-Mosul Route.-North of the partially cultivated area that lies between
the Tigris and the Lower Diyāleh, there stretches between the Tigris
and the hills an open plain of clay and gravel traversed successively
by the 'Adheim, the Hamrin Hills, the Lesser Zāb, and the
Great Zab.
As far as the Lesser Zāb this plain is apparently inhabited only
by a very sparse nomadic population, who may practise a little
desultory cultivation here and there on the banks of the rivers or
where there are rain-water wells and springs. There is grazing in
this region in spring, but in summer both water and grass are
probably very scarce. The road between Salāhiyeh (Kufri) and
Kirkuk might perhaps be reached by following the 'Adheim towards
the point where it emerges from the hills and then striking NW.
or W. across the Jebel Hamrīn : but there is no evidence as to this
as a possible route. For a slight account of a route from Tekrit to
Kirkuk, see Route 26.
Probably the easiest line would be along the course of the Lesser
Zāb from the neighbourhood of Qal'ah Sherghat to Altun Köprü. Here
water could always be obtained from the river and the country on
both banks appears to be open and easy. There is a down-stream
raft traffic on the Lower Zāb, but whether steamers could ascend the
river to Altun Köprü even in fairly high water seems very doubtful.
(See Route III F.)
North of the Lesser Zāb the population, though at first semi-
nomadic, seems to become more numerous. Thus in 1903 Sykes
saw numerous villages on the plain between Qalah Sherghat and
Makhmūr, though these were then (temporarily ?) deserted owing
to drought and locusts. For the route from Qalʼah Sherghat to
Altun Köprü via Makhmūr, see Route 27.
The plain S. and SW. of Erbil appears to be fairly well cultivated
(grain is exported thence to Baghdad) and between the Great Zāb and
Mosul there are numerous villages, Moslem, Christian, and Yezidi.
Here over the open country are numerous tracks, and communica-
tion between the Tigris and the Erbil-Mosul road should be easy.








INTRODUCTION
15
Routes towards Persian Frontier.—North-east of Baghdad, in the
neighbourhood of Khanikin and Qasr-j-Shirin, lies the main depression
in the mountain system which divides the plateau of Iran (Persia)
from the Mesopotamian plains. Through this depression runs the
Baghdad-Kirmanshah caravan-route by Bāqübeh,' Qizil Ribat, Kha-
nikin, and Qasr-i-Shirin. This before the war was the only route
passable for wheeled transport between Mesopotamia and Persia,
and even this was not easy for vehicles beyond the Persian frontier.
In the plain between Baghdad and Khanikin the going was good
except after rain. (See Route 28 a.) A much more difficult alter-
native route (28 b) to Kirmanshah runs by Beledrūz and Mandali to
join the main road at Khorāsābād. This is liable to become very
bad in the plains in wet weather, and is merely a mule-track in
the hills. For connexions between these routes, see Routes 29 and
28 b, m. 1223, 1473, 156.
Khanikin and Qasr-i-Shirin on the main Baghdad-Kirmanshah road
are connected by easy though unmade tracks with Salāhiyeh (Kufri)
on the Baghdad-Mosul road. The only serious obstacle on this set
of tracks is the Diyaleh River. (See Routes 32 a, b; 33.)
There is a made road passable for wheels from Qasr-i-Shirin to
the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's wells at Chiah Surkh: and there
is a fairly easy line over the Zohāb Plain between Qasr-i-Shirin and
the Suleimāniyeh-Kirmanshah route mentioned below.
To the N. of Qasr-i-Shirin the first principal route-centre of
Kurdistan is Suleimāniyeh, a considerable town lying in a fertile
though under-cultivated plain some 60-70 m. E. of Kirkuk. The
easiest approach to Suleimāniyeh from the W. is from Kirkuk over
stony rolling hills through Chemchemal and the Baziyan Pass.
Between Kirkuk and Chemchemal and between the Baziyan Pass and
Suleimāniyeh there appears to be a number of possible tracks; and
there seems to have been before the war at least one route from
Kirkuk to Suleimaniyeh which was just passable for wheels
throughout though in need of improvement. (See Route 37.) From
the SW. Suleimāniyeh can be approached from Salahiyeh (Kufri) by
mule-tracks which are bad in parts. From the NW. mule-tracks
over a more mountainous country under the Pīr 'Omar Gudrun Dāgh
lead to Suleimāniyeh from Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh : these cross the
Lesser Zab by ferries at Dukhan or Khānābi. (See Routes 39, 38.)
South-east from Suleimāniyeh a route leads by Halebjeh across
the Persian frontier to Kirmanshah : this is fairly easy for pack-
* As far as Bāqúbeh (where it crosses the Diyāleh by a bridge) it is identical
with the better road from Baghdad to Delli 'Abbās on the Baghdad-Kirkuk-
Mosul route. See Route 25 a.


16
INTRODUCTION
animals until the mountains overlooking the Ab-i-Shirwan (Upper
Diyāleh) are reached. Difficult paths lead through these hills : but
beyond them comparatively easy, mule-roads run to Kirmanshah.
(See Route 35.) Lastly, eastwards from Suleimāniyeh, a route which
in parts is practicable for led animals only leads by Penjevin over
the frontier to Senna. (See Route 36 a.)
It has been stated that the best line for a military road or railway
from the Tigris Valley into the Urmia district and NW. Persia
would run by the Lesser Zāb Valley from Altun Köprü to Köi
Sanjaq, thence to Raniyeh, and on by Pishder Plain to the Wazneh
Pass, from there to El-Watan and the Lahjān Plain, and so to Ushnu
and Urmia. In the present volume this line is described as far as
Raniyeh. Before the war the road from Altun Köprü to Köi Sanjaq
and Raniyeh does not seem to have been passable for wheels
throughout, but it appears to have been capable of being easily
improved into a carriage-road. It traverses down-country and fairly
low ridges, running over clay and gravel. (See Route 40.) Beyond
Raniyeh the route to Urmia is described in vol. iv: it may be men-
tioned here that at any rate in 1905 the road was not practicable
throughout for all arms, and it was reported that much labour and
expense would be needed to make it passable for large forces : the
passes beyond Raniyeh are blocked by snow in winter.
From Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh roads for pack-animals lead, as has
been said, to Suleimāniyeh, and mule-tracks which are difficult in
parts and are mostly blocked by snow in winter connect these places
with Rowanduz to the N. (See Routes 44 a-c.) From Raniyeh a
route runs by Ser Desht to Banah. (See Route 41.) A difficult mule-
track connects Ser Desht with Penjevin on the Suleimāniyeh-
Senna road. (See Route 36 c.)
The last road-centre in the area here in question is Rowanduz.
This place lies, shut in among high steep hills, on the Rowanduz
Chai, which here flows in a narrow, deep valley. The approaches to
it before the present war were difficult even for pack-animals, but
from Harir (below) a cart-road has been made. In the present
volume are described routes to Rowanduz from Mosul. One goes by
Aqreh and across the Great Zāb by the Qandīl ferry, the other
crosses the Zāb by the Girdamamik ferry farther south, and then
turns NE. to join the northern route near Harir, not far from Qandil.
Thence hilly country is crossed to the Khalifān gorge, by which the
difficult valley of the Rowanduz Chai is reached. The southern
route, if not already passable for wheels as far as Girdamamik, could
probably be made so with a few improvements. (See Routes 45 a, b.)
From Erbil one route runs to join the Mosul-Rowanduz route in








INTRODUCTION
17
the neighbourhood of Harir, another leads over the hills to Sha-
khlawa and thence to the Khalifan gorge, where it too connects with
the Mosul-Rowanduz route. These roads from Erbil are impassable
for wheels except perhaps in the Erbil Plain.
For the routes leading from Rowanduz NW. to Amadiyeh, north
to Neri, and NE. towards El-Watan and Urmia, see vol. iv.
The Syrian Desert. West of the Euphrates stretches the northern
part of the Hamād, a bare stony desert which slopes gradually from
Syria and Arabia NE. to the Euphrates Valley. The ground is
almost flat, broken only here and there by wadis, easy undulations,
or low ranges of hills. The surface is generally sand or shingle with
occasional outcrops of volcanic rock. In the north, however, beyond
the line Raqqah-Hama, the nature of the soil changes and becomes
more capable of cultivation, and the country between Meskeneh and
Aleppo is already fairly well populated and tilled.
In the desert the pools or wells, which occur at long intervals,
contain water that is frequently bad and infested with leeches, &c.,
and generally brackish. Conditions for travel are best during a few
weeks in spring. At that season there is much pasture in the hollows
of the Hamād, and water-holes (known to the Bedouin) are available
then which are dry later in the year. Most of the grass is shrivelled
up by the middle of April.
The direction of routes across the desert is generally determined
by the position of water. The tracks are often badly defined or
quite indistinguishable, as, owing to the easy nature of the ground,
there is usually no need to follow a definite path. Towards Tadmor
and Damascus the country becomes hillier, and directions are here
determined to some extent by the trend of the valleys, but the chief
factor is still the water-supply.
Owing to the scarcity of water, Syria cannot be approached from
the Euphrates Valley south of the line Meskeneh-Aleppo except by
small parties or by the aid of camel-transport on a large scale. Of
the routes described in this volume those which run almost due W.
from Hit to Damascus (Route 52) and from Abu Kemāl to Tadmor
(Route 53) are difficult even for small parties. Nothing is known of
the route by the Wadi-Haurān from Jibbeh ; but in 1907 it was
said that Damascus could be reached in six days from the Euphrates
by this route. Route 52 is important only as a route for the camel-
post. The main desert-route is that from Deir ez-Zor to Damascus
which is part of a regular caravan-route between Damascus and
Baghdad. (See Route 54.)
On the route from Raqqah to Hama it might be possible to
MES. IT
B


16
INTRODUCTION
animals until the mountains overlooking the Ab-i-Shirwān (Upper
Diyāleh) are reached. Difficult paths lead through these hills : but
beyond them comparatively easy, mule-roads run to Kirmanshah.
(See Route 35.) Lastly, eastwards from Suleimāniyeh, a route which
in parts is practicable for led animals only leads by Penjevin over
the frontier to Senna. (See Route 36 a.)
It has been stated that the best line for a military road or railway
from the Tigris Valley into the Urmia district and NW. Persia
would run by the Lesser Zāb Valley from Altun Köprü to Köi
Sanjaq, thence to Raniyeh, and on by Pishder Plain to the Wazneh
Pass, from there to El-Watan and the Lahjān Plain, and so to Ushnu
and Urmia. In the present volume this line is described as far as
Raniyeh. Before the war the road from Altun Köprü to Köi Sanjaq
and Raniyeh does not seem to have been passable for wheels
throughout, but it appears to have been capable of being easily
improved into a carriage-road. It traverses down-country and fairly
low ridges, running over clay and gravel. (See Route 40.) Beyond
Raniyeh the route to Urmia is described in vol. iv: it may be men-
tioned here that at any rate in 1905 the road was not practicable
throughout for all arms, and it was reported that much labour and
expense would be needed to make it passable for large forces : the
passes beyond Raniyeh are blocked by snow in winter.
From Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh roads for pack-animals lead, as has
been said, to Suleimāniyeh, and mule-tracks which are difficult in
parts and are mostly blocked by snow in winter connect these places
with Rowanduz to the N. (See Routes 44 a-c.) From Raniyeh a
route runs by Ser Desht to Banah. (See Route 41.) A difficult mule-
track connects Ser Desht with Penjevin on the Suleimāniyeh-
Senna road. (See Route 36 c.)
The last road-centre in the area here in question is Rowanduz.
This place lies, shut in among high steep hills, on the Rowanduz
Chai, which here flows in a narrow, deep valley. The approaches to
it before the present war were difficult even for pack-animals, but
from Harīr (below) a cart-road has been made. In the present
volume are described routes to Rowanduz from Mosul. One goes by
‘Aqreh and across the Great Zāb by the Qandil ferry, the other
crosses the Zāb by the Girdamamik ferry farther south, and then
turns NE, to join the northern route near Harir, not far from Qandıl.
Thence hilly country is crossed to the Khalifān gorge, by which the
difficult valley of the Rowanduz Chai is reached. The southern
route, if not already passable for wheels as far as Girdamamik, could
probably be made so with a few improvements. (See Routes 45 a, b.)
From Erbil one route runs to join the Mosul-Rowanduz route in








INTRODUCTION
17
the neighbourhood of Harir, another leads over the hills to Sha-
khlawa and thence to the Khalifan gorge, where it too connects with
the Mosul-Rowanduz route. These roads from Erbil are impassable
for wheels except perhaps in the Erbil Plain.
For the routes leading from Rowanduz NW. to Amadiyeh, north
to Neri, and NE. towards El-Watan and Urmia, see vol. iv.
The Syrian Desert. West of the Euphrates stretches the northern
part of the Hamād, a bare stony desert which slopes gradually from
Syria and Arabia NE. to the Euphrates Valley. The ground is
almost flat, broken only here and there by wadis, easy undulations,
or low ranges of hills. The surface is generally sand or shingle with
occasional outcrops of volcanic rock. In the north, however, beyond
the line Raqqah-Hama, the nature of the soil changes and becomes
more capable of cultivation, and the country between Meskeneh and
Aleppo is already fairly well populated and tilled.
In the desert the pools or wells, which occur at long intervals,
contain water that is frequently bad and infested with leeches, &c.,
and generally brackish. Conditions for travel are best during a few
weeks in spring. At that season there is much pasture in the hollows
of the Hamād, and water-holes (known to the Bedouin) are available
then which are dry later in the year. Most of the grass is shrivelled
up by the middle of April.
The direction of routes across the desert is generally determined
by the position of water. The tracks are often badly defined or
quite indistinguishable, as, owing to the easy nature of the ground,
there is usually no need to follow a definite path. Towards Tadmor
and Damascus the country becomes hillier, and directions are here
determined to some extent by the trend of the valleys, but the chief
factor is still the water-supply.
Owing to the scarcity of water, Syria cannot be approached from
the Euphrates Valley south of the line Meskeneh-Aleppo except by
small parties or by the aid of camel-transport on a large scale. Of
the routes described in this volume those which run almost due W.
from Hit to Damascus (Route 52) and from Abu Kemāl to Tadmor
(Route 53) are difficult even for small parties. Nothing is known of
the route by the Wādi-Haurān from Jibbeh ; but in 1907 it was
said that Damascus could be reached in six days from the Euphrates
by this route. Route 52 is important only as a route for the camel-
post. The main desert-route is that from Deir ez-Zor to Damascus
which is part of a regular caravan-route between Damascus and
Baghdad. (See Route 54.)
On the route from Raqqah to Hama it might be possible to
MES. 111


INTRODUCTION
improve the water-supply. It has been stated that there is probably
an underground stream flowing N. from Rusafeh to the Euphrates,
and that water might be obtained from it by boring. This water,
if found, would probably be brackish. Beyond Seriyeh the country
seems to have been formerly well populated; water might be
obtained by clearing old wells or sinking new ones.
Notes on old routes between Basra and Damascus or Aleppo,
which are very little used at the present day, will be found in vol. ii.








INTRODUCTION
13
between the Middle Euphrates and the Tigris valleys. In general it
may be said that the difficulties of communication across the Jezīreh
are due not to the ground but to lack of water and supplies. North of
the Baghdad-Fellūjeh line which is traversed by the Baghdad-
Aleppo caravan-route the southern part of the Lower Jezīreh is a very
arid desert, hardly passable except by camel-caravans, small parties of
horsemen, or motor-cars. The going seems to be firm and easy
except at occasional wadis. Very little is known of the tracks
across this region used by the Arabs. For a desert route from Anah
to Baghdad, see Route 48. It is possible that the line of the Wadi
Tartar would be found useful in traversing the Lower Jezíreh from
SW. to NE. or vice versa (e. g. between Hit and Qalah Sherghat or
Mosul). There seems to be water (brackish ?) even in the lower
(southern) part of the Wādi Tartar for at least most of the year.
- Nearer the Sinjar Hills conditions improve, and a number of fairly
well frequented routes over open easy country connect Mosul with
Deir ez-Zor. The chief obstacle is the River Khabūr, which seems,
however, to be fordable here and there in the low-water season.
Water is less scarce than in the southern part of Lower Jezīreh. It
is always to be found in abundance in the Khabūr River, and
a number of small streams run down from the Sinjar Hills into the
plain, but these may dry up in summer. There are also a fair
number of springs in the desert. The water in some of the streams and
springs is rather brackish or sulphurous, though usually drinkable.
Good grazing may be found in this region in spring. Fuel is obtain-
able in the Sinjar Hills. The lines preferred by guides in crossing
this country vary with the season, the condition of wells, &c. The
route from Mosul to Deir via 'Ain el-Ghazal and Tel es-Sawwār is
certainly passable for wheels, but it is reported that infantry would
not be able to use the route in summer owing to scarcity of water.
(See Route 49 a.) The more northerly route (49 b) lies under the Sinjar
Hills, passing through Beled Sinjar and Sekenik. This appears to
be passable for vehicles, though the track may become heavy after
rain and would perhaps need improvement at wadis. The direct
routes between Sekenik and the Khabūr at Shedādi or Tel 'Arabân
(see Routes 49 c, d) appear to suffer from lack of water. A circuitous
way from Sekenik to the Khabür which crosses between the Jebel
Sinjar and the Jebel Jereibeh by the Shillo Pass and then turns W.
along the northern side of the hills, may be better provided with
water, but the quality of the supply seems to be poor. The Shillo
Pass is the main passage across the hills, and, though stony, seems to
need little improvement for wheels. There are other tracks over the
Sinjar range, but they are said to be difficult. The Sinjar Mountains


14
INTRODUCTION
are fairly well populated : the inhabitants (Yezidis) are said to have
been raiding the Deir- Mosul route since the outbreak of the war.
The direct lines across the desert from Tel es-Sawwār or Shedādi on
the Khabūr to Deir ez-Zor seem to be poorly supplied with water,
and it might therefore be preferable to make a détour to the S.,
descending the Khabūr to its junction with the Euphrates, and
thence ascending the Euphrates Valley.
(6) Communication between the Tigris Valley and the Baghdad - Kirkuk
-Mosul Route.—North of the partially cultivated area that lies between
the Tigris and the Lower Diyāleh, there stretches between the Tigris
and the hills an open plain of clay and gravel traversed successively
by the 'Adheim, the Hamrin Hills, the Lesser Zāb, and the
Great Zāb.
As far as the Lesser Zāb this plain is apparently inhabited only
by a very sparse nomadic population, who may practise a little
desultory cultivation here and there on the banks of the rivers or
where there are rain-water wells and springs. There is grazing in
this region in spring, but in summer both water and grass are
probably very scarce. The road between Salāhiyeh (Kufri) and
Kirkuk might perhaps be reached by following the 'Adheim towards
the point where it emerges from the hills and then striking NW.
or W. across the Jebel Hamrin : but there is no evidence as to this
as a possible route. For a slight account of a route from Tekrit to
Kirkuk, see Route 26.
Probably the easiest line would be along the course of the Lesser
Zab from the neighbourhood of Qal'ah Sherghat to Altun Köprü. Here
water could always be obtained from the river and the country on
both banks appears to be open and easy. There is a down-stream
raft traffic on the Lower Zāb, but whether steamers could ascend the
river to Altun Köprü even in fairly high water seems very doubtful.
(See Route III F.)
North of the Lesser Zāb the population, though at first semi-
nomadic, seems to become more numerous. Thus in 1903 Sykes
saw numerous villages on the plain between Qal'ah Sherghat and
Makhmūr, though these were then (temporarily ?) deserted owing
to drought and locusts. For the route from Qal'ah Sherghat to
Altun Köprü via Makhmūr, see Route 27.
The plain S. and SW. of Erbil appears to be fairly well cultivated
(grain is exported thence to Baghdad) and between the Great Zāb and
Mosul there are numerous villages, Moslem, Christian, and Yezidi.
Here over the open country are numerous tracks, and communica-
tion between the Tigris and the Erbil-Mosul road should be easy.








INTRODUCTION
15
Routes towards Persian Frontier.—North-east of Baghdad, in the
neighbourhood of Khanikin and Qasr-i-Shirin, lies the main depression
in the mountain system which divides the plateau of Iran (Persia)
from the Mesopotamian plains. Through this depression runs the
Baghdad—Kirmanshah caravan-route by Bāqūbeh,' Qizil Ribat, Kha-
nikin, and Qasr-i-Shīrīn. This before the war was the only route
passable for wheeled transport between Mesopotamia and Persia,
and even this was not easy for vehicles beyond the Persian frontier.
In the plain between Baghdad and Khanikin the going was good
except after rain. (See Route 28 a.) A much more difficult alter-
native route (28 b) to Kirmanshah runs by Beledrūz and Mandali to
join the main road at Khorāsābād. This is liable to become very
bad in the plains in wet weather, and is merely a mule-track in
the hills. For connexions between these routes, see Routes 29 and
28 b, m. 1221, 147ả, 1562.
Khanikin and Qasr-i-Shīrīn on the main Baghdad-Kirmanshah road
are connected by easy though unmade tracks with Salāhiyeh (Kufri)
on the Baghdad-Mosul road. The only serious obstacle on this set
of tracks is the Diyaleh River. (See Routes 32 a, b; 33.)
There is a made road passable for wheels from Qasr-i-Shirin to
the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's wells at Chiah Surkh: and there
is a fairly easy line over the Zohāb Plain between Qasr-i-Shirin and
the Suleimāniyeh-Kirmanshah route mentioned below.
To the N. of Qasr-i-Shīrīn the first principal route-centre of
Kurdistan is Suleimāniyeh, a considerable town lying in a fertile
though under-cultivated plain some 60–70 m. E. of Kirkuk. The
easiest approach to Suleimāniyeh from the W. is from Kirkuk over
stony rolling hills through Chemchemal and the Baziyan Pass.
Between Kirkuk and Chemchemal and between the Baziyan Pass and
Suleimāniyeh there appears to be a number of possible tracks; and
there seems to have been before the war at least one route from
Kirkuk to Suleimāniyeh which was just passable for wheels
throughout though in need of improvement. (See Route 37.) From
the SW. Suleimāniyeh can be approached from Salahiyeh (Kufri) by
mule-tracks which are bad in parts. From the NW. mule-tracks
over a more mountainous country under the Pīr 'Omar Gudrun Dagh
lead to Suleimāniyeh from Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh : these cross the
Lesser Zāb by ferries at Dukhan or Khānābi. (See Routes 39, 38.)
South-east from Suleimāniyeh a route leads by Halehjeh across
the Persian frontier to Kirmanshah : this is fairly easy for pack-
As far as Bāqübeh (where it crosses the Diyāleh by a bridge) it is identical
with the better road from Baghdad to Delli ‘Abbās on the Baghdad-Kirkuk -
Mosul route. See Route 25 a.


16
INTRODUCTION
animals until the mountains overlooking the Ab-i-Shirwān (Upper
Diyāleh) are reached. Difficult paths lead through these hills : but
beyond them comparatively easy, mule-roads run to Kirmanshah.
(See Route 35.) Lastly, eastwards from Suleimāniyeh, a route which
in parts is practicable for led animals only leads by Penjevin over
the frontier to Senna. (See Route 36 a.)
It has been stated that the best line for a military road or railway
from the Tigris Valley into the Urmia district and NW. Persia
would run by the Lesser Zāb Valley from Altun Köprü to Köi
Sanjaq, thence to Raniyeh, and on by Pishder Plain to the Wazneh
Pass, from there to El-Watan and the Lahjān Plain, and so to Ushnu
and Urmia. In the present volume this line is described as far as
Raniyeh. Before the war the road from Altun Köprü to Köi Sanjaq
and Raniyeh does not seem to have been passable for wheels
throughout, but it appears to have been capable of being easily
improved into a carriage-road. It traverses down-country and fairly
low ridges, running over clay and gravel. (See Route 40.) Beyond
Raniyeh the route to Urmia is described in vol. iv: it may be men-
tioned here that at any rate in 1905 the road was not practicable
throughout for all arms, and it was reported that much labour and
expense would be needed to make it passable for large forces : the
passes beyond Raniyeh are blocked by snow in winter.
From Köi Sanjaq and Raniyeh roads for pack-animals lead, as has
been said, to Suleimāniyeh, and mule-tracks which are difficult in
parts and are mostly blocked by snow in winter connect these places
with Rowanduz to the N. (See Routes 44 a-c.) From Raniyeh a
route runs by Ser Desht to Banah. (See Route 41.) A difficult mule-
track connects Ser Desht with Penjevin on the Suleimāniyeh-
Senna road. (See Route 36 c.)
The last road-centre in the area here in question is Rowanduz.
This place lies, shut in among high steep hills, on the Rowanduz
Chai, which here flows in a narrow, deep valley. The approaches to
it before the present war were difficult even for pack-animals, but
from Harīr (below) a cart-road has been made. In the present
volume are described routes to Rowanduz from Mosul. One goes by
Aqreh and across the Great Zāb by the Qandil ferry, the other
crosses the Zāb by the Girdamamik' ferry farther south, and then
turns NE, to join the northern route near Harir, not far from Qandıl.
Thence hilly country is crossed to the Khalifān gorge, by which the
difficult valley of the Rowanduz Chai is reached. The southern
route, if not already passable for wheels as far as Girdamamik, could
probably be made so with a few improvements. (See Routes 45 a, b.)
From Erbil one route runs to join the Mosul-Rowanduz route in








INTRODUCTION
17
the neighbourhood of Harīr, another leads over the hills to Sha.
khlawa and thence to the Khalifan gorge, where it too connects with
the Mosul-Rowanduz route. These roads from Erbil are impassable
for wheels except perhaps in the Erbil Plain.
For the routes leading from Rowanduz NW. to Amadiyeh, north
to Neri, and NE. towards El-Watan and Urmia, see vol. iv.
The Syrian Desert. West of the Euphrates stretches the northern
part of the Hamad, a bare stony desert which slopes gradually from
Syria and Arabia NE. to the Euphrates Valley. The ground is
almost flat, broken only here and there by wadis, easy undulations,
or low ranges of hills. The surface is generally sand or shingle with
occasional outcrops of volcanic rock. In the north, however, beyond
the line Raqqah-Hama, the nature of the soil changes and becomes
more capable of cultivation, and the country between Meskeneh and
Aleppo is already fairly well populated and tilled.
In the desert the pools or wells, which occur at long intervals,
contain water that is frequently bad and infested with leeches, &c.,
and generally brackish. Conditions for travel are best during a few
weeks in spring. At that season there is much pasture in the hollows
of the Hamād, and water-holes (known to the Bedouin) are available
then which are dry later in the year. Most of the grass is shrivelled
up by the middle of April.
The direction of routes across the desert is generally determined
by the position of water. The tracks are often badly defined or
quite indistinguishable, as, owing to the easy nature of the ground,
there is usually no need to follow a definite path. Towards Tadmor
and Damascus the country becomes hillier, and directions are here
determined to some extent by the trend of the valleys, but the chief
factor is still the water-supply.
Owing to the scarcity of water, Syria cannot be approached from
the Euphrates Valley south of the line Meskeneh-Aleppo except by
small parties or by the aid of camel-transport on a large scale. Of
the routes described in this volume those which run almost due W.
from Hit to Damascus (Route 52) and from Abu Kemāl to Tadmor
(Route 53) are difficult even for small parties. Nothing is known of
the route by the Wadi-Haurān from Jibbeh ; but in 1907 it was
said that Damascus could be reached in six days from the Euphrates
by this route. Route 52 is important only as a route for the camel-
post. The main desert-route is that from Deir ez-Zor to Damascus
which is part of a regular caravan-route between Damascus and
Baghdad. (See Route 54.)
On the route from Raqqah to Hama it might be possible to
MES. 111


18
INTRODUCTION
improve the water-supply. It has been stated that there is probably
an underground stream flowing N. from Rusafeh to the Euphrates,
and that water might be obtained from it by boring. This water,
if found, would probably be brackish. Beyond Serīyeh the country
seems to have been formerly well populated; water might be
obtained by clearing old wells or sinking new ones.
Notes on old routes between Basra and Damascus or Aleppo,
which are very little used at the present day, will be found in vol. ij.








RIVER ROUTES
THE TIGRIS AND LESSER ZĀB
ROUTE III D
BAGHDAD-SAMARRA (891 m.)
Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, 1904 (report of 1892); Lorimer,
Report on a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan, April-May 1910; and other
sources of information.
Between Baghdad and Samarra (*891 m., +74 m.) the course of the
Tigris leads first in a general N. direction (as far as Ahmad el-Fayyadh
m. 56) and thence generally WNW.
The River.-In this section of its course the width of the river
varies very considerably. Where it flows in one channel its breadth
seems to be about 300-500 yds. It is broadest from bank to bank
where it breaks up into several channels passing between the
numerous islands which occur in successive groups above the tract
of Baʻrūreh on the l. bank (see m. 683 and foll.). The rate of the
current past these islands is said to be about 41-32 m.p.h. From
Baghdad to the islands the bed of the Tigris is mud; at the islands
it is shingle with outcrops of conglomerate at El-Qanātir (m. 774);
between the neighbourhood of El-Hāwiyeh on the l. bank (m. 78) and
Samarra the bed is generally of shingle, sand, or clay, with occasional
outcrops of conglomerate forming small rapids in the current. While
islands are especially numerous between Ba'rūreh and El-Hāwiyeh,
they occur also between El-Hāwiyeh and Samarra at various points
near the r. bank. They undergo frequent alteration by the floods in
the annual h.w. season. At Baheirdeh I. and Baʻrūreh (m. 69),
Darāwish I. (m. 741), and at Tīneh (m. 851), fords passable in the l.w.
season were reported in 1910, but their situation is probably liable
to be changed by the annual floods.
Navigation. The navigation of the river seems to present no
special difficulties between Baghdad and Ba'rūreh (m. 69) for boats
of draught not exceeding 4 ft. From Ba'rūreh to the neighbourhood of
B2


20
RIVER ROUTES
El-Hawiyeh it is troublesome owing to the islands above mentioned.
The rapids, already referred to, between El-Qanātir and Samarra are
apparently not considerable enough to hinder vessels of small draught
even in the l.w. season. A small steam-launch, owned by a Baghdad
merchant named Astrabadi, has been plying on the river between
Baghdad and Samarra since 1902 with fair regularity throughout
the year. 11 days were allowed for the up-stream, and 1 day for the
down-stream voyage. Sailing boats (safinehs), carrying 8 tons, can
ascend to Samarra during the greater part of the year, but it is
reported that at the height of the flood season they would find it
difficult or impossible to make head against the current in the
channel past the islands (between mi 67 and m. 80). Traffic
on the river is principally down-stream, being mainly carried on
by the rafts (keleks, see vol. I, p. 166) which come from Tekrit
and Mosul. The strong winds from the S. and SW. which are
fairly frequent in the Baghdad region, especially in spring, may
make the raft journey between the mouth of the 'Adheim River
and Baghdad very slow (4 days or perhaps more): in the highest
spring floods without an adverse wind the journey may take only
13-14 hrs. In fair weather the rafts travel all night. Quffehs
(large coracles, see vol. i, p. 166) are used locally for short journeys.
For regular ferries see under m. 438 and m. 78.
The country between Baghdad and the line Beled—Sindiyeh.--From
Baghdad to the neighbourhood of Beled and the islands of Darāwish
(m. 741) and Barqeh (m. 76) the Tigris flows through the most
northerly part of its alluvial plain. Here the banks are of firm alluvial
soil, are generally fairly high, and at places (e.g. m. 32) are protected
by dykes. Nevertheless in the neighbourhood of Baghdad the flood
water in spring inundates the country on either side, finding its
way chiefly by the numerous irrigation-cuts.
On the r. bank date-groves are almost continuous to Ferhād (m. 11),
above which they occur only at three or four places on the river (a few
miles inland they are to be found at Sumeikeh and Beled). N. of Beled
there are no more date-groves, only isolated palm-trees. Date-groves
are frequent on the l. bank as far as the neighbourhood of Nahr el-
Pasha (m. 17) and thence they occur at intervals up to Sindiyeh
(m. 452). On both sides of the river up to the neighbourhood of
Darāwish I. there are numerous water-lifts (chcrrads) which irrigate
areas of wheat and green barley (the latter crop being used for
fodder).
Between Baghdad and Beled the country W. of the immediate
neighbourhood of the r. bank is a plain of alluvial soil stretching to
the edge of the desert plateau. From the river to the plateau the








THE TIGRIS—ROUTE III D
21
distance varies from about 15 to about 20 m., with one noticeable
ridge near the river between Husāi tract(m. 49) and Qubbat Shawāli
(m. 60). This plain contains at its S. end the large lake-area known
as 'Agarquf, extending from a point about 5 m. W. of Kazimain in
a NNW. direction for about 11 m. with an average width of about
41 m. The plain is much cut up by canals, generally dry, or, as in
the case of the upper reaches of the Dujeil, carrying some water in
the flood season. These canals are specially numerous N. of the
Tarmſyeh (m. 381): here are the numerous branches of the Dujeil,
and an old bed of the Tigris running in a general NW. and SE.
direction. The ground is covered with large and small ruin-mounds
marking the site of ancient settlements. Cultivation occurs in
patches where canals still carry water for part of the year. In wet
weather the going is very heavy, but in the dry season the plain is
said to be passable almost everywhere for wheeled traffic, though the
canal-beds would at times compel vehicles to make détours. Across
the plain runs the route from Baghdad to Samarra and Mosul,
traversed by the Samarra-Baghdad pilgrim wagons, and accom-
panied by the line of the Baghdad-Samarra railway. For further
details with regard to the country see notes on the above-mentioned
route (25 b).
From the l. bank of the river, as far as the neighbourhood of
Sindiyeh (above which the up-stream course begins to take a general
NW. direction towards the 'Adheim), a flat alluvial plain stretches
towards the Diyāleh river (distant 11-16 m.). In the neighbourhood
of Baghdad the plain is liable to inundation during the spring floods.
For the swamps of Reshidiyeh and Jedeideh see under m. 198. This
country between the Tigris and the Diyāleh is still more intersected
by canals than the plain on the opposite bank, and a far greater
proportion of the cuts on this side carry water, for most of them
belong to the system of the Nahr Khālis, which brings the water
of the Diyāleh from the neighbourhood of Mansūriyeh (see m. 384).
The Khālis, near Deltāweh, divides into two principal branches,
a westerly, the Murādīyeh, and an easterly, the Tahwileh, which
flow in a general southerly direction to the neighbourhood of
Baghdad. But the Khālis and its two great arms also throw off
a multitude of smaller irrigation-cuts which are interlaced by cross-
cuttings. The whole system waters large areas of wheat and barley
and supports a large number of villages between the Tigris and the
Diyāleh. Across the plain run the Baghdad-Salahiyeh-Mosul
route, throwing off a branch to Samarra near Deltāweh, and the
Baghdad-Bāqūbeh route. For further details with regard to the
country see notes on these routes (25 a, 31).


RIVER ROUTES
The country between the line Beled-Sindiyeh and Samarra.-From
the neighbourhood of Beled up to Samarra the Tigris cuts a trench
through undulating plains of clay, shingle, and sand with scattered
outcrops of limestone. These plains stretch away from the l. bank to
the Hamrin Hills some 40 m. to the NE., and extend from the r. bank
to the edge of the desert plateau. On the r. bank the most noticeable
feature is the complicated network of canals (mostly dry or almost
dry) which stretch W. and NW. of Beled to the mouth of the
Dujeil, above which an old canal-bed (Nahr Shaqi ?) runs parallel
with the river (see n. 812). On the l. bank are the beds of the
large ancient canals of the Nahrawan system (Nahr er-Rasāsi,
Nahr el-Qa'im, and Nahr Talsiyeh) with the remains of numerous
cross-cuttings : and in the neighbourhood of Samarra (see m. 834)
appear the numerous ruins which for the most part date from the
ninth century A.D., during which that city was the capital of the
Caliphate. The banks are sparsely inhabited, but there are patches
of cultivation near them mostly dependent on rain, and in the plain
between Samarra and the 'Adheim winter crops are raised by the
Arabs with the aid of ancient wells. Sheep and cattle are fairly
numerous.
Inhabitants.—The inhabitants of both banks are settled Arabs of
various tribes, though some of their communities still live in tents
for the whole of the year or during the summer. Near Baghdad the
land is held by various wealthy landowners : on the Dujeil and
round Samarra it is mostly Turkish Government property. On the
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Baghdad.
Date plantations.
Kazimain (see under Baghdad in Gazetteer of Towns,
vol. ii).
River bends NNE. Baghdad-Samarra road touches
bank, and W. of it is the line of the railway. Beyond
railway begins course of ancient canal, which runs parallel
to railway for some miles to neighbourhood of Beit Nawab,
then NW. (So I. D. Map, Sheet C 2.)
Hibneh village.








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
23
r. bank as far as the neighbourhood of Babi tract the villages are
inhabited by Hashāhideh : N. of Bābi are found communities of
various tribes, as Beni Tamim, the Al Bu Hayyāzeh, and 'Azzeh,
sections of the 'Obeid, Abu Handhal, and Mujammeh (the last tribal
name implies a miscellaneous origin). The desert W. of the southern
part of this route is usually occupied by Dilaim ; but the Shammār
are the predominant tribe in the interior in this region. The
Shammār were apparently in recent years somewhat more under the
control of the Turkish administration than that part of the tribe
living farther to the N. which acknowledged the sons of Faris.
Their sheikhs (the family of Ferhan Pasha) had been reduced to
the position of protégés of the Turkish Government, and the fact
that so much of the land in the Dujeil district and in the neighbour-
hood of Samarra is Government property seems to have given
protection to the settled Arabs against the levying of tribute or
blackmail (khubbeh) by the Shammār.
On the 1. bank the inhabitants are chiefly Jebūr, with some
Juheish, Beni Tamim, Mujammeh, and fragments of other tribes.
When the Kurds were giving trouble their raids sometimes pene-
trated as far south as this region.
It may be noticed that while the Arabs of the r. bank are mainly
Sunnis, most of the inhabitants of the 1. bank from Baghdad at least
to Sindiyeh and Jeizāni (see m. 463) are Shiah. Almost all the
Mohammedans of Samarra are Shiah.
Left Bank
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
here you m
Date plantations.
Moʻadhdham. Immediately above is Imām Abu Hanifah.
See description of Baghdad, vol. ii.
Es-Saleikh.
Broilet 6
ay
.
Childāyeh village.
Chaldāri village.
Ferājāt village.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
101
Ferhad village.
11
Date plantations cease on r. bank.
Road runs close to bank about here.
Beit Nawāb on road : about 1 m. from bank.
171
173
Haseiweh hamlet, six houses of Meshāhidiyeh. 'Aweijeh
tract begins.
'Aweijeh village : 30 houses of Meshāhidiyeh.
co
Amit
Meshāhidiyeh tract.
214
227
Shrine of Imām 'Ali, about 2 m. from river, near a mound
called Tel Gosh.
Bābi tract begins.
8 m. W. of bank lies Khān Meshāhidiyeh, on the Bagh-|
dad-Samarra road (see Route 25 b, m. 23). Railway station.
23
232








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
25
Left Bank
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
the
Abu 'Ali village.
Haji Ahmad village.
Baghdad—Salāhiyeh road touches bank in this neighbour-
hood.
El-Mīmār village.
on
Kādhim Pasha village: this is inhabited by mixed popula-
tion from Jebür and Juheish.
who are not
-
Abu Dāli village : about 20 earthen huts, with palm-
groves.
Mouth of Nahr el-Pasha Canal (dry even in May 1910),
which runs S. at the back of the date plantations as far as
Childāyeh. It is about 5 yds. wide, and its bed is sunk
several feet. It is spanned near its head by a brick bridge.
About 2 m. from its mouth it is joined by a canal which
runs parallel with the river above this point as far as
Yehudiyeh.
Continuous date plantations cease on l. bank. Small
village (Qasr el-Pasha) at the head of the canal.
Small village. This and the village mentioned imme-
diately above are Waqf (i.e. held in trust for spiritual or
secular purposes). The inhabitants are Dilaim.
Dāūdiyeh tract. Poplar-trees on bank.
Walled enclosure.
Dāūdiyeh village (15 houses of Shiah Arabs) is apparently
in this neighbourhood. NE. of this village lies the S. end
of the Khör Reshidiyeh, a swampy area about 32 m.
long and 11 m. broad. Road and T.L. run E. of this
swamp, between it and another marsh called Khor
Jedeideh.
Sawākin village : 10 houses of Shiah Arabs : two brick-
kilns.
11
1
Reshid Pasha or Reshidiyeh village.
house, and a few cultivators' huts.
A two-storied


26
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
241
251
241
261
River bends SE.
Mallūh tract begins a short way above Yehūdiyeh.
Village ?
Mallah tract ends in this neighbourhood.
General Note on the Old Bed of the Tigris.
Between the river and Khan Meshāhidiyeh depressions W. of the
1, bank may be the lower end of an old bed of the river. N. of Khör
Tarmīyeh this bed is better defined, and extends past 'Akbareh and
Sumeikeh (Route 25 b, m. 35, 39). From near Sumeikeh one dry bed,
fairly deep but narrow, can be traced N. to Banīyeh (m. 671, below);
another, broader, runs NNW. to m. 763, below : its W. bank is higher
than the E.
Suweidīyeh tract begins.
281
Has-Hūs tract begins.
bank in this tract.
Numerous water-lifts on the
311
swt
Numerous water-lifts.
Tarmīyeh tract. River becomes unusually broad. In
May 1910 its width was about 600 yds.
Tarmīyeh Canal, running W. and SW. to the Khor Tar-
mIyeh, "5 m. SSW. It is above the level of the river.
Even in flood-time water very seldom passes into it. Width
of the river here is 400-500 yds.
End of highly silted-up dry canal is seen on river bank.
This landmark is called Ishan Tarmīyeh.
Shrine of Sheikh Jemil.
394
1








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
Left Bank
Inter.
mediate
distance
Miles
Yehādiyeh tract begins in this neighbourhood: date-groves.
Yehūdiyeh tract ends about here.
Jedeideh posting-station on Baghdad-Salāhiyeh road.
200 houses (of Shiah Arabs) in date-groves, enclosed by mud
walls. Two khans. The first khan about 80 yds. square,
with stabling for 200 horses ; well in centre, water 20 ft.
below surface. The other khan near river, 60 yds. square ;
stabling for 100 horses.
Southern end of a branch of the Nahr Khālis. See
Introduction to this section.
Dokheileh village, on the Baghdad-Salāhiyeh road, some
distance back from the river. The ground E. of the road is
here very marshy.
El-Howeish village (300 houses of Shiah Arabs).
Qasīrīn (100 houses of Shiah Arabs) : date-groves.
Road skirts river where the latter bends NW. and then
leaves it, running N. The bank is protected by dykes 15 ft.
wide at the top, 20 high, 40 ft. at base, revetted with breast-
work.
Raqqah district (no village).
Mansūriyeh tract begins.
che
la
Shrine of Imām Beni el-Abbās.
Mansūriyeh village: 260 to 300 mud houses, hidden from
the river by date-groves : ferry. Branch of Nahr Khālis
running N. and then NW.
Haji 'Omar irrigation pump.
Shrine of Imām Banāt el-Hasan below Sa'diyeh. Branch
of Nahr Khalis, running N. and then NW.
Sa'diyeh village (100 houses of Shiah Arabs): date-groves
extending 2 m. (The Khanikin branch of the Baghdad Rail.
way was intended to cross the river in this neighbourhood).
Above this point the country is much intersected by offshoots
Jof the Nahr Khālis.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Above Sa'diyeh is Tuweir reach.
433
HOV
Grove of Euphrates poplar (gharab). This is a halting-
place for caravans from Baghdad that follow tracks along
river bank.
462
49
River was here about 1 m. wide in May 1910. Above
this point river banks on both sides become quite low for
some distance.
Husāi tract: water-lifts. Beni Tamím settlements.
Rising ground begins, running NW. about 14 m. from
river for about 8 m.
Along its SW. side runs the old bed of the 'Uqab Canal
and several tels lie SW. of the canal. Round them stretches
a large ruin-field, believed to mark the site of the ancient
city of Opis, in the fourth and fifth centuries B. C. accounted
second only to Babylon among the cities of Mesopo-
tamia. It is possible that the present bed of the Tigris
cuts across the site of Opis, and that the ruins on Tel
Mahāsil on the l. bank (seo m. 601) are also part of the
same city.
Zambūr: camping-place of the Beni Tamím.
Khadheireh tract.
Ahmad el-Fayyadh tract, 25–30 water-lifts. Above this
tract is that of Sufeil.
56








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
Left Bank
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Ferry of one quffeh in this neighbourhood.
Sindiyeh village : 100 houses of mixed Shiah Arabs.
Some lands here belong to the Makkeh shrines, and in
1910 were held on lease by Anwar Bey, of the Haida-
rizadeh family of Baghdad. This place is included in the
mudirate of Deltāweh, a large village with date-groves
about 4 m. from river bank (a little E. of SE. from Sindiyeh).
Near Deltāweh the Salāhiyeh road diverges to NE., while a
track to Samarra follows the line of the l. bank of the
Tigris.
Date-groves extend for some distance above Sindiyeh
village.
Jeizāni date-groves. Village lies a little way inland, and
consists of 50-100 houses of Shiah Arabs.
Dighāreh reach is above Jeizāni date-groves.
The course of the ancient Nahrawān Canal is here marked
as running close to bank for about "6 m, : the Samarra
road apparently lies on the farther side of it.
Himmel village, between river bank and Nahrawān
Canal.
Dājmeh tract, large settlement of the Jebar and Al Bū
Hayyāzeh. Above Dojmeh is Quwār tract. Brick-kilns.
Course of Nahrawān Canal touches river bank. On
Samarra road, i m. from river, Khān es-Safīneh (Govern-
ment grain-store); road turns WNW.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
571
Upper end of Sufeil tract: camping ground of Al Bū!
Hayyāzeh (Obeid) Arabs.
Lower end of 'Aqab tract.
592
Qubbat Shawāli. About this neighbourhood is the lower
end of the shingly zone of the Tigris bed.
60
602








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
31
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
14
21
Mouth of Shatt el-Adheim; near its confluence with the
Tigris it has a trough some 45 yds. wide and 13 ft. deep.
It flows in a valley from 1 m. to 11 m. wide and 65 ft. deep.
In December 1904 it was reported as having a depth of
about 4 ft. and a current of 1 to 14 m. per hour; in h.w.
both depth and velocity must be much greater ; but in l.w.
the river dries up altogether.
Followed up-stream its course runs NNE. to the foot of the
Hamrin Hills (~40 m.), then N., and NNW. to near Kirkuk.
The river leaves the hills by a broken dam and cuts its way
through the flat plain to the Tigris. Large areas of wheat and
barley are still cultivated in this plain if the rains are
favourable, but since the bursting of the Hamrin dam there
has been no irrigation in the country-side, and the river near
its mouth has broken through the dry course of the
Nahrawān. The 'Adheim adds considerably to the volume
of the Tigris.
1
Report, 1892, mentions Khān Dhulū’iyeh (Khān Dhulei'ah?)
as a large khan on 1. bank 1 m. above the mouth of the
Adheim. In this neighbourhood the dry course of the old
Nahrawān Canalis resumed on the 1. bank, here called Nahrer-
Rasāsi. 1 m. WNW. of the khan the course of the main bed
of the Nahrawān Canal turns NW., while a branch, called
Nahr el-Qa'im, continues to follow the 1. bank of the river.
Between them lies a swampy area into which streams from
the hills flow in h.w., breaking up the line of the Nahrawān
Canal. At the same point another dry canal, the ancient
Nahr el-Batt, enters the Nahrawān from the NNE., and in
the angle so formed are the ruins of Tel Mahāsil (? part
of the ruins of Opis. See m. 49.) The Nahr el-Batt is
a relic of the ancient irrigation system of this region. Im-
mediately above the Hamrin dam (see under m. 591) two
canals were taken off on either side, which carried the waters
of the 'Adheim, blocked by the dam, into the Tigris at different
points. Of these the westernmost was the Nahr el-Batt, the


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
'Ausajeh district.
Camp of ‘Azzeh Arabs (May 1910).
El-Habbāb : walled camp of 'Azzeh or 'Obeid Arabs.
A tract occupied by Abu Handhal Arabs.
Es-Sefīneh : square enclosure where the Turkish authori-
ties receive and store agricultural rents paid in kind.
Banīyeh village ? S. of this point begin traces of ancient 671
canal running SW. and SSE. for 41 m.
Upper entrance of old Tigris bed ? Other authorities place
it opposite Khān Mizraqji (see m. 763). About 21 m. W.
by S. of bend lies the mosque of Seyyid Mohammed, with
large khan close to it, and 4-5 m. W. of bend is Beled
village with date gardens, a flourishing place, the property
of the Dā’irat es-Sanīyeh. Its palm-groves are the most
northerly that occur in the region of the Tigris. There is
a railway station of Beled. The village is apparently visible
from the river at a point somewhat higher up.
In this neighbourhood Harbeh Canal takes off from the 687
r. bank and runs SE. past Beled; it is crossed by a bridge
carrying the Baghdad--Samarra road, about 6 m. from:
river.
River above this point apparently broadens out and
breaks into several channels enclosing and passing between
numerous islands, which are liable to considerable altera.
tions due to annual floods.
Baheirdeh I., near r. bank.
169
There is a ford in this neighbourhood in l.w. leading across
Baheirdeh Island (at its lower end ?) to the Ba'rūreh tract on
1. bank. Pebbly bottom.








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
course of which can still be traced, running to the hills,
gradually nearing the Shatt el-Adheim, which it meets at
the dam, and along it are ruins of the settlements which it
| brought into existence. The other arm (Nahr Radhān ?)
ran to the E. of the present course of the 'Adheim, but does
not seem to have been traced from the dam for more than
10 m.
mohet as olemalt
General Note on the Nahrawān Canal.
The lower part of the dry Nahrawan Canal is traceable on the l.
bank of the Tigris below Kut el-Amara and Azīziyeh. For its course
thence to the Diyāleh see vol. ii. It reaches the i. bank of that river
near Sifweh (Route 31, m. 23!) and follows it to Baqübeh (23 m.),
crossing to r. bank below Bahrīz. Above Bāqūbeh it turns NW. to
the Tigris (15 m.), its bed being broken by branches of the Khālis
Canal. Striking the l. bank a little above Sindiyeh (m. 49, above) it
follows it more or less closely as far as the 'Adheim and Khān
Dhulū'iyeh as described in the preceding paragraphs. Its bed thus
far is 100-140 yds. wide, and at the 'Adheim it is 20 ft. below the
surface-level. Above the Khan the main canal, diverging from the
river as described above (p. 81), is almost obliterated. Deep cuts
interrupt its bed, which is on the level of the plain. About 10 m.
below Samarra it begins to be better marked, through marl, though
the banks are low and not abrupt. E. of Samarra soil becomes pebbly ;
banks about 30 yds. thick ; canal approaches river. About 8 m. above
Samarra compact conglomerate is reached, through which canal is
cut with steep banks; galleries sloping up them from the bed to the
surface for the removal of excavated material may be traced. The
bed is below the general level, and banks 15 ft. above it and 15 yds.
thick. Below Dür traces of a head of the canal are seen (Route III E,
m. 171), but an upper branch (Nahr en-Neifeh) is traceable nearly to
the Hamrin Hills (Route III E, m. 56).
NH
Ford across channels on both sides of island.
MES. 111


34
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
73
741
Baʻrūreh reach above island.
Tuthah I.
Darāwīsh I. Cultivated by Sawakineh. Small island
on S. side.
Beled village lies some miles S. of this point.
Upper end of Darāwish I. Several water-lifts. Cultivators
are Sawākineh.
Barqeh I. (possibly not surrounded by water except in
the h.w. season).
Breadth of the river 300–250 yds.
Upper end of old bed of Tigris ?
751
763
Tel Tabbārat.
771
77 1 / 2
78,3
Upper end of Barqeh I.
Camp of Mujammeh Arabs. Sidd Nimrūd, remains of an
ancient rampart or dyke, with trench, running SSW. from
the river bank, which has been identified with one end of the
Median Wall, a fortification which in the fourth century B.C.
stretched from the Euphrates to the Tigris in this neighbour-
hood. Possibly, however, the Sidd Nimrüd was merely an
irrigation dam.
About m. above Sidd Nimrūd and El-Hāwiyeh is a ferry
by which communication is possible between the Baghdad-
Samarra routes on the r. and l. bank respectively. The
normal service here is reported as being one of three boats,
each capable of carrying 50-60 persons. A hut and two or
three sheds on the r. bank.
At the ferry the Baghdad-Samarra T.L. crosses the river.
It apparently leaves the line of the Baghdad—Samarra route
and railway near Tel Husein (about 4 m. SSE. of the ferry)
and traverses the Dujeil Canal (see m. 812) and several of its
branches, running NNW. to river, after crossing which
it turns NW. to Samarra. 3 m. S. of the ferry, and for
some distance from this point on the way to Samarra, the
Baghdad—Samarra road and railway pass over a network
of canals, mostly dry.








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
Left Bank
Inter
mediate
distance
Miles
MA
Camp of Abu Darrāj Arabs.
Khān Mizraqji (apparently on the Samarra road N. of
the Nahr el-Qa'im). Khān Sāwiyeh was mentioned in 1892
as being in this neighbourhood, but latest information sug-
gests that it no longer exists, the name, it is said, being
now given to the locality in which Khān Mizraqji
stands.
El-Qanātīr, a locality so called from remains of ancient
dam and sluices.
El-Hāwiyeh, village of 25 houses of Sawāmireh and
Abu Darrāj.
From the banks of the Nahr el-Qa'im (see m. 604), which
continues to run close to the river, the spiral minaret
(Malwiyeh) at Samarra is visible.
c 2


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
79
792
811
About this point the banks are low. Rapids causing some
difficulty to navigation in l.w. season are reported to be in
this neighbourhood.
Qubbān: Arab camp ; no permanent village.
Mouth of Dujeil Canal. This was described in 1892 as
a cutting 8-10 ft. wide at the bottom, with sides sloping
1 in 1, and is sunk some 12 ft. below the plain at its upper
end. It has great mounds of excavated silt beside it (1910).
It carries water in its upper reaches except when the river
is low. The canal runs in a general SSE. and SE. direction
to Sumeikeh, about "22 m. along the Baghdad—Samarra
route. Beyond Sumeikeh it turns S., and loses itself about
*7 m. to the W. of Tarmiyeh. Many smaller channels are
taken off from it.
At and above the head of Dujeil Canal the banks are
higher.
Line of Baghdad-Samarra railway apparently approaches
the river above mouth of Dujeil Canal, and runs near it to
Samarra.
It is apparently possible either to follow a track between
railway and river bank, or to pass W. of a dry canal (Nahr
Shaqi ?) running parallel with the river.
821
Istablāt, a large ruin-field, situated on high ground, and
surrounded by remains of city wall.
Police post (in good repair, but unoccupied in 1910).
Railway station.
834








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III D
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
i
Route to Samarra from the ferry and T.L. are marked
on map as crossing Nahr el-Qa'im and running direct (NW.)
to Samarra, at a distance from the river varying from 1 m.
to 2 m.
i Head of ancient canal, much silted up, with high
earthen embankments. Called by authority 1910, Nahr
Talsiyeh.
Qādisiyeh : ruins of ancient city (reported to be known
also as Et-Talsiyeh). These ruins begin above bend of river
to NW., and extend for some distance along bank.
The ruins (which date from the Abbasid period) are
a crumbling wall of sun-dried brick, enclosing an octagonal
area (the sides varying in length between 565 and 725 paces).
Three gates in each of six sides, four in the seventh, and two
in the eighth (the northern wall, which has 10 small vaulted
chambers on its interior face). Inside the wall, and about
13 paces from it, a shallow ditch, 127 ft. wide, runs round
at least the greater part of the enclosure, with a low
mound on its inner side, occupying a space about 22 ft.
wide.
Ruins called Sanāh.
1 | El-Qa'im, a ruined tower of pebbles and concrete. There
is no chamber inside, and no means of climbing up it.
Possibly of Sassanid origin (third-seventh century A. D.).


38
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Tīneh village: 10 houses of Al Bu Nisan. Ford in low.
water season.
851
891
ROUTE III E
SAMARRA-MOSUL (185 m.)
Authorities :- Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iii, 1904 (report of 1892); Lorimer,
Report on a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan, April-May 1910; Oppenheim,
Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf (journey in 1893); authorities cited for
Route 25 b and oral information relating to recent years.
The distances in this section of the river are very uncertain. They are based
on the times given by various authorities who descended the river by raft,
and as the speed at which a raft moves may vary greatly with changes in
the rate of the current or the wind, it is impossible on such evidence to
estimate mileage with any approach to precision.
For most of the way between Mosul and Samarra the Tigris flows
in a shallow valley through rolling plain country. The western side
of the valley, which seems to be more sharply defined than the
eastern, is formed by a low plateau-edge or by small ridges 50-150 ft.
high. The undulating plain is interrupted, at about 60 miles from








THE TIGRIS-ROUTES III D, E
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
Some distance above the tower is an opening in the bank
marking head of an ancient canal (Nahr Talsiyeh ?).
Ruin-fields extending up to Samarra. The river is here
reported to contain several small rapids, probably due to
outcrops of rock in the river-bed.
Ford in low-water season.
Samarra Boat-bridge.
The river here varies in breadth from 370 to 460 yds.,
according to the season. Its current in mean water is 3 m.
an hour. Its depth is considerable: reliable details on this
point are lacking. The l. bank is high (60-80 ft. above the
river in l.w.), and shuts off the view of the town from the
Tigris. The r. bank is said to be about 30 ft. high and
steep. The banks and river bottom are mainly firm
earth, with some sand (mostly on r. bank) and a few
Istones.
Samarra and 120 miles from Mosul, by the Jebel Hamrin, a range of
rugged heights rising to 300-500 ft., through which the river forces
its way after running for some distance along the NW. side of the
hills. The Tigris flows over a bed mainly of shingle, with outcrops
of rock. The river frequently breaks up into two or more channels,
enclosing low islands often overgrown with tamarisk and other
scrub. These islands are specially numerous between Mosul and
the mouth of the Great Zāb. The rocks in the river-bed are often
large, and stand up out of the water or are barely covered by it.
Ledges of shingle, stretching across the channels between islands
and the banks, and forming rapids, are common. Where it flows
in a single channel, the river is in the flood season generally
400-550 yds. broad from Samarra up to the neighbourhood of the
Great Zāb, where it is said to narrow to 200-250 yds. In l.w. its
breadth in places may decrease considerably (see, e. g., m. 31, under
Tekrit). The current varies considerably according to the width and
bed of the river, and the time of year. Depths also are very variable
(see below under Navigation). For the two great tributaries, the


40
RIVER ROUTES
Lesser and Great Zābs, see Route III F, and this route under
m. 1501.
Navigation.-Native sailing-craft do not usually go above Samarra,
the current being too strong in h.w. In l.w. they could reach
Tekrit by carrying half-cargoes. Practically all the river-traffic in
this stretch is down-stream, and is carried on by means of the
large rafts known as keleks (see vol. i, p. 166). Times taken by
these rafts vary greatly according to the condition of the river,
the wind, &c. A raft in May (h.w.) 1910 descended the river from
Mosul to Samarra in about 30 hours' travelling (exclusive of stops).
At the end of August (1.w.) the journey has taken 70 hours' travelling
(exclusive of stops). The numerous rapids, rocks, and islands make
night-travelling dangerous, at least when there is no moon.
In the l.w. season it might perhaps be possible for steamers of
3 ft. draught to navigate the river as far as the Hamrin Hills. A
German archaeologist at Qal'ah Sherghat said in 1910 that he had
found a place below Qal'ah Sherghat where in the low season there
was not more than half a metre (about 19 in.) of water anywhere
in the river. This may have been due to shingle ledges forming
rapids (see e. g. under m. 63).
Native raftmen asserted in 1910 that at each of the fords across
the Tigris in this section there is always a part in which the water
is breast high.
Steamers could probably go considerably higher than the Hamrin
Hills in a full river, except perhaps at the highest of the flood, when
the current at rapids might be too strong for them. In 1839 one of
Chesney's steamers, the Euphrates (3 ft. draught), ascended the river
as far as Sultān 'Abdallah (m. 144).
Motor-launches could probably be used throughout this section
even in low water.
The navigation of the river is apparently subject to fairly frequent
modification, as the main volume of the water may shift from one
channel to another, and shingle ledges may be altered as the result
of the annual floods.
The rocks are the most serious danger to navigation, and rafts are
not infrequently wrecked in the descent of the river. The rapids
formed by shingle ledges are generally easy in the h.w. season. For
rocks, see m. 191, 202, 211, 241, 691, 97, 98, 1313, 149, 150, 1521.
For rapids, see m. 47, 63, 66, 762, 923, 1102, 1493, 154, 1597.
See also m. 1621.
Fords and Ferries.- For fords see under m. 52, 213, 36, 87, 883,
1137, 165. These fords, which are passable in l.w. only, have pebbly
bottoms.








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
41
Native ferries (boats or keleks) at Tekrit (m. 31), near Qal'ah
Sherghat (m. 1131), at m. 150, 'Uneifeh (m. 1613), and probably else-
where at the larger permanent villages. The natives, when crossing
the Tigris singly, swim the river, supported on two inflated skins
tied together.
The Banks and River Valley.-The banks are formed generally of
sandstone or conglomerate, and sometimes of gypsum or (as above
Tekrit) of sandy alluvium. They are generally fairly high, occa-
sionally rising to bluffs or cliffs as the river approaches the side of
the valley. From the Fet-hah gorge up to a few miles below Qal'ah
Sherghat the steep and broken sides of the Jebel Hamrin rise abruptly
from the river, first on both banks (in the gorge above mentioned)
and farther up on the r. bank only. The hill-ridges or plateau-edge
on the W. side of the valley are usually 1-2 m. from the river. The
banks are intersected at intervals by wadis.
Strips of flat ground, covered with alluvium, occur along the
banks. A small alluvial plain of this kind is known locally as hawi.
Patches of cultivation are found near the river: water-lifts (cherrads)
are in use between Samarra and Tekrit. Cultivation in the valley is
poor and sporadic throughout the greater part of the section, but
becomes comparatively frequent on both banks from the confluence of
the Great Zāb to Mosul. Where there is no cultivation, the valley
is either bare or overgrown with tamarisk and camel-thorn. A few
miles above Tekrit, and in a good many places N. of the Jebel
Hamrin, good pasture is found in spring. There are very few trees,
and no date-palms occur between Tekrit and Mosul. Along the
E. side of the valley, S. of the Jebel Hamrin, run the large dry canal-
beds of the Nahrawān (Nahr er-Rasāsi) and the Nahr en-Neifeh (see
m. 17 and m. 56).
The country E. and W, of the Tigris Valley, -Up to the Jebel
Hamrin the country is desert on both sides of the river valley. The
Jezīreh to the W. is bare and stony, with only a little poor vegetation
in spring in its hollows and wadis. To the E. the plain is by nature
less barren, but it is inhabited now only by a few nomads. N. of
the Jebel Hamrin the Jezīreh has less of a desert character: there is
good spring-grazing in the rolling country between the river and the
Wādi Tartar. To the E. also cultivation gradually becomes less rare,
though it is liable to suffer from droughts and plagues of locusts.
A considerable amount of corn is produced in the plain between
Erbil and the Tigris, and the country between the Great Zāb and
Mosul is fairly well cultivated.
Inhabitants. The only place between Samarra and Mosul that can
be called a town is Tekrit (see m. 31). Up to the confluence


42
RIVER ROUTES
of the Tigris and the Great Zāb permanent villages are few, and,
with the exception of Dūr (see m. 20%) and Tel esh-Sha'ir (m. 1451),
insignificant. A number of nomad encampments are generally to
be found near the river, especially in summer, and there are
apparently settlements of semi-nomads, which after remaining for
some years are liable to alter their position or to disappear alto-
gether. The settled and semi-nomad inhabitants of the r. bank
are for the most part Jebūr Arabs, who pay a tribute to the powerful
nomad Shammār. The influence of the Shammār, who formerly
controlled the r. bank of the Tigris from Mosul to Baghdad, has been
lately declining. But acts of brigandage were still committed here
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Samarra.
General direction above Samarra is N, by W. as far as
Shereimiyeh (see m. 611 below). The Mosul road follows the
river about 300 yds. from the bank. The edge of the desert
plateau is seen from the road to W.
Ābid, 20 houses of Sawāmireh (i. e. people of Samarra).
Qubbat es-Sula briyeh, ruined octagonal building (60 ft. in
length and breadth) on rising ground, "1 m. W. of river.
Qal'at el-'Ashiq, ruined castle in bold situation above
valley, á m. from river, in form a rectangle 133 yds. N.-S. X
93 yds. E.-W., consisting of wall with round bastions, from
which ground falls abruptly to E. Below E. slope is a belt
of low alluvial soil cultivated by water-lifts, here about į m.
wide, and broadening considerably farther on.
Alw








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
43
from time to time by these and other nomads in the years before
the war.
On the l. bank also Jebūr form the bulk of the scanty settled
population. N. of the Hamrin range, in the plains between the
neighbourhood of the river and the mountains, are tribes of nomadic
or semi-nomadic Kurds (see vol. I, p. 68, &c.), mostly well armed and
given to brigandage. In the neighbourhood of Erbil and between the
Great Zāb and Mosul there are a number of Chaldaean Christian
villages and Yezidi communities.
For the Baghdad-Mosul route, along the r. bank of the Tigris, see
Route 25 b.
Inter-
mediate
distance
· Left Bank
Miles
11
Lower end of Kuweir I. Other islands occur in this
neighbourhood, carrying small trees or bushes. Ruins are
visible from the river lying at some distance inland.
Kuweir village is about 1 m. farther up the island. In
this neighbourhood are some small shrub-covered islands.
Beit el-Khalīfeh, ruin of large vaulted hall, one of the
palaces of old Samarra.
Lower end of large island stretching N. for 2-3 m.
El-Ma'shüqah, ruin (? of castle), in the valley of the river.
Little is left but the buttresses of the walls.
Lands of Bisāt village (see m. 54) begin in this neigh.
bourhood.
Tel 'Alīj (“Nose-bag Mound'), large artificial mound about
2 m. from river, surrounded by a moat, outside of which are


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
? Ford in l.w. season to Bisāt village on 1. bank.
Village of 30 houses (Samarra Arabs).
Large bend in river (in a westerly direction ?) reported in
1910.
52
Loweyyeh camp-ground is in this neighbourhood (see
Route 25 b, m. 86).
11
113








THE TIGRIS—ROUTE III E
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
· Left Bank
traces of a circular wall at about 110 paces distance.
A raised causeway runs from this tel, a little E. of N. to
a point about 1 m. distant.
A short distance to the SE. of this tel is the dry bed of
the Nahr Nahrawān (here called Nahr er-Rasāsi), which
has run to this point in a general WNW. direction from Tel
Mahāsil (see Route III D, m. 60%), bends NNE., and seems to
be traceable, running roughly parallel with the river, at a
distance varying from 3 to 14 m. for some miles.
Hawā-i-Sullat settlement: 20 houses of Al Bū ‘Abbās.
Bisāt village in trees : 25 houses of Samarra Arabs.
Qafas Shinās: large tent-settlement of Al Bu ‘Abbās,
a short way above Bisāt. Here is a large enclosure, sur-
rounded by the remains of walls and towers of sun-dried
brick, in a very ruinous condition.
A few hundred yards to the N. of this ruin lies another,
of oblong shape, nearly { m. across, with a walled triangle
to the N., in which is a small square enclosure near the
river.
Mouth of Wādi Abu'l Aswad, a water-course from the
Hamrin Hills, lies in this neighbourhood. This wadi
is dry in summer : at other times it brings water from the
hills to the Tigris. There is said to be much spring pasturage
in its neighbourhood.
Ruin-heaps of a quarter of old Samarra, marked on maps
as Eski Baghdad. This name is apparently applied locally
to the whole group of ruin-fields from modern Samarra to
Abu Delef (see m. 111).
The l. bank here is of conglomerate and elevated, with
numerous water-lifts.
Sinn Yehūdiyeh, a bluff, intersected by a small ravine
leading from the high plain to the river. There are several
more similar ravines to the N.
Here also is a mouth of a minor arm of Tigris, with islands
and shoals. This arm runs generally NNW. for about "31 m.
from the point where it leaves main stream. Along its l. bank,


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
-
com
15
Cultivation by water-lifts on r. bank ends in this neigh-
bourhood.
The distances here are very uncertain. An authority who
descended the river in the high-water season (May 1910)
reports that he took 28 minutes between the Häraqiyāt
rocks and Nahr er-Rasāsi.
Tel el-Mohaijir, Arab camping-ground on eminence,
1 m. from river. Continuous cultivation here, on both
sides of the Baghdad-Mosul land route.
171
The breadth of the river is here about 400 yds.
Above this point the river divides into several arms
opposite Dür. The channel apparently follows r. bank.








THE TIGRIS, ROUTE III E
Left Bank
Inter-
mediate
distance
Viles
as far as the Nahr er-Rasāsi (dry canal) the ground is covered
with ruins. At the mouth of the arm is Qit'at Al Ba 'Isa,
a ruined enclosure. "1,250 yds. NE. of this is Abu Delef,
a large mosque, of which little remains except detached
columns or arcades, and part of a spiral minaret to the
N. About 600 yds. N. by W. of this minaret is a
spring, surrounded by ruins. N. of Qit'at Al Bū ‘Isa, on the
1. bank of the arm, at *760 and "1,500 yds., are walled
enclosures.
Qasr el-Mutawakkil (palace of Caliph Mutawakkil, ninth
century) lies near the point where the arm leaves the
main stream, ruin-heaps extending over an area of about
1,400 yds. square.
The Nahr er-Rasāsi, bending from NNW. to NW., about
2,000 yds. NNE. of Abu Delef, skirts Qasr el-Mutawakkil
on the E. From the bend the dry bed of Nahr en-Neifeh
runs in a NNW. and N. direction.
From Sinn Yehūdiyeh the main stream bends WNW. for
*2 m.
Upper entrance to arm of Tigris (see m. 111); ruins of
Qasr el-Mutawakkil, about m. from bank. Low con-
glomerate cliffs.
3ž
mitt
Head of Nahr er-Rasāsi (Nahrawān). This is marked
by an opening in the conglomerate cliffs. The bottom of
the canal was some 15 ft. above the level of the river in
May 1910.
Conglomerate cliffs end.
In this neighbourhood Haraqiyāt rocks near 1. bank, sub-
merged in flood season. They are said to project 5 ft. in
low water.
Dūr village, of about 500 houses, situated on some mounds
near the river-bank, between the Tigris and dry course of
Nahr en-Neifeh. The inhabitants are all Mohammedans,
for the most part raftmen and carriers. The place is the
seat of a Mudir. (The site is an ancient one. In A. D. 363
the Roman army in its retreat from Ctesiphon, after the
death of the Emperor Julian, found here the city of Dura.)


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
211
247
25
Some cultivated land on r. bank worked by temporary
settlers from Samarra (1910).
A ford, passable in the l. w. season, was reported in 1910
at a point described as being at 1 hour's walk above Dahri
rocks.
Rocks in river in this neighbourhood. In May 1910 they
were submerged, causing rough water. In l. w. they are
said to stand out .as high as a camel'. Rafts have been
wrecked here.
The hills gradually decrease in height and approach the
river.
An encampment of Ba'jeh Arabs was reported hereabouts
in 1910.
Tekrit cliffs begin in this neighbourhood. The hills above
this point come close to the bank. They are much cut up
by ravines.
Tekrit. The stream here has been estimated at 250 yds.
wide in October (1903), and 500–600 yds. wide in May 1910.
It is shallow on the Tekrit side. In May 1910 it was possible
to wade 100 yds. from the r. bank. The current has been
estimated at 2-3 m. an hour (1. w. season). Ferry.
Above Tekrit the cliffs (mud and conglomerate) continue
on the r. bank. The district immediately above the town is
called Qā'im.
In this neighbourhood the cliffs cease, as the range of
Jebel Selweh recedes from the river. A low strip of land!
261
31
33








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
Left Bank
Inter
mediate
distance
Miles
Imām Dūr, shrine of a Shiah saint, is a tower on an
eminence, with a rounded top, between the river and the
village; a high square building, built in diminishing stages.
It is visible from the river above Dür as far as Tekrit. About
11 m. E. of Dūr village is a large mound named Tel Benāt.
i In the river opposite Dür is a large island with water-lifts
and cultivation. Between it and the r. bank is a smaller
island. Main channel apparently follows r. bank.
At and above Dür the l. bank is high.
In the river, extending about m. above Dūr, are the Dūr
rocks. Some of these were visible in May 1910, others
submerged. The latter are said to rise 6 ft. above the
water in the low season, dividing the river into several
channels.
Dahri rocks. The group of rocks first met with in pro-
ceeding up-stream are submerged in h. w., but are said to be
uncovered to about 27 ft. in l. w. A short distance above
them is a rock said to be submerged even in the low season.
Broken water.
District called Hatreh begins in this neighbourhood.
The l. bank opposite Tekrit is low.
Date-palms on the l. bank above Tekrit. There are no
palms on the river bank above this point.
MES, 111


50
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
341
36
now intervenes between these hills and the bank: it is called
Hawi Mātarīdeh. Island.
A little above the island is Tel es-Süq: ruin mound.
In the river are rocks said to be uncovered in l. w. season.
The Hawi Mātartdeh ends. The hills close in on the
river, and the bank is lined by steep conglomerate cliffs
rising to 80 ft. for about 2 m.
The name of the hills here changes from Jebel Selweh to
Jebel Ajzān. See m. 334.
A ford passable in l. w. season was reported in 1910 at
a point described as being at 1 hour's walk above the Jebel
Selweh.
56
Qalʼat Abu Riyāsh, ruined building on rocky cliffs above
the river. In 1908 it had almost disappeared, the high ground
on which it stands having been eroded by the river and
fallen away. Above Qalʼat Abu Riyāsh the cliffs recede
somewhat from the r. bank.
A number of shingle banks lie above this point, and
extend up to the Hamrin Hills. Some of these banks form
small rapids, but it seems probable that even in l. w. there
would be 31-6 ft. of water over most of them. They are
liable to be much altered by the annual floods. The channel
appears generally to follow the r. bank.
A sandy plain begins along the l. bank. It is 6 m. long
and 11 m. broad, and bounded on the W. by low sand-hills
50 ft. high, which the Mosul road skirts.
A series of tamarisk-covered islands lying towards the
r. bank hereabouts extends up as far as the Fet-hah gorge
(see m. 63 below).
Khān el-Kharnīneh, a Turkish military post for 40-50
men, situated on the Mosul-Samarra road at some distance
inland among the ruins of a thirteenth-century building.
Beiji village (15 houses of Jebūr) reported in 1910 on
the river bank.
Shereimiyeh. Turkish military post and khan. The
former, a whitish building, is visible from the river: the
khan cannot be seen from a raft. Good camping-ground
some hundred yards from the river. Between Shereimiyeh
59
612








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
!
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
Encampments of Jebur Arabs reported in this neighbour.
hood (1910).
Encampments of Abu 'Ali reported in 1910.
Head of the Nahr en-Neifeh (see above, m. 114), the
northern end of the ancient canal system of Irak. It
appears from the river as a hollow between two mounds (the
ends of its banks).
Tel Khuwein, a short distance above the head of the
Nahr en-Neifeh.
Umm el-Laqlaq village (50 houses of 'Obeid Arabs in
a walled enclosure): it is a short distance above Shereimiyeh,
on the opposite bank.
D 2


52
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
and Umm el-Laqlaq is a broad island called Shereimiyeh.
The river here is nearly 1 m. in width from bank to bank.
Above Shereimiyeh the Jebel Hamrin, here a low line of
rocky hills approaching the 1. bank from the SE., is traversed
by the Tigris through the Fet-hah gorge, in which the hills
rise sheer from the stream, leaving no space for a path.
N. of the gorge the hills continue close along the r. bank to
a point about *5 m. S. of Qal'ah Sherghat. The Mosul route
therefore leaves the river at Shereimiyeh in a NW. direction,
skirting the western side of the Hamrin Hills, and does not
rejoin the river until Qal'ah Sherghat.
The land in this neighbourhood is called Sofeiriyeh.
62
621
63
The Hamrīn Hills rise from the river bank, forming with
their continuation on the l. bank the southern end of the
Fet-hah gorge.
N.B. - The position of rocks and rapids, which are frequent
between this point and Qal'ah Sherghat, could not be deter-
mined with exactitude owing to discrepancies in the available
evidence. Above the Suweir rapid (see opposite) extends
for about 3 miles a group of islands called Khandida lying
towards r. bank.
Hamrin Hills continue close along river on r. bank, much
cut up by ravines.
Isolated rock in the stream 15 yds. from r. bank near
this point (1892).
694








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
53.
mediante
Inter-
Bediate
distance
Left Benk
Miles
The land in this neighbourhood is called Umm el-Leieh.
Hamrīn Hills approach close to l. bank.
In the 1. bank of Fet-hah gorge there are at intervals
stretches of calcareous rock, with threads of petroleum and
bitumen oozing from them.
Suweir rapid, between 1. bank and an island. It was
reported that in the 1. w. season of 1892 the current below
this rapid set towards some low cliffs on the l. bank, under
which there were two flat-topped ledges in the stream covered
by 21 ft. of water, but forming an eddy dangerous to rafts.
These could be avoided by a deep channel 40 yds. wide near
the island. The Suweir rapid itself was at that time formed
by a long diagonal shingle ledge, partly uncovered but with
27-3 ft. of water in the channel next the island. The current
was 44-51 m.p.h. (A report of May 1910 merely men-
tions broken water near the l. bank, caused by rocks
called Suweir).
Another rapid in the channel between the l. bank and the
upper end of the Khandida Islands, about 1 m. above the
first. In l. w., 1892, a channel free of rocks, 60 yds. wide
and over 6 ft. deep, with a current of about 51 m.p.h., led
up to a shingle ledge extending for 20 yds. with 4 ft. of water.
Upper end of Fet-hah gorge. The bituminous cliffs of
calcareous rock (see m. 624) are here about 20 ft. high.
Hamrīn Hills end on 1. bank.
Fet-hah ruins, site of ancient city, at foot of NE. slope of
Hamrın Hills, about į m. from river.
1


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
702
711
Sharp change of direction from W. to NNE. Hills rise
steeply from river on r. bank: low foreshore to left. Sulphur
spring in this neighbourhood.
Diagonal shingle ledge reported in l. w., 1892, as being
covered by 21 ft. of water. Channel near r. bank. Several
small ravines and low cliffs on r. bank.
75
781
Qal'ah Jabbār, ruins of fort, on a hill about 1 m. from
river. Deep ravines to N. and S., of which the northern
curves S. along part of the W. side. The hill is thus
triangular, with its apex to W., where it is connected by
a saddle with the hills on the landward side. Its plateau
is 325 ft. at its lowest point, about 700 ft. at its highest
(SE.), above the bottom of the ravines. The wall on the
river side of the plateau still remains : it is about 13 ft.
thick. It was reported in 1898 that there was a sulphurous
spring below this ruin.
802
Mounds. Broken water called Hamrah (authority 1910).
Mouth of Wādi Jahannam, a water-course, usually dry.
It lies in a ravine which runs from NW. to SE., roughly
parallel with the course of the Tigris above the junction with
the Lesser Zāb, at a distance from the r. bank of the Tigris
varying between 1 and 31 m. The gorge continues narrow
for about 20 m. up, then it widens till it is several miles
broad. Under the name of the Wadi Tālib it may apparently
be traced across the desert, bearing more to the north, till
its head is reached in the Kaiyara Hills, perhaps 20-30 m.
WNW. of Kaiyara oil-springs.
Ford passable in autumn, called Esh-Shejereh, is reported
hereabouts, but may be the same as that mentioned under
m, 887.
87








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
55
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Slight rapid, with 4 ft. of water, between 1. bank and
island (so reported in l. w. season of 1892).
Tel ed-Dahab, ruin-mound about m. from river bank,
where it bends W.
Shingle ledge in bed of stream next I. bank at or near
angle of bend. (Apparently reported 1892: but course of
river seems to have changed considerably here in recent
years).
11
Rapid between 1. bank and large shingle island (August
1892). Channel followed 1. bank in 1892. In I. w. season
of that year it was reported that there were signs of a rise
in flood of 18–20 ft.
Open level country.
a
Tel Marmūs, mound on 1. bank, in this neighbourhood.
co


56
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
871
? Ford in l. w. season (reported 1910).
Rapid ? See opposite page.
2
94
The hills (here called Jebel el-Makhāl) close in on the
river.
Qal'at el-Bint (also called Qalʼat Makhul), an old partially
ruined castle lying at the SE. end of the summit of a hill |
which runs SE. to NW. close to the river, rising about 200 ft.
above the stream, and lying between two deep ravines (the
larger on its N. and W. sides). These ravines isolate the
hill except on its SW. corner, where it slopes to the neck
which connects it with the ridge behind it, but across this
neck is drawn a trench about 71 ft. deep. The steepest
sides are those to the SE. and NW. (i. e. those above the
smaller ravine and the river). The walls of the castle are of
unburnt brick strengthened by rubble, those which lie on
the SE, and SW, being in a fairly good state of preservation.
A curtain visible from the river is loopholed. The place
was probably used as a base from which to plunder and
blackmail the river-traffic. Its position commands two
reaches of the river.
951
97
In this neighbourhood, Farrāj rock makes rough water
near the r. bank, which is here high and broken.
Hills on r. bank (here called Jebel Khanüqah) rise abruptly
from the river in rocky cliffs, which extend for about 5 m.
The Jebel Khanūqah is a fairly narrow ridge. The bed of
the Wādi Jahannam (see m. 86) runs parallel to the river
on the other side of the ridge.
98
River bends sharply. Direction changes from NW. to
ENE.
From this point the ridge of the Jebel Khanūqah with-| 102
draws from the river and continues to run in a NW. direc-








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
57
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
1 Junction of the Lesser Zāb with the Tigris, 250 yds.
broad (see Route III F).
Hawi Dindi, reported to be a permanent camp of the
Jebūr, extends up the Tigris for an hour's walk.
Esh-Shaqq : 90 huts of Jebür.
Tureisheh rapid ? It is reported that in May 1910 the
sound of rushing water near the l. bank was heard from
a raft: but the raftmen denied the existence of any 'awāyeh
or real rapid.
Shrine called Gumbet el-Hadīdi.
1
Saqar en-Naml rocks (at or near this point) in river close
to l. bank.
Low fertile strip called Shatt el-Jidr, on the 1. bank.


58
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
tion till it ends apparently about ^10 m. away. The main
ridge of the Jebel Hamrin, which lies to SW. of the Jebel
Khanūqah and is separated from that range by the valley
of the Wādi Jahannam, apparently takes a WNW. direction
from this point, the valley between the ranges gradually
widening
About 2 m. W. of the river-bend the Samarra-Mosul road
crosses the Wādi Jahannam, and, running NE., ascends
diagonally to the summit of the Jebel Khanūqah (where
the track becomes difficult for wheels), whence it runs in
a general NE. direction down the northern slope and across
the plain for about 3 m. to Qal'ah Sherghat.
The plain, which begins on r. bank of river above the
bend, is naturally fertile and contains cultivation (irrigated
by cuts from river) and spring pasturage. The neighbour-
hood is the property of the Da'irāt es-Sanīyeh. The cliffs on
the r. bank gradually decrease in height till they end as low
bluffs a short distance below Qal'ah Sherghat.
River bends N., and some way above this point breaks up 1044
into several channels enclosing a group of islands extending
for some distance upstream. In 1898 the Tigris flowed in
three main arms opposite Qal'ah Sherghat (see m. 109). Of
these the middle arm apparently joined the western at its
lower end a short distance below the southern extremity of
the ruin-field, and the eastern arm met the rest of the stream
somewhat still farther to the south.
109
Qal'ah Sherghat. A large tel, about 150 ft. high, with
a circumference of 4,685 yds. The sides are steep and much
broken. On the east it rises abruptly from the river, and on
the landward sides its base is marked off from the surrounding
plain by a broad trench. The northern end is the highest
point of the tel, where it is crowned by a conspicuous mound
shaped like a truncated cone. Near this mound is a Turkish
guard-house.
The tel is the site of the citadel of the ancient Assyrian
Asshur, and on it stood a royal palace and several temples.
The mound at the N. end marks the site of the temple of
the god Asshur. The hill is still covered with large frag-








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
59
Inter-
mediate
Left Bank
distance
Miles
Abu Shārib, rocks in midstream near this point. The
1. bank is of mud and conglomerate and fairly high.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
mentary masses of masonry. The E. wall (of gypsum blocks)
is still partially preserved, sloping steeply to the river. Large
portions of the northern walls are also still standing. Excava-
tions have been carried on here in recent years by German
archaeologists, and as the result of their work the hill is
scored by deep trenches containing fragments of masonry.
The city of Asshur was the capital of the Assyrian
kingdom before the rise of Calah (Nimrūd, see under
m. 1591) and Nineveh (opposite Mosul). Its position in
a cultivable plain close to the Jebel Hamrin, which com-
manded the approach to Assyria along the Tigris from
Babylonia, made Asshur a convenient royal residence in the
earlier period of Assyrian history. With the expansion of
the Assyrian Empire to N., NW., and W. the place of
Asshur as the political capital of the country was taken by
Calah, but it continued to be a religious centre and a place
of some importance as late as the Parthian Empire (first
century B.C.-third century A.D.).
Above Qal'ah Sherghat to about m. 144 the Qarachok
Dāgh is visible in the distance across the plain to the E.
To NNE. the high mountains of Kurdistan appear on the
horizon.
Wādi esh-Shabābīk (see under m. 1314), close to N. side 110
of Qalʼat Sherghat hill: apparently reported (Feb. 1903) as a
nullah 20 ft. wide and 5 ft. deep containing a little rain-water.
Samarra-Mosul route follows general direction of river.
Rapid reported in this neighbourhood (1893).
1103
112
Ford reported about here in August 1903: not mentioned 1131
1910.
Jebel Matak, a low line of hills running near river : 1141
rocky bluffs, topped with conglomerate, on the bank.
Samarra-Mosul route near hills, about 1 m. from river.
Some cultivation and spring pasturage in this neighbour-
hood for about 74 m.
116
Rocky bluffs end ; hills recede from r. bank.








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Viles
ܝܙܢܬܚܙ
Tukul Akir, mounds in this neighbourhood near river,
probably marking the site of an ancient city.
Mezār esh-Sherghat ferry (one crazy boat).
ܝܙ
1
Tukul Akir village.
Ford (1. w.) reported (1893) in this neighbourhood: but it
is not included in list of fords between Mosul and Baghdad
compiled in 1910 from raftsmen's information.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
118
1231
124
Village of Matuk and island. The bank is comparatively
low. Tel er-Raguba, conglomerate mound about 50 ft. high.
1291
131
1311
Broken water due to rocks.
Low conglomerate cliffs on r. bank. These appear to be
the end of a line of low eminences running WNW. for about
20-80 m. At this end quite low, the chain is reported to
rise to some 500 ft. at its western extremity. On the
S. slope of these hills lie the heads of the Wadi Talib (or
Jahannam) and esh-Shabābīk. N. of this rising ground
lies Kaiyara valley.
Conglomerate cliffs end. Wādi el-Massāl, carrying 1321
some water to river (May). It appears that it does not
come from Qaiyariyeh (Kaiyara ?) as might be supposed.
133
Mouth of oily stream flowing into the Tigris from the 1357
NW. Near this point large encampment of Jebūr (1910).
Samarra-Mosul route passes near this point.
Kaiyara bitumen springs and oil refinery. These lie
about 2 m. inland near the oily stream, on the r. bank of
which are the new oil-works. Shortly before these are
reached from the Tigris an old fortified enclosure is passed.
A report of 1910 says: The bitumen springs are situated
in the beginning of some low hills, where they form an
expanse of bitumen (which may be compared to a surface of
inky water covered with jet black ice irregularly shaped,
with an average diameter of about 100 yds. The surface is
all bitumen, in places hard, in places viscous, in places soft;
and there are oozings here and there of sulphurous water.
The bitumen is collected soft in the open watery spots and
packed in skins; what is taken away during the day is re-
placed in the night. The crude bitumen sells at the springs
for half a beshlik per skin of about 40 lb., or approximately
8 lb. for a penny.








THE TIGRIS--ROUTE III E
Left Bank
Inter.
mediate
distance
Miles
1
1 El-Haichel camping-ground ?
Ganaus mound. Ganaus village, 5 houses of Jebür, is a
short distance above.
Cliffs called Chahala begin on the l. bank.
Chahala cliffs end just below Matuk village.
Mound and village of Haji ‘Ali: 25 houses of Jebūr, 1910.
Considerable Arab encampment near Haji ‘Ali (1910).
Alam
Osajeh village. (25 houses of Juheish Arabs, 1910.) Hills
close in on the l. bank.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
"The oil produced here is distilled from crude bitumen of
the consistency of stiff treacle. Twenty tins of bitumen
yield ten tins of oil, of which two are of the first quality,
two of the second, and six of the third. The first quality is
colourless, the second yellow, the third black, and the third
quality must be refined a second time before it is fit for any
purpose except anointing camels against mange, but more
bitumen is mixed with it before redistillation. The fuel
used for distillation is crude bitumen, and the residue left in
the retort is bitumen and is allowed to flow away. Some
forty to fifty tins of oil are distilled at Kaiyara daily. The
oil is sold at the distillery at the following rates :-
Per gallon.
1st quality . .
. Pado
2nd quality . . . . 5d.
3rd quality . . . . 3 d.
'Even the best oil smells strongly of some impurity; the
odour resembles that of benzine.
'In the time of Abdul Hamid, Kaiyara belonged to the
Sultan's Civil List, for which it was worked by Ibrāhim
Pasha. A French expert was brought from Constantinople,
and about £T5,000 was spent in experiments, probably
borings, but without increasing the yield of the springs. In
1908 there were various competitors for a lease of the
springs, including a European firm. The present plant is
primitive and the buildings are of little value. There were
about 200 tins of refined oil in the store in 1910, of which
more than half was of the first quality.'
139
Low gravel island in vicinity.
1361
Low hills to W. Island in midstream.
141
Zāwiyeh, settlement of 'Aji Jebūr, 50 permanent houses, 1411
about 200 tents (1910). River water about here reported to
have a sulphurous taste.
Island with large Euphrates poplar trees.
1423
Banks high and bold. Deserted site of Tammeh.
144








THE TIGRIS—ROUTE III E
65
mediante
Inter.
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
Cliffs on bank.
Khabbīteh village : 50 houses of Jebūr Arabs.
Makuk, 100 houses of Jebūr, about 2 m. inland,
Sultan 'Abdallah village : 50 to 60 houses of Jebūr
(1910). This is the farthest point reached by the small English
steamer Euphrates in 1839; since then up to the present war
MES, 111


66
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Cliffs within about
m. of r. bank.
1453
Manqabeh village : 25 houses of Jebür.
146
An island about į m. long lies a short way above Manqa- 1464
beh. The channel follows 1. bank.
River here is about 500 yds. broad.
147
Small island.
1471
Tulūl esh-Shauk, mound and village : 30 houses of Jebūr 148
(1910).
Above this point to Mosul river is much broken by
numerous islands and narrows to an average width of
200–250 yds.
Gravel island. Channel follows 1. bank (1910).
149
1492
Makhlat village, about 20 houses of ’Aji Jebūr, near 150
upper end of the above-mentioned gravel island.
Ferry with small boat a short distance above Makhlat
village.
Broken water above the ferry.
1501








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
Inter-
Dediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
no steamer seems to have penetrated to this part of the
river.
Tel esh-Sha'ir, important village. 200 houses of Jebūr
Arabs and some 20 shops (1910). There is no Turkish
official here, but an Arab sheikh is responsible for the safety
of rafts, collecting a due of 1 to 1} mejidis from each. The
place is a river port, from which grain brought from
Shemamlik, 20 m. ENE., is shipped. This grain is believed
to come from the plain of Erbil, which extends about 20 m.
between Shemamlik and Erbil town to NE. In an ordinary
year about 1,000 rafts, carrying 12,000 tons of grain, leave
Tel esh-Sha'ir for Baghdad. About is said to be wheat
and it barley.
Hasan Tāsh village ; 100 houses of Jebūr, about a m.
from river opposite island.
Duweizeh village (50 houses of Jebūr, 1910). Low stone
cliffs extending along bank about 1 m.
Sunken rocks near bank, making troubled water. Channel
follows l. bank (1910).
Large rapid between 1. bank and island.
Mouth of the Great Zāb River (Zāb el-Kebīr). Its con-
fluence with the Tigris is called the Makhlat.
Just inside the mouth of the Zāb are islands. Tel Keshāf,
a comparatively high eminence, appears to be situated on
the l. bank some 2 or 3 m. up-stream. The Great Zāb, even
in late summer, brings down a great volume of water, and
its stream is much increased after rain or the melting of the
snows. Its waters are very clear, almost bright green, and
enter the Tigris with a rapid current.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles








THE, TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
69
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
1 The Zāb rises in the hills of Kurdistan in the region of Bāsh Qal'ah
(about 1150 m. N. by E.). On the course of the river through the
mountains from Bāsh Qal'ah to the region of Amadiyeh (about 985 m.
to N.) see route from Mosul to Van.
Below the comparatively open valley of Amadiyeh it flows in a SE.
direction, through a fertile, well-wooded district bordered by rocky
ridges, and the S, side of the valley is followed by the route from
Amadiyeh to Bireh Kafra (or Zibār). But below the junction of the Zāb
with its tributary the Rūdbār-i-Shin the valley narrows again, and is
left by the above-mentioned route, which turns southward away from
the river. Some *11 m. to the SE. of this point the Zāb passes by the
small plain of Bireh Kafra or Zibār on its r., and then enters very
difficult gorges. About 19 m., *28 m., below the plain of Zibār,
some way above its junction with its tributary the Rowanduz Chai, it
turns S., and shortly below Rowanduz takes a general SW. direction.
Below the gorge near Berdin (^65 m. from the Tigris) it enters
a broader valley, and flows between low hills on its r. bank and
on its l. hills which steadily decline in height. About 2 m. above
Girdamamik ferry (*42 m. from the Tigris) the river bends in a general
SSE. direction to the Tigris. The largest tributaries of the Zăb join
its I. bank between Amadiyeh and Berdin, but in its lower course it
receives many affluents on both banks, the most considerable of which
on the r. bank are the 'Aqreh Su (about 54 m. above the mouth of the
Zāb) and the larger stream of the Ghāzir Su (about *18 m. above the
mouth of the Zāb): between these two rivers the Achair Dāgh hills run
along the r. bank of the Zāb. The chief tributaries on the 1. bank are,
between Zibār and the mouth of the river, the Rukuchuk, thé
Rūdbār-i-Baras-gir, the Rūdbār-i-Rowanduz, the Darabikush Chai,
and the Bastoreh Chai. All these rivers are themselves fed by
numerous smaller streams.
The Zāb between the Berdīn gorge and the Tigris flows in a broad
shingly bed with outcrops of rock here and there, and enclosing a con-
tinuous network of islands which break up the river into many
channels. Below the mouth of the Ghāzir Su this bed appears to be
2-3 m, wide, but its channels are not entirely covered except in the
spring floods. The amount of water in the Zāb and its tributaries
varies much according to the season : rain and the melting of the
snow on the Kurdish hills in spring fill them with a torrential flood.
But even in the l. w. season the Zāb contains much water, though the
width of its bed in this lower part of its course makes it run shallow.
Its current is always swift, so that apparently even in l. w. it is
difficult to ford.
The Zāb between the Berdin gorge and its mouth is crossed by
four ferries. These are (i) at Quweir (described as 2 hrs. above the
mouth of the Zāb; (ii) at Eski Kelek (about 25 m. from the mouth)
where the Erbil-Mosul route crosses the Zāb; (iii) at Girdamamik
(about 42 m. from the mouth) and at Qandil (raft ferry) (about 65 m.
from the mouth).


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Bold rocky cliffs, called Jebel Mishraq, about 150 ft. high. 151
Sanādīq (boxes') mounds extend NNW. for about 5 m.
Channel followed r. bank in May 1910, past green island.
152
Sunken rocks near banks, making broken water.
1521
1531
Gully with Umm el-'Asāfīr, village of Wāwi Jebūr, on 154
both sides.
Rock cliffs 20-30 ft. high. Island, dividing the river 1541
into two channels, each of which contains a rapid.
1551
157
Upper end of island mentioned above.
Sanādīq village (10 houses of Jebūr). The village is
called after a series of square-topped mounds (see above,
m. 151). There may be other villages called after the
Sanādıq mounds. Between this point and Hammām 'Ali
the hills recede from the bank. The country to the N. of
this point is described as gently undulating and easy, with
good grazing.ground in spring. Much of the pasture in this
region belongs to the Dā'irat es-Saniyeh.
1573
158
Wādi Jahannam. Small island of same name imme- 1584
diately above the wadi.
Rapid known as 'Awayeh Sakhr Munayyireh.
1592
Camps of Wawi and Jehoni (1910). The Wāwi are a sec-
tion of the Jebūr. Rocky hills, apparently some distance
from the r. bank.








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Lower end of green island. From this point Tel Keshāf
is visible at a distance of about 2 m.
Upper end of island mentioned immediately above.
Jā'ifeh, village of Jebūr. 10 houses near river. 100 more
said to be less than 1 m. inland.
Channel in 1910 followed 1. bank past the island mentioned
opposite. A rapid in this channel hardly reaches the l. bank
in h. w.
į | Hawi Jat el-Hisān Island. Navigation channel in 1910)
followed r. bank.
Rapid believed to be formed by an ancient dam in the
passage between the island and the l. bank.
Seyyid Hāmid village, 60 houses of 'Aji Jebūr and
Juheish.
-
-
Nimrūd. This plain is undulating and barley is grown.
Nimrūd Hill is about 2 m. from the river. 1 m. from the
river is Yeni Nimrūd village, 150 houses of Shammatteh
and Jebūr.
Nimrūd Hill forms the SW. corner of the site of the
ancient Assyrian city of Calah. On it were the temples and
palaces of several Assyrian kings. The hill is now a rect-
angular plateau running N. and S., the longer side extending
nearly 750 yds., the shorter side about 325 yds. The surface
of the plateau is uneven, being covered with ruined mounds.
At the NW. corner is a conspicuous cone-shaped mound cut


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
1611
reported as the walled the Zituneifel
162,
Rapid, which is reported as giving no trouble to rafts in
h. w., and easily passed even in l. w. (This rapid would
appear to be near the site of the dam called the Zikr el-Awāz,
which was formerly described as just above ‘Uneifeh and
20 miles below Mosul. The most recent information avail.
able seems to indicate that this ancient dam no longer
forms an obstacle, but no evidence could be obtained
to show whether it had been destroyed or was now
avoided by the present channel of the river. An authority
of 1892 gives the following account of the dam :-
* The channel is 330 yds. wide, the dam being of square
blocks of stone set in cement much worn away. It causes
a drop of about 2 ft., which rafts can always get over, but
with shaking to the skins. In April, however, the river
was so full that there was not a trace of it to be felt.
Another channel runs farther west, which avoids the
obstruction, and at the low season forms a back-water, with








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
-
-
-
-
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
into by a deep trench, rising 110 ft. above the plain and
about 70 ft. above the plateau. The mound is the ruin of
a great tower of unburnt brick faced with stone. It was
built by Assur-bani.pal. There are other mounds at the
SW. and SE. corners of the plateau, the most noticeable
being that at the SE. Besides the trenches dug by exca-
vators several deep indentations mark the sides of the
hill. These indicate the position of ascents or stairways.
The largest of these is on the western side of the hill, about
70 yds. S. of the cone-shaped mound. It is about 20 to
30 yds. broad, and runs for about 150 yds. into the plateau.
Other indentations occur in the centre of the southern face
of the plateau and in the eastern side. The ground to the
N. and NE. of the hill is covered with ruin-mounds.
In preference to Asshur (see m. 109 above) Calah was
chosen for the centre of the Assyrian Empire by kings who
were engaged in war to the N. and NE. and in Northern
Mesopotamia and Northern Syria. Eventually its place was
taken by Nineveh 20 m. to the N.
23
Uneifeh (50 houses of Juheish). Raft-ferry across Tigris.
The bank is here low, shelying, and grassy, and rafts bringing
visitors to Nimrūd from Mosul usually touch here.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
6 ft. of water below, and dry at the head. To open a passage
for steamers this might be deepened and the body of the
water diverted down it, or else the dam removed by
dynamite. The bed being loose shingle, the former, pro-
bably, would be the quickest if a sufficient number of men
were at hand.') Hills close to the r. bank.
164
165
166
1671
Juheineh village, 100 houses of Jebür.
Ford, passable in l. w. season.
Salāhiyeh village, 30 houses of Jebūr.
Hammām 'Ali baths and villages. One village lies W.
by N. at 300 yds. from the landing-place; the other N. by
W. at 500 yds. In the latter are seven or eight shops and 20
permanent houses. The place is famous for its hot springs
and sulphur baths. The baths lie some way inland near
a group of ruin mounds, one of which, called Tel es-Sābi,
is about 100 ft. high. There are two sulphur springs, walled
in and covered with cupolas; the temperature is said to be
47°_48° C. The water is of a dirty green colour, has
a bituminous scum floating on the surface, and smells
strongly of sulphur. From the middle of June to middle
of September the baths are visited by about 10,000 patients,
who come from as far as Zakho in the N., Kirkuk and
Suleimāniyeh on the E., and Baghdad on the S. The visitors
live in mud huts and temporary wooden shelters. Other
springs in the neighbourhood yield petroleum and bitumen,
The Baghdad-Mosul route passes through Hammām
‘Ali.
1684
1691
Plain near river bank. It belongs to the Da'irat es-Sanīyeh
and is crossed by the Baghdad-Mosul route.
Islands on both sides of the channel,
171
Qabr el-'Abd village, 13 houses of Jebür. Island near 1711
r. bank.
Arej village, 70 houses of Jebūr, 1 m. inland. The hills 1721








THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III E
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
mediante
Left Bank
Loft Bank
Selāmiyeh village, 60 houses of Turkomans and Jebür.
Humeireh Kebīr, 1 m. inland. It belonged (1910) to
| Abdul Jalil, of Mosul. There is here an alluvial stretch
along the l. bank.
I Humeireh Saghir, 50 houses of Jebūr.
Hawi Arsālān village, 15 houses of Jebūr situated on the
water's edge.
Tel esh-Sheitan. Hillock, with boulders on summit,
some distance from river.
Safij village, 25 houses of Jebür.
Hill called Hamiru, which forms the N. end of a line of
1


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
on the r. bank were reported in 1910 to be limestone and
nearly 2 m. inland at this point.
Lazzaqeh (Lezadeh) village, 50 houses of Jebūr. Con- 1741
spicuous fort belonging to the Begs of Mosul. The place
contains a khan. Near the river is a small alluvial tract.
Above this point the hills close in on river.
Āi Bū Juwāri village, 50 houses of Jebūr, i m. inland. | 1757
The adjoining hills are not more than 100 ft. high.
Kunetera, village some distance from river on slope of 177
some comparatively high hills, which from this point run
close to the river.
Hawījeh Shemsiyat, island about į m. long.
178
1784
1782
1804
Hills recede from river. Seramūn Qasr. This is a walled
enclosure 60 yds. by 50, walls 20 ft. high, with two towers and
containing house and outbuildings belonging to the Jalil
Begs of Mosul. It commands the Baghdad-Mosul road,
which here descends into the plain.
Āi Bū Seif, village W. of the qasr. 60 houses of Jebūr.
To the N. of this point lies cultivation as far as Mosul.
1821
Mosul.
185
ROUTE III F
THE LESSER ZĀB FROM ITS MOUTH TO TAKTAK (118 M.)
Authorities :-Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iii, 1904 (report of 1892); E. B. Soane,
Through Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise (journey in 1909).
The details regarding the channel, &c., are taken from an authority who
descended the river by raft from Taktak in l. w. (October) 1892. It is
probable that the channel has altered considerably and many of the rapids
formed by shingle ledges have shifted their position since that date. It is
to be remembered that the depths were taken in the season of lowest water.
The Lesser Zāb has been regarded as possibly navigable for








THE TIGRIS & LESSER ZĀB-ROUTES III E, III F 77
Inter-
nediate
Jistance
Left Bank
Miles
limestone or sandstone hills near the l. bank. There is
sulphur in this neighbourhood.
Umm el-Quseir village, 100 houses of Ba Husein,
Sunnis.
2
Lower Shemsiyat village, opposite middle of island.
About 100 houses of Jebür.
Upper Shemsiyat village, opposite upper end of island.
About 100 houses of Jebür.
Yarimjeh village, 150 houses of Turkomans, Kurds, and
Shiah Arabs.
22
l
powerful light-draught steamers in the high-water season as far
as Taktak; but this appears very doubtful. In low water, where the
numerous shingle or rock ledges obstruct the channel, depths of
only 2 ft., 18 in., or even 1 ft. are found: elsewhere the river has
4-6 ft. of water in the low season. The increase in depth caused by
the yearly floods is considerable, though much of the flood water
spreads over the wide stretch of shingle, which in most places lies on
one side or on both sides of the main channel. A raft, assisted by
Oars, moves 3-31 m. an hour in l. w. ; but in this respect also the
difference made by the flood is probably great. The breadth of the
river in this part of its course is generally 200-100 yds, in low water,


78
RIVER ROUTES
where it flows in a single channel: in flood-time its breadth is
generally much greater, and in places may be 1 m. or more.
Before the war the Lesser Zāb was navigated only down-stream by
the large rafts called keleks (see vol. i, p. 166). A raft in August
took three days from Altun Köprü to the River Tigris, this time in-
cluding stops for the night. In low water it is impossible to run by
night.
Above Taktak a sandstone ledge forming a fall of 2 ft., and other
obstructions, are said to make navigation impossible.
From Taktak to its junction with the Tigris the river flows
between banks of conglomerate or earth over a bed of shingle or
sand. In the river-bed there are very numerous ledges consisting
either of sandstone or, less commonly, of conglomerate, which form
rapids. Rocks occur in the channel occasionally : these latter would
probably be nearly or wholly submerged in high water. The river
frequently divides into two or more channels, enclosing flat shingle
islands, many of which are probably under water in flood time.
Along the sides of the main channel there generally extend broad
stretches of shingle which are covered by the floods. The banks
frequently rise to bluffs 20-50 ft. in height, which occasionally come
close to the edge of the low-water channel.
Between the mouth of the Zāb and the neighbourhood of Shamagheh
(see m. 573) the country on either side of the river is a gently
undulating plain with a few scattered tels rising from it. On the S.
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Mouth of the Lesser Zab (see Tigris, Route III E, m. 874).
Width of stream here 250 yds. Several small rapids
above the deep reach at the mouth. Up to Bisereriyeh
(15 m.) scattered camps of Jebūr Arabs, who cultivate some
millet.
Conglomerate cliffs 40 ft. high on both banks, where the
river cuts through a low ridge. Channel 150 yds. wide.
Between m. 6 and m. 7 shingle ledges, with 18 in.-2 ft.
of water.
Rapid, with 18 in. of water.
Diagonal rapid, with 2 ft. of water.
Shumeit, a halting-place for rafts.








THE LESSER ZĀB-ROUTE III F
79
the plain is bounded by the Jebel Hamrin: to the N. the Qara- .
chok Dāgh is visible from a great distance. The undulations
gradually become more frequent as the river is followed up-stream,
and between the neighbourhood of Shamagheh and Altun Köprü
(m. 74) the Zāb flows in an open valley between low, bare hill-ranges.
Above Altun Köprü as far as Taktak the valley remains fairly open,
though the hills gradually increase in height.
In the plains below Altun Köprü there are a number of scattered
settlements on the banks, mostly small villages or encampments of
semi-nomad Jebūr, who cultivate the soil here and there, chiefly for
millet and melons; in places cherrads are used. In 1892 Jaif was
said to be the first Kurdish village passed on the up-stream journey.
From about that point onwards the inhabitants of the banks are
Kurds and Turkomans. When the hills are reached the country
becomes better watered, and the Zāb between the neighbourhood of
Altun Köprü and Taktak receives a number of tributaries, most of
which, however, appear to be nearly or quite dry by the early
autumn,
There appears to be no serious obstacles to movement along the
banks of the Zāb up to Altun Köprü, but no appreciable amount of
supplies or fuel could be found, and grazing could be expected only
in spring. Water is probably very scarce away from the river. (For
the road from Altun Köprü to Taktak, see Route 40.)
Inter.
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Low conglomerate cliffs.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bark
Total
distance
Miles
11
14
Between m. 11 and m. 12 a deep reach and a long
diagonal ledge with a passage in the centre 2 ft. deep.
Shingle island between this point and Bisereriyeh. The
r. bank channel the better. It contains two ledges with
18 in.-1 ft. of water.
Bisereriyeh, 20 Arab huts.
Island. R. bank channel the better (4 ft. of water).
Patches of millet.
15*
Two small shingle islands.
(2 ft. 6 in. of water).
Central channel the best
18
Some distance above Ismaniat, a deep reach, followed
by a rapid reach about į m. long, which contains two small
ledges of shingle. Then a shingle island, the better channel
following the r. bank and containing a ledge with 18 in.
of water. Millet fields on r. bank.
Upper end of shingle island mentioned above.
Above this point a broad reach 2-3 ft. deep.
AW
Upper end of broad reach.
Above this point the stream divides into three channels
among shingle banks, the central channel being the deepest
with 18 in.-2 ft. of water.
About this point the stream is again in a single
channel.
Long ledge with 2 ft. of water.
Below Rummāneh a diagonal rapid with 18 in. of water.
Greatest depth near r. bank.
Arab huts. Millet cultivation in the neighbourhood.
On either bank a stretch of shingle, , m. wide, marking
the flood width. Above this point a small rocky ledge in
mid-stream just awash.
Redva, 10 houses.
Above Redva, isolated rocks, by which a depth of 18 in.-
2 ft. was found in October 1892; a slight rise would cover








THE LESSER ZAB-ROUTE III F
81
Inter-
mediate
čistance
Left Bank
Dithakra, 30 mud huts, almost deserted in 1892. Patches
of millet.
They are
Ismaniat ruins visible, 1 m. from river.
extensive, and include the remains of a minaret.
Millet fields m. from 1. bank. Tel 'Ali, a flat-topped
mound, 400 yds. in diameter, 80 ft. above the plain.
Millet fields on 1. bank, with reed huts of Arabs.
Sadia, 30 huts.
Low earth cliffs.
Rummāneh, 30 houses.
'Areisheh, 80 houses.
1 Tel el-Mahad, 2 m. from 1. bank. A flat-topped mound,
600 yds. in diameter, rising 100 ft. above the plain ; probably
the site of an ancient city.
MFS. 111


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
this obstruction. A passage between the rocks, about 30 ft.
wide, could be found without difficulty.
Above the rocks is the ledge mentioned opposite. Some
other ledges of conglomerate in the channel, broken into
isolated patches.
39
39
Millet fields with water-lifts (cherrads)..
Two long diagonal ledges with 18 in. of water.
Jaif (the first Kurd village to be found in an up-stream
journey in 1892) lies 1 m. off among undulations. The
reach here reported deep and easy. Earth cliffs 80 ft. high at
a sharp turn of the river. Above the turn a rapid with
18 in. of water.
About this point the reaches were reported deep, with easy
current.
Tel Huleileh, 40 houses, 2 m. from r. bank, near a flat-
topped mound.
Several small ledges with 18 in. of water.
523
Diagonal ledge with 1 ft. of water. Channel by l.
bank.
Some firewood obtainable from shrubs by the bank.
The Qarachok Dāgh is seen about 10 m. to NW.
Dircheh, 10 houses.
Above this point a shingle island. Deep channel by
1. bank.
Upper end of shingle island.
Shamagheh, 80 houses, on a spur. A rounded ridge is
visible 2 m. from river, rising 100 ft. above the plain.
Above the ledge mentioned opposite is a long diagonal
ledge, over which the deepest channel was found in the
centre (18 in. of water).
59
Shingle marking the flood width is 3 m. wide, and the 592
channel 120 yds.
Above a slow reach 5 ft. deep is a sharp turn, the beginning 62








THE LESSER ZĀB-ROUTE III F
83
Left Bank
Inter-
Dediate
ustance,
Niles
į
Ledge (of conglomerate ?) jutting out from 1. bank, and
reaching nearly half-way across stream.
Mahūd, small village.
Millet fields with water-lifts.
Botmal, 30 houses, 12 m. from 1. bank.
Low cliffs.
Mijenna (50 houses) with some undulations.
river, 60 houses, the residence of
Mella, 1 m. from
a Mudir.
Channel by l. bank.
Numeil, 30 houses.
Channel by 1. bank past shingle island, above Numeil.
Some distance above Shamagheh is a ledge with 18 in. of
water off 1. bank.
Emrina, 60 houses, 1 m. from river. m. N. is a white
domed shrine (gumbet), a prominent landmark.
Sheikh el-Abyadh, 80 houses, 4 m. away.
F2


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
63
64
of a loop to SE. Hills about 150 ft. high, broken by ravines,
now begin to approach the river. To the E. is the Gurgur
Dāgh or Jebel Gurgur.
Malhahwali, 15 houses on a cliff. A group of isolated
rocks to be avoided, 10 yds. from r. bank.
Above the loop (see m. 62) a ledge with 2 ft. of water
next r. bank.
Another sharp loop to SE., about 14 m. deep. Channel
5 ft. deep, current slow.
Saikun, 20 houses, on some mounds į m. from river.
Stream running in three channels between shingle islands.
Channel by l. bank.
Stream again in a single channel, apparently flowing
about ENE.-WSW.
Ledge with 2 ft. of water.
Ledge with 2-3 ft. of water.
channel 120 yds.
River-flat 1 m. wide,
Bend in river, above which it flows from the N. (or perhaps
NNW.) Shingle ledge (2 ft. of water) at bend.
Sherbeh, 15 houses, on some low cliffs.
Sharp bend, above which river flows apparently from
about NNE. past the island on which Altun Köprü stands.
The western channel is dry in the low season ; it is spanned by
a masonry bridge of three arches, each of about 20 ft. span.
Altun Köprü.
Ledge with rapid 2 ft. deep.
75
761








THE LESSER ZĀB_ROUTE III F
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Long diagonal ledge, with 2 ft. of water, next 1. bank.
Channel by l. bank. Ledge, with 18 in. of water, near the
centre of the channel.
Chair, 20 houses, 1 m. from river, in a small basin.
Beyond Chair the Gurgur Dāgh rises gradually from the
plain.
ماده
Gurgar Su (or Mayar Dereh), a large stream, flows in
from SE.
منه
بنام به
In the eastern channel, about 100 yds. below the bridge,
an outcrop of conglomerate rock was reported as narrowing
the fairway to about 50 ft. in l. w.: it would be broader in
a high river. The channel was reported deep, with a gentle
current. A toll used to be levied here on passing keleks.
The bridge over the E. channel is of brick and stone, and
has one high, pointed arch of about 60 ft. span, with three
minor arches at the side. The main arch gives 40 ft. clear
space underneath at l.w.
Qārā Beg (also called Muterbeh by raftsmen). Altun
Köprü is visible up to this point.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
782
Bend which drives stream against a cliff on the r., causing
a rush of water at the turn, 3-4 ft. deep in low water.
Shingle ledge at the bend. Raftsmen in October 1892 got on
to the shingle and held the painter while the raft swung
round.
Seba Gerani, 20 houses.
Chadcherin, 15 houses, 1 m. away from river.
Above this point rapids are more numerous and reaches
generally shallower than in the neighbourhood of Altun
Köprü.
Valley-flat in this neighbourhood about 4 m. broad,
between conglomerate cliffs 30 ft. high. Higher up it
broadens to about #m. Hereabouts is an island past which
the r. bank channel is the deeper (2 ft. of water).
Two small ledges (1 ft.-18 in. of water).
In 1892 there was here a village of Chögha Hasan, a
Girdi Kurd, about 1 m. from river. It consisted of 30 huts.
863
Khurkhur village, 80 houses. River-flat of shingle
à m. broad, covered only in flood.
Sharp bend, at which is a ledge with 18 in. of water. I
Between m. 89 and 90 stream divided into various smaller
channels, besides the main channel, which had 2 ft. of water
in the low season and was 50 yds. broad. Tamarisk and
artemisia plentiful on the banks. Some distance above the
point where these minor channels took off there was a large
island. The r. bank channel was followed over some ledges
having 18 in.-2 ft. of water.
Upper end of large island mentioned above.
923
95
Sardik, 40 houses, on a knoll. Shallow ledges (18 in.-2 ft.
of water extending for 400 yds.)
Channel narrowed to 50 yds. ; depth, 6 ft.
Channel broader again.
Shingle ledge with 1 ft. of water, and 1 m, farther on
another ledge with 18 in.
Sheitāneh, 20 houses, close to r. bank. Deep reach here.
Shingly island. R. bank channel the deeper.
962
971








THE LESSER ZĀB-ROUTE III F
87
Left Bank
Inter
mediate
distance
Miles
Shems Serdalu.
ܝܫܚܝܙܢܬ
ܚܕ
Dermanau villages on rising ground on l. bank. One is
at m. 85, the other about m. 86. The channel here formed
an easy reach 6-8 ft. deep, 100 yds. broad.
ܢܙܩ
ܝܙܟܟܬ
Qara Sālim, 80 houses.
Gravelly ridges rise to 200 ft. 2 m. from river.
boyu AC AWA
Awat


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
99
Miles
98
Two long diagonal ledges (1 ft.-18 in. of water).
Shaughir (50 houses) on r. bank m. distant. (On l. bank 100
according to W.O. Map 35). Country becomes more hilly,
and ravines are more numerous above this point.
Shingle ledge, 20 yds. broad, with 1 ft. of water.
1011
Ground about 100 ft. above river, with light gravelly soil, 102
cut up by ravines. Sakrikan village, 1 m. from river, 80
huts thatched with reeds. Two ledges, with 15-18 in. of
water, in the river opposite Sakrikan. Above the mouth of 103
1. bank tributary the river made a sharp northerly loop.
Gravelly undulations to N.
Upper end of loop. Zazi Su and streams from Köi Sanjaq' 1041
join on the r. bank. Above the mouth of the Zazi Su
a long rapid with 18 in.-2 ft. of water.
Upper end of long rapid.
105
106
A long diagonal ledge with 1 ft. 10 in. of water, deepest 1067
next r. bank.
Between this point and m. 1071 two shingle ledges with
1 ft. 10 in.-2 ft. of water. Between these ledges were found
broad, slow reaches, 4-5 ft. deep, and easy to navigate.
Khān-i-Leileh, large Kurdish village among orchards and 108
date gardens. Behind it rises the Khān-i-Leileh Dāgh, a bare
line of hills, about 300 ft. above the river, running NW.
Numerous springs and streams irrigate the gardens.
Sharp loop to SE. At the turn a short shingle ledge 1087
(18 in. of water).
Shingle island: channel by I. bank. From marks on 1091
banks a rise of 12-14 ft. appeared to take place in flood.
Shingle ledge, with 1 ft. 10 in.-2 ft. of water over it.
110
River bends NW.
111
Upper end of loop. Tamarisk and artemisia shrubs on 1122
the shingle.
In the next 14 m. the mouths of several ravines are
passed. Khān-i-Leileh Dāgh still on r. bank.
Above this point river apparently made a loop to SE.
114








THE LESSER ZĀB-ROUTE III F
39
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
Left Bank
Seikāni,50 houses, 11 m. from river, in a basin among hills.
olt
Khāneh (Bel Khāneh), 11 m. to r., in a basin among low
hills.
Mouth of large stream : bed nearly dry in October, 1892.
Two m. up it is Hamdun, among a clump of trees. Kirkuk
lies 26 m. away to SSW., and Chemchemal 31 m. to SE.,
across open and easy country.
Shingle on l. bank in loop to N.
Mouth of dry ravine.
Mazaikheh, 12 m. from river, in a cultivated basin among
bare hills.
Channel by 1. bank, with 2 ft. of water, past island.
FICO
Zornasur, 30 houses.
Earth cliffs, 50 ft. high, on bank.
11


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
1142
Sharp turn. Shingle ledge with 18 in. of water.
115
Gravelly cliffs on r. bank. Diagonal ledge of shingle, 1152
with a channel next r. bank, having 18 in. of water.
Small shingle island. Channel, 40 yds. wide, by r. bank. 117
Taktak.
118








THE LESSER ZĀB-ROUTE III F
91
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Jezīleh, 20 Kurd houses on a cliff.
Cliffs on left.


THE EUPHRATES
Authorities Dobbs, Report on the Navigation of the Euphrates from Birijik to Fellū jeh
(1903); Sarre and Herzfeld, Archäologische Reise im Euphrat- und Tigris-
Gebiet (a journey of 1908); the authorities cited for Routes 46 and 47 ; other
sources of information.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ON THE RIVER BETWEEN
FELLŪJEH AND MESKENEH
Details must be sought in the river itinerary. The evidence
there given, however, does not represent the l. w. conditions, the
journey on the report of which they are based (Dobbs) having been
undertaken in January, when the Euphrates was swollen by un-
usually heavy winter rains, the effect of which was observable as
far as Deir-ez-Zor. From there to Fellūjeh the conditions may be
regarded as normal for the winter months (during Dobbs's journey
the river in this section was somewhat below normal winter level).
The narrowest part of the river is in the Halebi Chelebi defile (see
Route IV H, m. 47).
The River. -The breadth of the river on this stretch is generally
200-500 yds. In Jan., 1903, when the river above Deir was higher
than is usual at this time of year, depths were found ranging from
4 to 12 ft. The current varied from 2 m.p.h. to 12 m.p.h. (at
Fātihat: Route IV F, m. 581). In several places it ran at 7 m.
an hour in two or more channels enclosing low islands. Above Hit
the river contains a number of rapids caused by ledges of rock or
broken masonry bridges. Banks of shingle or sand are also found.
In the l. w. season there are probably fords at several places on this
part of the river, but there is no recent information with regard to their
position. The bed from Fellūjeh to Hīt is alluvial soil. Above Hīt
it is shingle, sand, or mud, with outcrops of rock up to El-Qa'im.
Navigation.-It was reported in 1903 that in the months of April,
May, June, and July, when the river is full, the descent of the river








THE EUPHRATES
93
rould be easy for a light-draught steamer, and could be accomplished
at a very great speed. The swiftness of the current at this time of
the year would, however, make the upward journey very slow, and
it would be necessary for the steamer to be capable of a continuous
speed of not less than 12 knots per hour in order to make head
against the rapid stretch between Hīt and Anah. Steamer-navigation,
it was stated, would be too risky to be profitable during the l.-W.
months of August, September, October, and November. The report
adds that in the months of December, January, February, and March
both the upward and downward journey of even a light-draught
steamer would be attended with considerable risk unless engineering
works were carried out in the stretches between Hadiseh (Route
IV F, m. 65) and Alūs (Route IV F, m. 554), in the passage from
Kerableh Island (Route IV G, m. 2) to below Anah (Route IV F,
m. 117), in the shallow rapids at Abu Quba'or Funsa (Route IV H,
m. 120), and below the islands of El-Hammām (Route IV H, m. 1301).
In the first two of the above-mentioned places the artificial channel
excavated by the Turkish authorities in 1870 was in 1903 still
almost intact; and it was believed that very heavy expense would
not be necessary. Some apparatus would, however, have to be
erected for the purpose of warping the steamer up over the ledge at
Fatihat Khidhr Ilyās (Route IV F, m. 584). From below Ānah to
above Kerableh Island a tow.path would probably have to be con-
structed on the l. side of the river. In the neighbourhood of Abu
Qubā'and El-Hammām, the placing of four or five dams part of the
way across the river-bed would sufficiently deepen the channel.
The report of 1903 says that the best boatmen of Anah are so
intimately acquainted with the bed of the river above Hit that it
would be advisable to secure the services of one of them as pilot for
å steamer plying on the river.
On the upward journey it might be possible for a steamer to tow
one or two flat-bottomed boats. On the journey down-stream towing
would be dangerous, but a barge might be lashed to the side of
a steamer.
Practically all the present traffic is down-stream, at least as far as
Hīt, and is carried on chiefly by the flat-bottomed boats, known
as shakhtūrs (see vol. i, p. 167), built only at Birijik. Even the
attempt made in 1911 to establish a service of motor-boats (65 ft.
long with about 21 ft. draught) on the river above Fellūjeh had to be
given up owing to difficulties in navigation. (See vol. i, p. 171.)
There are ferries at the chief stopping-places on the river.
The river has been used in increasing degree for the transport of
guns, ammunition, and stores, and small detachments of troops from


94
THE EUPHRATES
Jerablūs to Fellūjeh during the present war. The Germans claim
to have improved the navigation. There is reliable evidence that
special craft have been constructed (compare p. 396).
Banks.- Between Fellūjeh and Hit (Route IV E) the l. bank
appears to be stony desert, with little or no cultivation. On the
r. bank there is cultivation by water-lifts (cherrads). Above Hīt, as
far as Nāhiyeh, cherrads are replaced by naurs (water-wheels), but
the strip of cultivation is very narrow and no grain is available for
export. Between Nāhiyeh and Abu Kemal both banks are prac-
tically uninhabited, and either bare or covered only by tamarisk
scrub. Between Abu Kemāl and Deir ez-Zor (Route IV G, m. 192)
there is almost continuous cultivation by means of cherrads, but the
cultivated strip in no case reaches more than 1 m. from the bank.
Between Deir ez-Zor and Sabkhah cultivation to . m. from the river
on either side is carried on intermittently by cherrads. In 1903 no
grain available for export was produced in this region. Above
Sabkhah to Abu Hureireh there is hardly any cultivation except in
the delta of the Belikh on the l. bank in the neighbourhood of
Raqqah. The low hills on the bank are of marl, and the valley is
covered with a dense growth of tamarisk, bramble, and liquorice.
Above Abu Hureireh there is a fertile belt 1-3 m. broad, bordered
by marl or gypsum hills, which produces wheat and barley without
irrigation. See also Routes 46, 47 for the river valley.
The terms Shāmiyeh (esh-Sham = Damascus) and Jezīreh are
used by the inhabitants for right and left bank respectively.
Inhabitants. The permanent inhabitants of the Euphrates Valley
are mainly either fellahın or semi-settled Arabs, who are more or
less liable to be raided or blackmailed by the great nomadic tribes
of the desert, the principal of which are the Anazeh, Dilaim, and
Shammār.
The predominant tribe in the Syrian Desert W. of the river is that
of the Anazeh, though some of the subdivisions of that tribe are also
found on the l. bank. The Anazeh are large camel-breeders, and their
sheikhs own a certain amount of land in the Euphrates Valley. They
have a constant antagonism to the Shammār. The Amarat division
of the Anazeh are found W.of the Euphrates between Kerbela and Hīt,
where their paramount chief, Ibn Hadhdhal, owns palm gardens. They
are generally near the Euphrates in summer. The Fed'an division
of the Anazeh (paramount chiefs, the pan-Arab Ibn Muheid and
Ibn Geshirsh) ranges from Deir to Aleppo on both sides of the
Euphrates and up the Khabūr Valley. The Amarat and also the
Sba' division of the Anazeh (from the region of Palmyra) may be
driven into the Fed'an country by lack of pasture elsewhere.








THE EUPHRATES
95
The Dilaim are a powerful tribe found in the desert on both sides
of the river from Fellajeh almost to Anah. They own cultivated
land in the Euphrates Valley (their paramount chief, 'Ali Suleiman,
has a house and palm garden at Ramādiyeh), and are sheep-breeders
on a large scale, but not camel-breeders. They are in close alliance
with the Amarat Anazeh, and at feud with the Shammār of the
Jezīreh to the N. and the Shiah tribes of Irak to the S. They are
noted robbers. .
The western division of the northern Shammār, the predominant
tribe of the Jezīreh, is found neai and north of Deir, and along and
W. of the Khabūr. The leading sheikhs of this western division
are the sons of Abdul Mehsin and Mohammed. In 1911 Asi, son
of Ferhan, was appointed paramount chief of all the Mesopotamian
Shammār : he keeps to the Mosul district.
The half-settled tribes of the Euphrates Valley cultivate the soil
more or less, but retain to varying degrees the traces of their former
nomadic habits. Most of them spend at least the summer in tents.
Even where villages have been built they are liable to be abandoned
and to reappear on new sites. The half-settled Arabs form large
tribes, but they play little or no part in the politics of the desert,
and are usually obliged to pay tribute to the nomads. The following
half-settled tribes may be mentioned: the Yeghaifeh (from Anah to
Irsi), the Bu Kemal (Irsi to Meyāddīn), the Abu Mueyt and Abu
Hleyhil (round Meyāddin), the Baggarah (in summer near Deir,
a despised tribe), the Afadle (in winter W. of the Belikh), the
Qeys (near the Belikh and up-stream to above Meskeneh), the
Weldeh (in summer near Qal'ah Jābir), the Ugeydat (scattered from
the Khabür to Damascus, accounted base-born by the Bedouin).
The 'Ugeil (caravan men and guides of Arabia) are much employed
in the caravan traffic between the Euphrates and Syria.
For the inhabitants of the towns see Gazetteer of Towns.


RIVER ROUTES
ROUTE IV E
FELLUJEH—HĪT (797 m.)
Right Bank.
Total
distance
Miles
Width of river up to Hīt varies from 490 to 270 yds.,
the current being generally almost 2 miles (3 kilometres) an
hour. Depth averages 12 ft. Near Fellajeh the river over-
flows its banks in the flood season and forms numerous
islands.
Direction SW.
River bends NW.
Hereabouts Fed'ān Canal takes off: it runs roughly parallel
to r. bank at about 1-11 m. from river. It is regulated by
a new regulator with opening 8 ft. wide, over which passes
the Baghdad-Aleppo road.
9
17
The river now winds in many large bends until Ramādiyeh
is reached. The general direction is W. by N.
Habbāniyeh Lake is 4 m. SSW. of the river at this
point, over rising ground. It is 11 m. from NE. to SW.
and 7 from E. to W., and has a marsh on its W. side. Normal
level is 120 ft.; h.w. level in April-May is 131 ft. above
sea-level. Rising ground surrounds it except on W. The
hill at its S. end is 250 ft. above sea-level. The lake draws
its supply from the overflow of the river, and rises when
river overflows. The water is brackish, and (in connexion
with river works) has been found unsuitable for engine
boilers. The lake is exposed to storms, when a sea dangerous








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IV E
Inter.
Bediate
distance
Left Bank.
Miles
Fellūjeh. Bridge of boats.
'Ambar, ruins on W. slope of rising ground 2 m. from
river.
Saqlāwiyeh village, apparently at some distance from
river. It lies on the Fellūjeh-Hīt track and on the
Saqlāwiyeh Canal, over which is a ferry, reported in 1896
to be į m. beyond the village. The Saqlāwiyeh Canal used
to take water from the Euphrates to the Tigris at Baghdad,
but was closed to protect Baghdad from floods. Wheat was
seen growing in its bed in Jan. 1905, but it appears to have
been reopened (see Appendix). After a short course NNW.,
N., and NE., its general direction is easterly to Lake Aqarqūf,
*8 m. from Baghdad. According to Willcocks's map, based
on surveys 1909-11, the canal has a head near Saqlāwiyeh
village, and another about 6 m. by river up-stream.
MLS, III


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
to native craft is raised. The country between Fellūjeh and
the lake has been reported easy for motor lorries : difficulties,
however, are certain to be met with in the h. W. season.
Even through the cultivated land road-making would not be
difficult. It has been proposed to make Lake Habbāniyeh
into a storage reservoir, supplied by an escape canal from
the river near Ramādiyeh, and discharged through an outlet
canal running E. through the desert tableland E. of the
lake. The canal has been cut, but the water is not yet let
in, the outlet canal having not yet been constructed. (See
m. 391.)
Creek.
23
261
36
391
401
The Baghdad-Aleppo caravan route here crosses the head
of the new canal leading to the Habbāniyeh Lake, and a pro-
minent object on the N. side of the canal is the newly built
engineer's house.
Ramādiyeh. Alt. 158 ft. 400-500 houses. P.O., T.O.
Ramādiyeh is a modern village standing on slightly
elevated ground about į m. from the river. It is the seat of
a kaimmakam and a zaptieh post. It has several brick khans
(one of them large enough to accommodate 50 men and
horses), a big square, a bazaar, and a minaret. There are
date-palms in clumps 1 m. apart on r. bank only. The land
on both sides of the river is low and frequently flooded. The
Jezīreh side is quite flat, and the plateau of the Syrian
Desert is low, while the village is surrounded by cultivation.
On l. bank a little below the village are mud ruins. The
country round has been seen white with snow (Feb. 8).
The chief sheikh of the Dilaim, 'Ali Suleiman, has a house
and palm garden at Ramādiyeh.
There is a considerable amount of cultivation round about,
with some date-palms. Water-supply from wells and river.
The place is the head-quarters of a small garrison-
infantry and cavalry.
There is a local civil official.
Et-Tāsh (Azeziyeh) Canal, which carries flood water from
river to Habbāniyeh Lake. It irrigates the flood lands of
Et-Tāsh, near the lake, which are cultivated by the Dilaim.
411








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IV E
99
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank.
Miles
Small lake nearly "1 m. N. of this bank.
Near 1. bank, small island ?
G 2


100
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank.
Total
distance
Miles
56
River makes a big U bend to the S.
Abu Rayāt. The road and T.L. here touch the
river.
60
Valley of Wādi Mohammadi joins the river.
In the reach from Banān village (opposite) upwards to
Darya Banān, there are bitumen pits, El-Lata'īf and
Ma'mūreh (with ruined village), about "4-5 m. back from
r. bank.
Qarya Banān village.
Date plantations begin.
Hīt. 600 houses. P.O., T.O.
761
78°
792
ROUTE IV F
0
HĪT TO ANAH (1194 m.)
Hīt.
I
From Hit the river has a general direction NW. as far as !
Salāhiyeh, and the stream runs about 6 m.p.h. (Jan.-Feb.
1903). Navigation is said not to be difficult.
Moslem shrine. El-Merj bitumen pits 3 m. W. of it. I
Imām Sheikh Jelādeh, Moslem shrine.
Filuwi Island, in mid-stream. One authority says there
are two small islands containing a hamlet.
The channel in 1903 kept to r. bank. The current runs
about 2 m.p.h.(Jan.-Feb. 1903), except at rapids, till the
Nawās Is. are reached (see m. 332). Immediately above tail
of islands is-
Salāhiyeh. Some cultivation.
The road passes through the village and proceeds NW.
The road leaves the river, which bends N. and NNE., and
does not return to it till Khān Baghdadiveh.
The Wādi Rezūs (or Sikali), which flows past Qasr








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTES IV E, IVF
101
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank.
Miles
141
Qal'at et-Tumādi. Alt. 170 ft.
Qal'ah Zawiyeh fort and village.
Bas village.
Banān village.
Qal'ah Dhawāb fort.
Qasr Sa'di, fort on the river.


102
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Khubbāz, joins the river. The water is bitter, as is another
small stream 10 min. ride farther on, at which animals will
not drink.
Qasr Beit Aiyub, fort on river. Its position on a pro- !
montory would appear to command the reach below to the
top of Filuwi Island.
91
Imām Sheikh Sa'di, Moslem shrine.
Munākhireh Qasr, fort.
Beit Sa'ādeh, village.
El-Qasr, fort.
Jerīfeh Island, 12 m. long and very narrow, near r.!
bank.
El-'Aliyeh, small village. Opposite here are bad rapids
between two naurs, with a rock in the middle.
28
311
321
Gharrāf or Elkaraf Island.
Baghdadiyeh village, standing a little back from the
river.
At Baghdādiyeh Fahd Bey of the Amarāt owns some pro-
perty and has planted a palm garden.
Nawās Islands, very small, near r. bank. In Jan.-Feb.
1903 the speed of the stream, which had been about 2 m.p.h.,
increased to 4 m.p.h.
33ž
34
Khān Baghdādiyeh. A khan was being built here in
1908. There is no village, the inhabitants dwelling in caves
in the precipitous sides (200 ft.) of a gorge which runs back
into the plateau. This cave-dwelling is a marked feature in
the gorges of the bluffs from here up to Hadiseh ; no houses
are seen on the bluffs.
401
Jibbeh fort. Zaptieh post near the river, E. of road. See
p. 17 on route to Damascus
Jibbeh Island, with large village near S. end. Ferry.
From here up to Hadiseh a few palm gardens are passed.
Past the island the channel went to the r, in 1903.
413








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IVF
103
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Jebel Hajar ed-Dibs, about 2 m. from bank.
Jebel Hajar ed-Dowāliyeh, about 31 m. E. of bank.
Qasr Madrūk, fort.
Jebel Ja'āl, ~2 m. NE. from river.
Abu Ghānim, a small island near 1. bank.
Jebel Murjifeh, a broad promontory of the desert plateau
round which the river winds.
Qasr Māliyeh, fort.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past Gharraf Island.
Qasr et-Tā'im, fort.
22
Madaniyeh, village.
Imām Ibn Hasan, Moslem shrine.


104
RIVER ROUTES
Total
distance
Miles
452
Right Bank
---- --- - - ----- -
Just above island are remains of a ruined bridge, where the
current is rapid and the only passage is on the extreme r.!
near right-hand pier,
Mouth of Wādi Haurān. This is usually dry, but has
violent floods. There is grazing along it in spring. See p. 17.
Qal'ah Suwan fort is just above the mouth.
Manqar Island, near r. bank. Channel in 1903 kept to r.
bank.
Rock and ruin in mid-stream.
About here is a ruin of a bridge-pier in mid-stream ; above
this is a bad rapid caused by a naur. For 2 m. above this
naur the current is slow (Jan.-Feb. 1903).
Qasr Dowāliyeh, fort. Channel in 1903 hereabouts
passed to l. bank. (See opposite.)
46
463
47
482
Dowāliyeh Island, small, near r. bank.
561
581
Alūs or Eluz, island and large village. The island lies at
a bend of the river.
'Abbāsiyeh Island; smaller islands above it. (There are
some 16 islands in all marked on the map between Alūs and
Hadiseh.)
Haji Island, near r. bank. The passage between the
island and the r. bank is blocked to navigation by a ledge of
rock.
Fātihat Khidhr Ilyās, ledge of rock, 400 yds. above Haji
I. This ledge runs obliquely from N. to S. across the whole
bed of the river, making navigation on this stretch very
difficult. In order to deepen the water on the r, side of the
river, the Turkish Government built a rectangular dam which
runs out from the 1. bank just above the ledge. In 1903 above
Haji I. the channel left the l. bank and bent towards mid-
stream, passing over the ledge close to the extremity of the
dam. The channel then turned to l. bank and kept at a
distance of 10 to 20 yds. from the shore as far as the upper
end of the artificial channel near the bottom of Hadiseh I. !
In 1870 the Turkish Government constructed the channel
referred to here and at m. 487, to assist the navigation of the








THE EUPHRATES- ROUTE IVF
105
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Loft Bank
-
Miles
WIN
Hereabouts is the lower end of an artificially excavated
navigation channel, extending up to Hadiseh, on 1. bank,
with a current of 7 m.p.h. (Jan.-Feb. 1903). (See Fatihat
Khidhr Ilyās, m. 583, below.)
Sheikh Hasan Island.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past Haji I., and then
passed to mid-stream. See under Fatihat Khidhr Ilyās,
opposite.
Channel in 1903 returned to l. bank. See opposite.


106
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
river by steamers for a distance of 12 m. Its upper end
is just below the island of Hadiseh, some 9 miles above
Alūs. The current at the ledge of Fātihat Khidhr Ilyās
races down at 12 m.p.h. with a fall of 1 ft. in 4 yds.
(Jan.-Feb. 1903). Consequently powerful boats would be
required to do the up-stream journey. Towing would seem
to be hardly possible, inasmuch as the river at the ledge is 500
yds. broad, and the channel there is in mid-stream. The
ledge, when the water is high, is not so great an obstacle, but
at all times it is dangerous, and is so considered by the boat-
men, who vow a sheep to the prophet Elias if a safe descent
is made.
Between Fatihat Khidhr Ilyās and Hadiseh the current is
about 7 m.p.h. : the dams of the naurs are troublesome to
navigation.
The small islands between Haji and Hadiseh are inhabited.
Small islands.
Mouth of Wādi Fadiyeh.
Abu Sa'id Island, one of the many small islands in this
stretch.
Wādi Hajlān, with sulphurous springs near the mouth.
Jāfidi village.
Beni Dāghir village. Island immediately above.
591
60
61
62
622
631
65
Ali 'Awis village, with palm-trees, an l an island close to
the bank in front of it.
Hadīseh or Hadītheh Island and village. For navigation
see opposite.
Hadīseh Island is 1 m. long and 200 yds. broad. There
is a big village in the middle of it. The village has
a defensible wall washed by the river and stands on high
ground. Half-way up the island are the ruined piers of
a bridge, very difficult to pass, with one narrow channel
close under a flour-mill (1903) on the E. shore of the island.
To the right of the bridge are two conspicuous saints' tombs
some way from the water. At the upper end of the island
is a ruined castle. There are magnificent date-groves in the
vicinity.
The people spin wool and cotton and weave cloth.
A flood in 1888 destroyed the barracks, and a farm-house








THE EUPHRATES—ROUTE IVF
107
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
mediate
Left Bank
1
Haddādiyeh village.
Reimid village.
Maber adyān village.
IN
Abu Sa'id, ruined fort.
Murejjelān village.
Berwān village and island.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past Hadiseh I. At S.
end of island is a difficult ledge of rock, having a narrow
passage close under E. side of island.
Ruins of bridge : channel under shore of island. See
opposite.


108
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
was being used for the purpose in 1889. This was a good
specimen of the farm-houses which occur isolated or in
groups on the river between Hadiseh and Hit. A high!
wall of small stones set in mud surrounds the court, on three
sides of which are buildings of the same material. These
farm-houses look like forts, especially as they often have
a small round watch-tower attached for watching the water-
wheels. They are in fact intended for defence against the
Bedouin Arabs. The present zaptieh post is on the r. bank
of the river.
There is also a modern village on the r. bank (mainland)
with orchards. High rocky hills flank the village, and con-
tain remarkable caves, apparently partly natural and partly
artificial, which serve as dwellings for the poorer of the
population. There are good and easily worked quarries :
owing to the stratification, the stone comes out in large,
almost squared, blocks.
Inland from the river, and separated from it by a high
ridge, are ruins of a large ancient town, and nearer the
river, and visible from it, are a number of small mazārs
with pointed dome-like roofs. There is grazing in the wadis
S. of Hadiseh in spring
In 1889 there were only six boats by which communication
was kept up between the main portion of the village on the
island and the smaller portion on the mainland.
The area between the river and the bluffs varies from 2001
to 600 ft., and is all cultivated.
Sheikh Hadīd, Moslem shrine.
681
69
Bārij Rapid. A difficult ledge, with only one narrow
passage in mid-stream. The channel bank kept to l. in 1903
past Bārij Island. This island is placed in a description of
1903 either opposite the ledge or below it, but the map puts
it 1 m. above the ledge and shows it as į m. long and very
narrow and close to the bank.
Qasr Abu Khebūr, fort, close (?) above Bārij Rapid.
711
72
Joheiniyeh Island, small.
Mouth of Wādi Ausāyiyeh.
732








THE EUPHRATES—ROUTE IVF
109
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Sanāniyeh village.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past Bārij I.
21
oed
Qasr Zibdeh, fort on the river.
Zibdeh village. 4 m. E. of it is Jebel Bichinneh Hill.


RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
74
Beni Amām Island, small, near r. bank. For the next
*8 m. islands are numerous. For the next 17 m. the river
makes a great horseshoe bend N.
Khawājeh es-Sūseh Islands Channel in 1903 kept to
1. bank.
'Ūdi Island.
Umm Jediyeh Islands.
753
77
Tel Serbalij?
Deis (Deir) Island, near r. bank. Channel is said to keep
to r. bank.
Qasr Sarīfeh fort, opposite upper end of Deis Island.
Habīb en-Najjār I. There appear to be two islands here.
Kerneh Island, nearly in mid-stream.
Here is Muhāreh Island, with a very difficult rapid, the
only safe channel in 1903 being a very narrow one with a
considerable fall along the l. bank and close under a naur.
Muhāreh village is on the island.
Jerreh or Kūru Island in mid-stream, with a fortified
house on it.
987
Askar Island and village (Chesney appears to have 1021
erroneously shown an island about 10 m. below this point
as 'Askar Island, and this mistake has been repeated in
Kiepert's map). Channel in 1903 followed l. bank past








THE EUPHRATES--ROUTE IVF
111
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
There is some doubt about the position of this village (see
under Zibdeh Islands below).
Beni Amām village.
Zibdeh Islands, extending nearly 2 m.
There is no clear agreement about the actual position of
these islands, but the channel was reported in 1903 to be to
the E. of them. Report of 1903 says :-
'About 2 m. below Deis (see m. 82) are the islands and
village of Zibdeh, the position of which seems to have been
erroneously shown by Chesney as about 7 m, farther down
the stream. The islands now known as Zibdeh appear to
have been shown by him as Tafahah and Nāsirīyeh. The
channel goes to l. (i. e. by 1. bank).'
Nāsirīyeh Island, small, near bank (?).
2
Jebel Kuleibeh lies 12 m. NE. and Jebel Habīb en-
Najjār 73 m. W.
52 | Wūdiyeh Island. Jowāniyeh village on 1. bank, about
half-way up Wūdiyeh I.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank.
Zāwiyeh village and fort.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank.


112
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
'Askar Island. From ‘Askar Island up to Habbein Gharbi
(m. 1082) the current runs about 4 m.p.h.
Khān Feheimeh (Fahami) village and guard-house. The 103
zaptieh post is an enclosure with sides 100 ft. long, overlooking
river from the high sloping bank. Good grazing all round.
Island opposite, covered with bushes. The village is on the
river bank with the road immediately behind. In front of or
near the barracks is a wadi. At its junction with the river
is a swamp difficult to cross, where animals may get badly
bogged.
The Zawīyeh Arabs are seen about here. They had (1907)
a fortified house on an island i m. below Feheimeh.
Jebel el-Khiyām, at some distance to W.
Sariyāfi or Bozār Island and village, near the bank. 1041
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank. Just above the island are
the Bajān rocks in mid-stream.
105
El-Waladiyeh Island.
1071
104
Here are rocks showing up in mid-stream. From here up 1087
to Tablis I. current is 2 m.p. h. (Jan.-Feb. 1903), except
at a few naurs. Navigation is said to present no difficulties.
1092
Tablīs Island, almost uninhabited and with ruined fortifi- 110
cations still visible, is near r. bank.
Bishkireh or El-Bauni Rapids. Navigation difficult, but 111
there is an artificially deepened channel 40 yards from r.
bank. From here to the ruins of Ardeshir bridge, just below
Anah, the current runs 57 m.p.h. and navigation is difficult.
Wādi Jedīdeh joins river.
1121
Jumeileh village in palm-trees, between river and road. 116
Qasr 'Abdallah fort stands 1 m. back from river. The low 117
ground between the river and the desert plateau grows nar-
rower as Anah is approached, and is not more than 200 yards
wide on the Syrian side and less on Mesopotamian side.
ānah. The town extends for several miles along the
river bank.
Ardeshīr (or Lubbad) Island, small, in mid-stream. On! 1181








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IVF
113
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Muadrid village.
Channel followed I. bank in 1903.
Feheimeh village.
Qasr Ābnādādiyeh, fort, immediately above upper end of
island.
Habbein Gharbi (Sheibighah) village.
Habbein village. Wädi Sūr joins river just above the
village.
Ruins of Old Ānah or Anātho.
NO
Qasr Hubūliyeh, fort.
MES. III


114
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bavk
Total
distance
Miles
it are a ruined castle and an early Islamic minaret 10 stories
high, and also 30 houses. The island was connected with
both banks by bridges, which are now ruined. Their piers,
especially on the l., are an obstacle to navigation. The
channel follows r. bank. Fishing-nets are let down between
the piers.
From m. below Kerableh Island (see Route IV G, m. 2)
the current runs 7 m.p.h. the whole length of the town.
The channel going up-stream passes between the piers of
Ardeshir bridge near r. bank. It then curves to the l. and
keeps the chain of islands between it and the town. From
the island of Ardeshīr up to the head of Kerableh Island
is an artificial channel constructed for the Turkish steamers
in 1870, one of which was afterwards wrecked close to
Ardeshir bridge.
Middle of Ānah town. For navigation past the upper end 1191
of Anah town see Route IV G.
ROUTE IV G
ANAH-DEIR EZ-ZOR (192 m.)
0
The distances which follow are taken from the middle of
Ānah, but the town straggles along the bank, above this
point, for 14 m. or more. Rawā is opposite the upper end
of Anah.
Wādi Rawā, a deep gorge, joins the river.
1
Bahaleh Rapids, passing Kerableh I. Here the navigation
is extremely difficult. Chesney says that the ledge of
Kerableh was considered the greatest difficulty for boats
throughout the navigation of the Euphrates from Birijik to
Basra, and this statement is supported by observation in
1903. Below the island is the upper end of the artificially


----
-
--
-
-
--
-





THE EUPHRATES—ROUTES IV F, IV G
115
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
An artificially deepened channel extends from below the
island of Ardeshir to below Kerableh Island (see Route IV G,
m. 2, below).
0
For points along and near this bank, compare Route 47.
1
Rawā. On high ground above the river is Qasr el-Kureim,
a large square barracks built about 40 years ago. Fruit
gardens and date-groves for some distance; then the
country becomes barren and is destitute of villages, though
there are occasional patches of cultivation irrigated by naurs.
Kerableh Island. Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank. For
details see opposite.
2


116
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
excavated navigation channel, which has its lower end at
Ardeshir (see Route IV F, m. 1181). At the lower end of
Kerableh I. are the Sikr Sultan rocks, a ledge which entirely
blocks the r. branch of the river. The channel in 1903 passed
between 1. bank and island, about 20 yds, from the island.
The current ran past Kerableh I. at 7 m.p.h. in Jan.-Feb.
1903. At a point about 30 yds. above the level of the island
is another straight ledge of rock stretching across the whole
river, forming a waterfall on the r. and the very swift
Bahaleh rapids on the l. At the head of the island the river
is contracted to 200 yds, in width, and then broadens to
300 yds.
The navigation of this stretch could be made much easier
by removing the rocky obstructions with dynamite.
Imām Meshhed tomb and ruins.
Alco
Dangerous rapids caused by dam of ruined naur.
The stream, which has been from 250 to 300 yds. wide,
now narrows considerably. From here to Mathadiyeh rock,
(see m. 593), the river is about 150 yds. wide and the
current, except at naurs, is 2 m.p.h. The average depth is
9 ft. during winter months when the river is low (except at
naurs).
Rapid ?
Kūheh Island.
Sherwein Island.
Tazāli I. Opposite or above it is a bad rapid, with
a water-wheel on the r. bank. The upper end of the rapid
is described as being 4 m. below Nāhiyeh. Channel in
1903 went near 1. bank. Three wrecked boats were seen
here in January 1903.
OO 19
13
Derīyeh Rapid ?
Nāhiyeh. Khan and police post, Island opposite it.
Channel in 1903 followed r. bank.
Cultivation now ceases, and from here up to Abu!


--
--
-
--





THE EUPHRATES—ROUTE IV G
117
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Channel follows 1. bank (see opposite).
Hājiyeh, huts and date-grove below a spur of higher
ground coming down to river.
En-Nutāreh Island.
En-Nutāreh. No village ; some corn-fields cultivated
from Rawā.
Serāseh Island.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank.
El-'Ajmīyeh, small cultivated tract, with naur.
og at


118
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Kemāl, about *60 m., the banks are almost uninhabited
and are either bare or covered with tamarisk.
Rather serious rapid (1903).
Jedīreh I. Channel follows l. bank.
Qāsim el-'Assā'iyeh (?).
Zāleh Island.
Za'ferāniyeh I. Channel in 1903 followed l. bank.
Hamānā rocks.
51
Qal'at Rāfideh, fort: a fine pile of ruins. Jurdan I.
(small) opposite it.
52
Mathadiyeh rock, in mid-stream. The naurs, numerous
below this point, were in 1903 not found above it.
591
64
Simānah rock, sunken ; channel followed r. bank in 1903. 641
El-Qa'im, police post. There is no village at this place,| 71
but a good khan had lately been built in 1907. It is the
residence of a Mudir. Near the river, and responsible for
the cultivated ground, are Kerableh Arabs. Farther back
from the river are the Jerā'if (Jeghaifeh) Arabs, who some-
times in drought cross the river to the Mesopotamian side
for the better pasturage there.
From El-Qā'im to Abu Kemāl (*17 m.) the channel is!








THE EUPHRATES—ROUTE IVG
119
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
av
Channel follows l. bank.
Shehādi I.
h
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank.
a
QG
Chedish Islands.
Large island at S. end of a loop in the river: channel by
1. bank (1903).
Qal'at Bū Āghā, fort.
Qal'at Būlāq or Retājeh, small square ruined fort of sun-
dried brick with round towers at the angles, on a precipitous
knoll which the river is undermining.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank.
do
Jabariyeh ruins, no settled habitation.
the Imām Sultān 'Abdallah tomb.
11 m. NW. is
have
Balijeh, cultivated ground on the l. bank, belonging to
the Jerā'if.
Nammāleh I. and two other islands extending in all 3 m.
around a sharp bend. Channel followed r. bank in 1903.
The district from this bend to Ardhi (12 m. farther on) is
known as the Qā'at ed-Dilaim (Dilaim Arabs), and is barren
save for thickets of tamarisk, though frequent traces of canals
show that it was once under cultivation.
Two ruined piers of a bridge in mid-stream.
The river-bed here changes from rock to gravel and mud,
and navigation becomes easier.
63


120
RIVER ROUTES
-
- -
-
- ----
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
150 yds. wide, the current 2 m.p.h., and the average depth
12 ft. (Jan. - Feb. 1903).
The hills now draw away from the river and do not
approach it again on this side till near Salāhiyeh (m. 127).
Jerāseh I., small. Qasr el-Qa'im, ruined tower.
Imām Sheikh Jābir tomb.
'Anqah ruirs, surrounded by mud-brick wall.
722
74
75
do
751
Rummāniyeh I., close to r. bank.
Abu Faraj I.
go
811
88
Abu Kemāl. Pop. about 500 ; 80 houses. Police post.
Residence of Kaimmakam. Ferry.
Abu Kemāl is a small modern village on high ground 1 m.
back from the river. The ground is low and marshy towards
the river ; farther W. it is fairly dry and even pebbly. It is
the chief town of a Kaza of the same name. There is a small
bazaar and fairly good khan. The village has been moved
since 1896 from its old site down by the water. The
old village was in danger of being destroyed, as the river was
cutting a new bed on the W. bank. The new village is 1 m.
from the old, and has broad streets at right angles, with stone
instead of mud buildings. To the SW. (a few miles off) are
three low peaks called Thelātheh, a landmark. Also to SE.
El-Qa'im is visible.
The Kaza of Abu Kemāl had in 1890 a population of
about 15,000, practically all Sunnis. Within the last few
years some Christians have come here chiefly from Deir ez-
Zor and Mosul. The place is regarded as the centre of the
country of the Ugeydat Arabs. The areas under cultivation
produced an annual yield of nearly 5,000 tons of maize,








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IVG
121
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
-
Miles
-- --- ---
El-Menāji I.
El-Manzil I.
Gharbeh I.
These three islands lie close to 1. bank.
Rabāt. Village on water's edge, lying in a plain. There
is some land under corn by the village.
Ardhi or Irzi, extensive area of ruined tombs with towers
on the top of a rocky bluff which bounds the plain of Rabāt,
and here comes close to the river. There are no traces of
houses.
The hills on this side recede from the river from this
point up, stretching in a rocky ridge N. and NNW. across
the desert towards the Khabūr R.
Island off left bank.
Large island. Channel in 1903 followed r. bank.
65
It was opposite Abu Kemāl that Chesney lost his steamer
the Tigris, in a violent local hurricane, on the afternoon of
May 31, 1836.


122
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
sesame, corn, and barley. The live stock consists mainly of
sheep.
From here up to Deir ez-Zor (about 70 m.) there is
almost continuous cultivation by water-lifts, but the culti-
vated strip scarcely reaches more than 4 m. from the river.
Mouth of Wādi Sawāb.
Island in mid-stream. There are stiff rapids at this point, 91
and the river was reported in 1903 to be divided here into
three channels (i.e. by the island already mentioned and
another which is perhaps formed only at low water). The
navigable channel then kept close to the r. bank.
The course of the river becomes extremely sinuous.
Tel Madquq, about 31 m. W. from river, near road, 60 ft. 967
high with graves on top.
1061
109
116
119
1261
Short, stiff rapid, the top of which was reported in 1903
as 18 miles below Salāhiyeh Khān.
Hereabouts the river was reported very shallow in Jan.-
Feb. 1903, with snags all over it; there were two country
boats seen wrecked here.
Island. Channel in 1903 followed r. bank.
A shallow (5 ft. of water in a narrow navigable channel)
1 m. below Salāhiyeh Khān was reported in Jan.-Feb. 1903.
Salāhiyeh Khān, police post below the cliffs, on road
and T.L., i m. from river. No supplies procurable. The
khan is said to be the worst on the road, dilapidated, and
used as a zaptieh post. Some cultivation worked by Arabs
living in tents.
Shallow (reported Jan.-Feb. 1903) with spits of sand
showing above water.
Qal'at Salāhiyeh (or Khân Kalasi), ruined fortified
town in strong position on plateau, commanding many miles
127
129
130








THE EUPHRATES—ROUTE IV G
123
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Werdi, a village of reed and mud huts. Ferry to Abu
Kemāl.
Ground covered with tamarisk hereabouts ; ducks and
pigeons abundant.
The tribes hereabouts are the Bu Kemal (also on r. bank),
the Dilaim, and the Ugeydat, a base-born tribe. The Anazeh
come down to the r. bank in summer.
Tel Abu Hasan. A striking tel which rises 50 ft.
above river level. On summit are Arab graves of Jebūr
tribe, who have now migrated to the Tigris.
The country between here and the cultivation round Tel
l'Afriyeh (below) is arid, with little sand-hills held together


124
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
of the river up and down stream. The river flows close
beneath the hill.
The width of stream from Qal'at Salāhiyeh to Meyyādın is
about 200 yds., the current 4 m.p.h., and the average depth
8 ft. (1903).
Shiblik tombs, į m. from bank on high ground.
1331
136
140
On the bank ruins and mounds known as Qasr el-! 143
Ashareh, a fort.
Some miles to W. is Qal'ah Rahbeh, a well-preserved 149
and formerly very strong castle on an abrupt rocky knoll,
245 ft. above river level.
Meyyādīn. Pop. about 2,000 (450 houses). T. Chief 154
town of the Kaza of Achara and residence of a Kaimmakan.
The village stands on a mound of débris. It contains
from 400 to 500 houses, a bazaar and fair shops, and supplies
are procurable. There is a mosque with a leaning tower,
The inhabitants are mostly Sunnis, with a few Christians.
The Kaza of Achara, which comprises the country round
Meyyādin and the nahiye Buseireh, and stretches far across the
desert towards Palmyra, had in 1890 about 24,000 inhabitants
(all Sunnis). Excluding its nahiye Buseireh, it is estimated
to contain about 65,000 head of live stock, mostly sheep.
Maize, wheat, and barley are grown. Considerable quan-
tities of wool and butter are exported on muleback to Aleppo.
Some shallow rapids with a depth of only 4 ft..
Belum village.
158
Bogrus village.
159
Several small islands, breaking the river up into several
channels, lie in the stream between this point and the mouth
of the Khabür River.
155








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IV G
125
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
by tamarisk. It is liable to flood with a high river, and
there are overflow channels containing stagnant water.
311 From here to Bustān, *9 m., there is cultivation, with
| irrigation creeks and several small villages, Abu Hammām,
Abu Hardūb, Qaryat el-Bushama. The fields lie low and
are occasionally flooded. Clover and corn are grown, two
crops being secured, one before and one after the spring
floods.
Tel ‘Afriyeh.
Tel Hijānik.
Bustan village. Palm garden. From here to the
Khabūr R. is 6 hours' going for baggage animals across
a level plain with traces of former habitation, pottery, and
small village mounds.


126
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
From the mouth of the Khabūr up to the large island 1617
below Deir (see m. 1921) the width of the river is 300-250 yds.,
its current 32 m.p.h., and its average depth 6 ft.
Tel Zubari, mound.
1621
1721
180
Marreh village. The road is here "2 m. SW. of river
and 1 m. farther on crosses the Wādi el-Melha.
Wādi el-Melha.
Abu Hasan village.
Large island, the upper end of which is said to be about
5 m. below Deir. The channel in 1903 followed the l. bank.
1813
182
1821
184
Binieh village. Above this the river widens to 400 yds. | 187


-
-
-
---





THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IVG
127
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
Katneh on 1. bank of the Khabūr R. mouth (here 50 yds.
wide) at its confluence with the Euphrates. A ferry crosses
to Buseireh. This was an inferior boat ferry in 1910,
which would not take loaded animals. Bricks were then
being gathered from Buseireh ruins with a view to building
a bridge.
Khabūr River, an important tributary, 80-100 ft. wide
above its mouth.
Buseireh, zaptieh post (15 men). Extensive ruins lie in
the angle between the Euphrates and the Khabūr. Here is
the ancient site of Circesium, a frontier station of the Roman
Empire, and a place of some importance in the Middle
Ages under the name Karkisiyeh. In the SW. corner of
the ruins is an Arab village, or fixed encampment, of about
800 persons. Together with the villages up the Khabûr it
forms a nahiye under the Kuza of Achara, with a population
of 6,000 Sunnis. In 1890 there were 18 villages or more,
with cultivation of maize, corn, barley, and sesame. The
live stock is mainly sheep (about 20,000 in 1890).
Bureihah villages.
Burairideh village.
Settlement and cultivation, apparently just above the
lower end of a dry channel which takes off from the present
1. bank about *15 m. farther up. It is a former bed of the
river lying to E., all dry save for occasional pools. Four
dry cross-channels run from the present l. bank to this old
bed. By the change in its course the river has left a stretch
of low alluvial ground, thinly populated, and irrigated in part
by wheels. On higher ground to the E. of the old channel
are occasional mounds, marking former villages.
El-Jedid, villages.
Former bed of river (see m. 1697, above) apparently takes
off about here.


128
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
192
Deir ez-Zor.
The river branches just below Deir, and the town lies
on the branch known as the Jafr Canal, said to be fordable,
though Chesney's steamers passed through this branch.
Immediately opposite the town is an island about 1 m. long
and in mid-stream. A bridge, passable for field guns, from
the r. bank to the island was completed some years ago.
According to recent information it had been extended from
the island to the l. bank by the autumn of 1914. (A Turkish
traveller stated in 1911 that the Government were preparing
to build a suspension bridge from the island to the l. bank,
as the current had here proved too strong for the pile bridge
which had been planned.)
There is a ferry from the island to the l. bank. Above this
island are two others. There are trees on all three islands,
and gardens on the uppermost.
ROUTE IV H
DEIR EZ-ZOR-MESKENEH (181 m.)
0
Deir ez-Zor. From here to m. 47 the river is generally
about 250 yds. broad. In January 1903 the average depth
was 5 ft., and the current about 27 m.p.h.
Bereliyeh village. El-Imashiyeh ford was here about
1840, but there seems to be no more recent authority for its
existence.
AC
A small stream joins the river.
Tel el-Khureiten. This hill, to the N. of which is a plateau
with low mounds, lies between the two branches of the
Baghdad-Aleppo road which bifurcates at Deir.
'Ain Abu Jum'a. This is a small bituminous spring
near the river.
Lubtar Island. Round this island the l. branch of the
river makes a bend NE. and then SW. The r. bank branch
14
141








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTES IV G, IV H
129
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
-
-----
---
----
--
-
-
----
-
-
Miles
For points along and near this bank, compare Route 47.
El-Huseiniyeh village.
of the
El-Maisheh (or El-Khair) village on an arm
Euphrates was reported here in 1880.
MES. III


130
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
is apparently much the shorter. There is no evidence as to
which is the better channel. Distances given below are
calculated by the r.-bank channel.
Tābūs, ruins and caves. Rising ground close to the river.
Tābūs is on a high bluff overlooking a naturally fertile
plain. On W. side it is protected by a deep cut in the rock.
Mutlim ford, mentioned in 1840.
Mouth of wadi. Here in 1908 the river bent E. for
11 m., then N. for 3 m., and then W. Across the promontory
formed by this bend water appears to flow at some seasons,
forming the island of Buweitir.
W
A
Tureif, with two small islands opposite (1908). A military | 39
post with a khan. No supplies ; grass in April plentiful.
also fuel. The banks of the river were found to be 25 ft.
sheer height in April 1907.
Island.
391
Island.
Tibni ruins and village. Trees along the bank. Above 431
is a large island.
Qal'ah fort opposite the upper end of the island mentioned
under Tibni above.
For about 67 m. above this point the river flows through 46
a range of hills, running from WSW. to ENE., called El-
Hammār, or (on the r. bank) El-Bishr. These hills (300–
500 ft. high) are of basalt overlying gypsum.
441
47
Halebiyeh, ruins of a Palmyrene fortress, with Tel
Kuleibeh Hama hill 21 m. W. of it.
Halebi Chelebi defile. The hills, 300 to 500 ft. high,
close in on the river-bank. The narrowest part of the defile
lies at its northern end above the Wādi el-Melih. Through
the gorge the river contracts to 70 yds. with a depth of 7 ft.,
and a current running at 4 m.p.h. in Jan.-Feb. 1903.
Half-way up the gorge a small island was reported in 1903 :








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IV H
131
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
23 ! El-Manqareh (zaptieh post), m. from the bank, with
Umm Rejeibeh (ruins) on rising ground a few hundred
yards to the N.
Tel Abu Mutshiyeh hill.
Zalubiyeh, a ruined Palmyrene fortress (third century A.D.).
It is in shape a triangle, with its base resting on the river,
while its sides climb the acclivity of a conical hill and
terminate at the summit in a small acropolis. It was
defended by walls flanked with strong towers, which, with
the public and private buildings, are constructed of fine
gypsum and are as clean-cut and as fresh as if they had
been recently built.
I 2


132
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
the navigable channel followed the l. bank. Several small
islands are shown in a map of 1908. At the top of the
gorge is a strong backwater, and a whirlpool which is said
to be dangerous when there is much water in the river.
53
54
56
Head of the defile. Above the Halebi Chelebi defile, for
a distance a little under 20 m. to El-Khās (see m. 72, below),
the current runs about 2 m.p.h., the river is 200 yds. broad,
and the average depth does not exceed 4 ft.
The river bifurcates round a large irregularly shaped
island which appears to be about 7 m. long and 3 m. broad
in the middle. There is no evidence to show which branch
is the better for navigation. Distances are here calculated
by the r.-bank branch.
Kasubi (Kosubi), a deserted mud village, with a fort notice.
able from the river.
Durra (a kind of millet) is grown on the surrounding
low land.
'Ain Tīn, a spring by the side of the road, which here
approaches the river.
Qasr Ma'dan lies between the river and the road. On
the other side of the road is Darb el-Wāwi (ruins). Above
this point the edge of the desert plateau recedes somewhat
from the river and leaves a zone of lower land 1-3 m. wide
between it and the r. bank,
A small tumulus; a ford to the top of the large island
mentioned at m. 54 above is marked here on W.0. map,
but it is uncertain on what authority. On the island
opposite the ford is a larger mound which one authority
calls Tel Khumeideh (but see m. 54 above under 1. bank).
Entrance to a dry arm of the river which passes Qishlāq
Ma'dan about 3 m. WSW. of this point.
59
591
61
611
661
Khamisīyeh ferry in Khamisiyeh district. About here
is the upper end of the dry arm mentioned above under
m. 611.








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IV H
133
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
į Mouth of Wādi el-Melih.
Qabr el-Abu Atiq, ruins of a town on a height, with
remains of a dam along the river in the valley below.
The hills recede from the river at right angles.
Khanaqah village.
Tel Khanaqah (also apparently called Tel Khumeideh)
near the river, is about ii m. up the l.-bank branch of
river past the island mentioned opposite.
sale
or
Tel Mutāb on the river bank. Rising ground 2-3 m.
to N.
El-Khān, ruins. About here live Afadle Arabs.
OH


134
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past several small islands.
71
Here are shallows and spits of gravel. Chesney's map
(1840) shows an old ford of Abu Chelabi’ in this neigh-
bourhood. Navigation is difficult : the channel kept to
r. bank.
In this neighbourhood there appear to be two islands,
Mughleh el-Kebir and Mughleh es-Saghir. It is not clear
where these islands lie or whether one of them should not
be identified with Abu Hamad I. mentioned below.
Abu Hamad Island, 4 m. long. The channel in 1903
kept to r. bank.
Zor Shammār. Here are shallows and spits of sand,
and the navigable channel is tortuous. The W.0. map
marks a ford here called El-Khatiseh, but it is uncertain
on what authority.
Zor Jibli.
Channel narrows to about 100 yds. Rapids for 400 yds.
Zor Norud.
Qishlāq Sabkhah. Police post and village. 25 houses,
pop. ? 150. T.O. Ferry.
Below the barracks is a watering-place, and there is
camping ground with good grazing. The barracks were
unoccupied in 1907. The village contains a fair-sized khan,
with 10 rooms, on the E. of the place, and 12 mean shops
on the street which runs past the khan. A Mudir has his
head-quarters here.
According to an authority who went down the river in
1903, from Sabkhah up to Mohammed Agha and Hamrā
Rapids (see m. 1063, below) there is no difficulty of navi-
gation, the river being 200 yds. wide, with an average
depth of 8 ft., and a current of 22 m.p.h. in January.
(Note.—An observer who passed Sabkhah travelling by land
in April 1907 says, “River here forms a right angle and
runs very swiftly in a rapid. I do not see how a vessel
could pass up-stream of this point.')
A mile or more W. of the fort are the Nukhaileh ruins,








THE EUPHRATES—ROUTE IV H
135
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
El-Khās district. Tamarisk-growth on the bank (1880).
Imām Abu Sa'īdeh (Moslem shrine and cemetery) close
to l. bank.
Jedīdeh village.
Jebel Munkhir esh-Sharqi, hill : 5 m. N.: a con-
spicuous landmark.


186
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
with a spring to NW. of them, both close to the road.
Tamarisk jungle on the banks above Sabkhah.
Siffin district (placed about here by Sarre and Herzfeld:
there is another Siffin above Raqqah : see m. 151), below).
Hamrā Rapid, in 1903 said to be short and violent, with
the channel keeping close to l. bank.
1041
1061
1071
Mohammed Agha Rapid, which in 1903 was reported to
be 300 yds. long, with current 7 m.p.h. ; at the bottom the
channel was close under 1. bank, and at the top 100 ft.
from it.
From Raqqah to Abu Qubā'i there is no rapid, but the
depth of water varies continually from 12 to 4 ft., so that
great care would be necessary for its navigation in low
water.
117
120
Abu Qubā'ī district, with tamarisk-growth, on an arm of
the river which is liable to flood. Here there is a very bad
stretch of rapids, which are the more dangerous owing to
the remains of a masonry bridge in the centre of the river.
It was reported in 1903 that above these rapids there was
no difficulty for about 9 miles.
Wādi Abu Qubā'ī flows in.
Lower end of El-Hammām Rapids; their upper end is
immediately below the islands near that place (see m. 1331).
In this stretch of river (nearly 31 miles) the navigable
channel winds among spits of gravel. In January 1903 it
was reported that the current was 6 m.p.h. and that there
1213
1301








THE EUPHRATES-ROUTE IV H
137
Inter-
mediate
distance
Left Bank
Miles
123
The first of the mouths of the Belikh delta.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past Hamrā and
Mohammed Agha Rapids. Near the Hamrā Rapid is the
second mouth of the Belikh stream. The banks of the
Belikh are very fertile and always green. Barley, maize,
durra, rice, hemp, and opium can be cultivated along it with
great success.
Another mouth of the Belikh.
Another mouth of the Belikh.
Another mouth of the Belikh.
Raqqah.
There is a ferry. A small island lies above it. The
river here is about 1 m. broad with a sloping beach on each
side, a rare occurrence on the Euphrates.
Hiraklia (ruins). A square fort (Greek or Parthian) with
round towers at the corners, built of blocks of white gypsum.
(See Route 47, m. 243.) There are traces of an old bridge
here.
14
Tel Bellani (ruins), raised on a high bank, conspicuous
owing to high tree-trunks set to mark an Arab cemetery.


138
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
was never less than 6 ft. of water, but that great care had
to be taken to keep within the channel. In the summer
many boats stick at this point, and in the month of Ramazan
1902 eleven pairs of boats were upset here.
Suriyeh ruins.
About here the navigable channel in 1903 was reported to 1331
go between two islands.
El-Hammām (zaptieh post and khan). From here to 134
Meskeneh the average width of the river was reported to
be about 250 yds. in January 1903, the current 3 m.p.h.,
and the depth 8 ft. Navigation over this stretch presents
no difficulties.
Tel el-Thedeyein (130 ft. high).
1361
Huneideh village.
1371
In 1903 an island was passed about 12 miles below Qal'ah 1391
Jābir, the channel following the 1. bank.
1511
Siffin ruins on a bluff of rock running down to the water's
edge. Tall brick tower (remains of a minaret). There are
caves in the limestone used as dwellings and sheep-folds.
Abu Hureireh, or Qaraqqol : zaptieh post built of mud, 159
and situated on a tel. Grazing by the river. Khan, poor ;
no supplies obtainable. T.L. over 1 m. to the S.
An island lies in front of the post. In 1903 the channel
followed the 1. bank.
In January 1903 no islands were observed on the river
between Abu Hureireh and the neighbourhood of Meskeneh.
There are probably islands or banks showing above water at
least in the low-river season. (See e. g. m. 167.)
From Abu Hureireh to Meskeneh and beyond to Birijik
the valley is cultivated. Tamarisk and liquorice jungle
gives way to wheat and barley, which grow without irriga-
tion. Valley floor extends from 1 to 3 m. on either side of
the river. There are scattered ruined villages at intervals
on both banks. At Abu Hureireh the gentle slope from the








THE EUPHRATES--ROUTE IVH
139
Inter-
mediate
distance
Miles
mediante
Left Bank
Co
10
Q
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past island.
12
Qal'ah Jābir, a fine ruined citadel on a rocky headland,
with a tall minaret, from which a large stretch of country
can be seen. A little to the W. is Ziyāret Sultan Selīm
or Suleiman Shah. 27 m. NW. is Neshā'ib, a hill with
Qasr el-'Abd tower, an ancient observatory and conspicuous
landmark, upon it. The plateau is a monotonous plain with
good pasture.
There is little or no cultivation on this side.
Channel in 1903 followed 1. bank past Abu Hureireh
Island.
71


140
RIVER ROUTES
Right Bank
Total
distance
Miles
167
1701
177
river to the desert gives place to a line of more abrupt
chalky cliffs, which continue to Meskeneh.
Dibsi, with Quseir ed-Dibsi ruins 1 m. S. by E. of it. The
hills are now close to the river. Islands are shown in the
river opposite Dibsi village and tower in a map made by
Sarre and Herzfeld in 1908.
Dibsi tower. The ruins are of brick. About here white
cliffs 200 to 300 ft. high come close to the river. They
recede about 1 m, above Dibsi tower.
Khafajeh village. Here the river bifurcates round a large
island extending to opposite Meskeneh. The channel in 1903
followed the l. bank. Behind the village at a distance of
under 3 m. are the large ruins of Bālis, the ancient Barba-
lissus, known now as Eski Meskeneh (Old Meskeneh). It
lies on a bluff with a conspicuous minaret and some Roman
remains.
Meskeneh. There is a ferry-boat here-the first above
Raqqah ; it takes horses. Meskeneh, Tel el-Ahmar, some
62 m. above, and Birijik, some 90 m. above, are the principal
passages across the river in this part.
Meskeneh is situated on rising ground. There is a khan
on rising ground apparently about 1į m. from the river,
with post and telegraph station just S. of it, the zaptieh
barracks lying to the N. There were about a dozen zaptiehs
here in 1908.
Water-supply is partly from one or two wells, but chief
supply from river.
Some scrub and camel dung available for fuel.
As many as 20,000 sheep have been counted in this
neighbourhood in January feeding in the valley.
Excellent pasturage was found in 1907 on the wide
meadows between the post and the river.
In 1915 there was a camp at Meskeneh for deported
Armenians, many of whom died here.
181








LAND ROUTES
THE TIGRIS VALLEY WITH REGION TO EAST
ROUTE 25 a
BAGHDAD—MOSUL (2921 m.)
Via SALÄHIYEH (KUFRI), KIRKUK, AND ERBIL.
Authorities :— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, 1904 (Report of 1903); Lorimer,
Report of a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan in April-May 1910; Route
Report of 1910; Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsbd. x, 1875-6 (Cernik's
journey of 1873); and other sources of information.
This was the usual route followed by troops before the present
war. With some slight repairs and with some bridging it could be
made easily passable for transport and field-guns throughout. It
leads for the most part through fairly populous, well-cultivated, and
well-watered country, and a number of considerable towns. The
chief difficulties are to be found in the numerous irrigation cuts
between Baghdad and Delli ‘Abbās (these are chiefly on the Western
Route, see (ii) below), in some of the wadis and large torrent-beds
crossed between Salāhiyeh and Kirkuk, and in the crossing of the
Great Zāb.
From Baghdad to Delli ‘Abbās there are two possible routes :
(i) an Eastern Route via Bāqūbeh, and (ii) a Western Route via
Jedeideh and Khān Nahrawān. The Eastern Route appears to be
the better.
(i) THE EASTERN ROUTE TO DELLI ‘ABBĀS
As far as Bāqūbeh this is a caravan road easy for wheeled vehicles
except in rain. Beyond Baqūbeh it was reported in 1910 to be fit
for guns, though only pack-animals were used on it: in this section
it was rough in places, where, however, it could be improved con-
siderably by a little pick and shovel work : the soil is sandy and
going would be heavy after rain.








LAND ROUTES-ROUTE 25 a
143
31
33
35
39
Miles from
Baghdad
Baghdad. For the road to Bāqabeh see Route 28 a,
m. 1–31.
Bāqābeh. From the W. end of the boat-bridge (see Route
28 a, m. 301) the track runs somewhat N. of NNW.
(340°), parallel with the river, towards some bluffs 2 m.
away.
Top of bluffs. It is stated that “here the road to Mosul
branches off NNW. This seems to be a track leading to
Route (ii). Track here followed to Delli ‘Abbās appar-
ently bears more towards N., but the direction is here
uncertain.
35 1 Small stream is crossed. Path turns sharp to E.
Path turns somewhat N. to NE. by N. (300).
Cross small stream. Pass palm-groves about 1 m. to W.
Line of sand-hills is crossed.
Cross small stream. Track turns sharp to about E. by N.
(809).
Khān Seyyid, on Diyaleh River. Water abundant from
river, grazing fair. Camping ground suitable for troops.
Track goes somewhat N. of NE. by N. (309), skirting the
Diyāleh.
Road passes through palm-grove, apparently leaving the
bank of the Diyāleh.
A palm-grove is passed on E.
Tapi hamlet, a few houses on the track. Track runs
hence between NE. and NE. by N. (40%).
Cross small stream.
Cross two small streams. Nuqtah on E., and a large white
mound from which a good view of the surrounding
country can be obtained. Road touches the Nahr
Khālis. Road starts from this point at about NE. (45).
Road again touches the Khālis.
Delli 'Abbās (see Route ii).
(ii) THE WESTERN ROUTE TO DELLI 'ABBĀS
Before the war, a good many irrigation cuts seem to have needed
bridging in order to allow wheeled transport to pass by this route to
Delli 'Abbās.
The estimates of the depth, &c., of water in the irrigation cuts
were made in January 1903.


144
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
Baghdad. The route leaves the town by the Bāb el.
Mo'adhdham and takes the l.-hand branch outside the
gate (a r.-hand branch leads to Bāqabeh).
| Pass cavalry barracks, skirt a large dyke. Cross several
irrigation canals, some 6 ft. deep and 10 ft. wide, with
small bridges of date trunks, about 3 ft. wide. These
bridges will generally carry a laden mule, but it is well
to examine before using them and test them first by
men on foot. Walled gardens on 1. for 2 m.; cultiva.
tion on both sides for 4 m. Near Moʻadhdham the
track is boggy for 1 m.
Country open and cultivated. All this region is liable to
be flooded in spring. Low mounds to r.
Pass Khān-i-Badran, in ruins, and for the next 2 m.
some irrigation channels with marshy ground extending
towards the river. Ruins of Bint Hasan to E.
Pass Qal'ah Tinai, in ruins.
Cross irrigation cuts and skirt an embankment to keep out
the floods of the Tigris, which is now visible to the W.
The embankment is about 20 ft. high, 12 ft. wide on top,
and 30 ft. wide at the base.
Jedeideh, 300 houses, in a grove of date gardens,
enclosed by a mud wall ; two khans. (The distance
given by the authority here followed is perhaps too
short. Jedeideh may be 20-21 m. from the Moʻadhdham
Gate.) The first khan reached on entering the village
is about 80 yds. square, with stabling for 200 horses,
having a well in the centre, with water 20 ft. below the
surface. The other khan, near the river, is 60 yds.
square, with stabling for 100 horses. To NE. are
numerous villages along the Nahr Khalis, and canal
from the Diyāleh. Small canals cross the road flowing
towards Hawesh.
Beyond the principal khan the track lies through walled
date gardens for a mile. Ground swampy in winter and
spring from 'irrigation. On leaving the village cross an
irrigation channel, 15 ft. deep and 30 ft. wide. Skirt
this for 1 m., then strike half-right over a marshy
plain.
Cross three parallel irrigation channels. A road goes
between two of these. Channels about 8 ft. deep and
12 ft. across, with the usual palm-trunk bridges.








ROUTE 25 a
145
Miles from
Baghdad
22
221
26
Dokheileh, among date gardens, between the walls of which
the road passes. Ground to r. very marshy for 2 m.
Skirt the Tigris a short way to l. The bank is heavily
dyked by an embankment, 15 ft. wide at top, 20 ft. high,
and 40 ft. at the base, revetted with brushwood. Con-
tinue along dykes, cross and skirt a canal. Low
tamarisk jungle fringes the river. Several small
villages are dotted over the plain to E., each with date
gardens. The Mamūdiyeh and Nahr Khalis canals
from the Diyāleh traverse the plain which stretches
eastward to the Diyaleh.
Leave the dykes, which here become lower, and trend
half-right over cultivated and rather boggy plain.
Pass Jeizāni Saghir, with a large grove of palm-trees.
Jeizāni Kebīr is 4 m. to E.
Cross some water-channels. There are several tracks across
a cultivated plain, low and boggy with a few water-
channels intersecting it.
Zedaideh, 300 houses, hidden in date-groves, with khan.
Khān Nahrawān. Route' turns NE. A short distance
beyond Nahrawān village is the bed of the old Nahrawan
Canal, 60 yds. wide, 10 ft. deep, in which excellent
grazing is to be found in spring. (Most of the maps
seem to make the distance up to this point about 40 m.,
but it is not known on what authority.)
29
361
Desert route to Tüz Khurmatli and Kirkuk diverges to N. leading
via Qarfeh (21 in. ?), the Band-i-Adheim on the 'Adheim
River (46 m.?) through the Hamrin Hills by the Demir Qāpū
defile, and thence by r. bank of 'Adheim River to Tüz Khurmatli
(73 m. ?), whence the main Baghdad-Mosul route is followed
to Kirkuk (see below, m. 1421). Supplies and water between
Nahrawān and Tüz Khurmatli are deficient, the country being
mainly desert. Qarfeh is a small village lying near some salt
pools. There appears to be no permanently inhabited place
between Qarfeh and Mufti Khān at the S. end of the Demir
Qāpū valley.
362
373
Route passes through cultivation, interspersed with thorn
bushes.
Cross an irrigation channel, 5 ft. wide by 4 ft. deep.
Cross another canal, 90 yds. wide by 15 ft. deep, partly
grass-grown, and with water-channel in the bed, 8 ft.
wide and 6 ft. deep, with steep sides.
MES, 111
K


146
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
Route runs parallel with general direction of Khālis
Canal, which lies some distance to r.
392 Abu Tamar, on the r. The soil is of soft crumbling clay,
which cuts up in wet weather. A little cultivation on
the r.
Cross irrigation-channel, 14 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep, trend.
ing NE. and SW., by a narrow palm-tree bridge, 2 ft.
wide.
Leave T.L. and turn half r., passing some cultivation on
the l.
Several irrigation channels on the r., 12 ft. wide and 7 ft.
deep.
Track again turns half r.
Reach the bank of the Khālis Canal, 50 ft. wide and 8 ft.
deep, with banks about 40 ft. high. A few water-lifts.
Some cultivation on the l. bank, very little on the r.
Cross several outlets of the canal, average depth 8 ft.,
and width about 15 ft.
51 Seraijik (?) on the r., after crossing several water-cuts.
The place lies among many date gardens, enclosed
by mud walls. These enclosed date gardens would often
form good defensive positions, especially against mus-
ketry. It contains about 100 houses.
From Seraijik tortuous route among walled gardens to
Duzdyari.
Duzdyari, 100 houses, date gardens. The Khālis Canal
here winds a great deal, and has a current of about
2 m.p.h., its general direction being SW.
Beyond Duzdyari r. bank of canal is followed ; several
water-cuts for the first 3 m., about 15 ft. wide and 10 ft.
deep. Small palm-tree bridges. Canal very tortuous,
and navigable for large boats. Water-cuts impassable
for wheeled traffic, one being at least 20 ft. deep and
16 ft. wide.
551 | Pass Abu Delef (?), a few Arab mud huts on the r. (this
place is called Abdul Latif in a report of the route made
in 1903); some Arab tents (1903) on the l.
57 Pass Abu Guveh (?), 50 mud huts on the r. (this place is
called Abu Gharra in a report of the route made in
1903). Water-cuts to l. of road, 6 ft. wide and 5 ft. deep,
occasionally overflow (as in 1903) and make ground
boggy.








ROUTE 25 a
147
Miles from
Baghdad
58
62
67
Pass Abur on the r., 60 houses with mud walls : much
cultivation irrigated by water-cuts to l. of road.
A few water-lifts along the Khalis Canal.
Imām Seyyid Mohammed. Canal and road bend to E.
Delli 'Abbās. A village on the Khalis Canal near the
Jebel Hamrin. 300 houses (1903) with some fruit
gardens. Zaptieh post and garrison of about 600 men.
In 1903 it was reported that there was here a brick
bridge with three arches over the canal in good repair,
carrying an 11-ft. roadway passable for guns. In 1910
the bridge was reported to be 45 ft. long with two arches,
one of stone, the other of wood. The Khālis Canal is
variously given as 60 yds. and 60 ft. broad. It is 8 ft.
deep. Telegraph in 1903 reported as not passing
through village.
Supplies plentiful for small caravans. Water abundant
for any number from Khālis ; good grazing and fuel.
200 horses and 100 donkeys obtainable in normal times.
Routes from Delli 'Abbās,
1. To Bāqūbeh and Baghdad by r. bank of the Diyāleh River.
See Route (i) above.
2. To Qarfeh (about 13 m. to WNW.). No details available. See
m. 36.
3. To Mansūriyeh (7 m.).
This route leaves Delli 'Abbās in an easterly direction, running
along the foot of the Jebel Hamrin and on the r. bank
of the Khālis Canal.
At m. 21, lake on the farther side of the Khālis Canal. The
Diyāleh flows through this lake, leaving it about 2 m. to
the S.
At m. 5 Mansüriyeh el-Jebel village on the slope of the
Hamrin Hills, Route bends ESE.
At m. 52 turn S., and cross the Khālis Canal about im. W.
of the place where it takes off from r. bank of Diyāleh.
At m. 6. cross upper end of lake, near the placo where the
Diyāleh River enters it from the NE.
At m. 7 Mansūriyeh ({ m. W. of this village is the head of
the Khorāsān Canal which flows in a SW. direction to
Bāqūbeh, watering the country on the SE. of the Diyāleh
River).
About 1 m. N. of Mansūriyeh the Diyāleh issues from a narrow
defile through the Hamrin range, which extends for about
*6 m. to the N. There is no frequented route through the
defile, the most southern part of which is described as quite
impassable for about 11 m. There appears to be a track
turning this part of the defile to the W.: but no information
with regard to its practicability is available. The central
K 2


148
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
portion of the defile is also very difficult, and is reported to
be probably quite impracticable when the Diyāleh is in flood.
At the N. end of the defile the course of the Diyāleh River, as
one goes up-stream, turns in a NE. direction, and at this
point it is joined by the Nabrīn Su, which flows from the
NNW. along the foot of the NE. side of the Hamrin Hills.
Qizil Ribat lies about 79 m. NNE. of Mansuriyeh beyond the
Hamrin range, on the ). bank of the Diyāleh River and on
the Baghdad-Khanikin road (see Route 28 a, m. 75). The
section of this route lying between Qizil Ribat and Shahraban
passes 2 or 3 m, to the E. of Mansūriyeh.
Mileage below calculated from Route (ii) to Delli 'Abbās.
The Mosul route takes a northerly direction from Delli
'Abbās over slightly undulating desert. To W. is a marshy
stream flowing to join the Khālis Canal near Delli ‘Abbās.
To E. the Jebel Hamrin appears about 4 m. distant.
The T. L. takes same general direction as the route, but
apparently runs some distance W. of the usual track.
The ground is boggy in places owing to a broken water-
cut.
୧୧
76
Cross dry nullah.
Cross line of small hillocks.
Enter a valley in red sandstone hills called Jebel Hamrīn,
which close in. Ascent gradual. The ground near the
road is very broken, conforming in this to the general
character of this side of the Hamrin Hills.
Sharp bend in valley.
Qishlaq Suhānīyeh, fortified police post in ruins in 1903.
(In 1910 there was a police post hereabouts, said to be
84 m. from Delli 'Abbās, containing 15 men: it had one
well.)
Small stream, slightly brackish but drinkable. Only a few
inches of water in January 1903. Ravine 20 yds. wide,
20 ft. deep, with a pebbly bottom. Boundary between
Baghdad and Mosul Vilayets runs in the neighbourhood.
An authority states that between this point and the highest
ridge about 5 m. distant lies a series of small parallel
crests rising to a height of 30-35 ft. above Suhānīyeh at
intervals of 175–250 yds. Another authority says that
the hillocks rise to not more than 200 ft. above the
track.
For the next 5 m. the route winds among the undulating
spurs of the Jebel Hamrin till the summit of the pass,








ROUTE 25 a
149
Miles from '
Baghdad,
81
83
600 ft. above the plain, is reached. The last 100 yds. of
the ascent are steep and pebbly. T.L. rejoins the route
near this point. (One account makes the ascent to
summit of the pass 6 m.)
Descent on N. side of Jebel Hamrin begins. This is much
easier than the ascent on the S. side, and the route pre-
sents no difficulty for guns. Good grazing ground in
spring ?) on this slope of the hills was reported in 1873.
Enter open cultivated plain, the valley (8 m. wide) of the
Nahrīn Su, which flows SE. to the Diyāleh. (One
account makes the descent from the pass 3 m. in length.)
Road boggy in wet weather.
Nahrīn Köprü: brick bridge across Nahrīn Su: five arches
in fair repair. Channel 60 yds. wide, but little water
(25 ft. wide) in January 1903. In the winter of 1909-
1910 water 50 ft. wide, 6 ft. deep. (One account places
this bridge 5 m. from summit of pass and 2 m. from foot
of hills.)
Two villages, both called Nahrīn, & m. from the bridge,
containing together 300 houses well built of mud.
Four or five villages of about 60 houses each higher up
valley.
The valley of the Nahrin is fertile in this region and fairly well
cultivated (the crops were chiefly millet in 1873), but has suffered
from Kurdish raids.. About 12 m. above the bridge the Kufri Su
enters it from the NE. Above the junction of the Kufri Su with
the Nahrīn Su the valley runs up NNW. between the rangee of
the Jebel Hamrīn and the Kufri Dāgh, and becomes bare of
cultivation for about 22 m., and for the most part uninhabited.
Though it becomes narrower it is still some miles broad : its floor
rises in a gradual slope from about 500 to about 750 ft. towards
its head: the Hamrin Hills on the l. rise to nearly 1,200 ft., and
the Kufri Dāgh on the r. to about 1,000 ft., at their highest points.
The valley is entered by a number of streams, which join the main
channel along the bottom of the valley, here called Chinchal
Dereh or Neft Dereh. The bed of this main channel is reported
as only occasionally containing water, but there is much naphtha
in it, as also in the hills to the N. In the upper part of the
valley (possibly 18-20 m. NNW. of the mouth of the Kufri Su)
appears to lie a large village of Biyāt Arabs. About 21 m. from
the Kufri Su junction (in the neighbourhood of another Biyāt
village) the valley leads by easy stages into a more populated
plain, covered with ruined villages and tombs, and bounded on
the NE. by a line of hills (Neft Dāgh) at the foot of which runs
the Baghdad-Mosul road (17 m. from Kufri, 81 m. from Tūz
Khurmatli).


150
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
91
95
952
Qara Tepeh is visible, lying about N. by E. from Nahrin
Köprü, but cannot be reached directly owing to swamps.
Route goes N. from the bridge.
Route bears easterly to-
Qara Tepeh, about 300 houses on the SW. slope of the
Kufri Dāgh. Seat of a Mudir and zaptieh post (100
men in 1910). Several gardens on the E. side of the
village. More Shiahs than Sunnis among the inhabi-
tants. One khan (100 x 50 yds.) in good repair (1903)
and stabling for 200 horses. The building is of solid
brick. Large well-built granary, in the shape of a khan,
to the r. Supplies plentiful for small caravans. Sheep
and goats obtainable. Good grazing and fuel. Abundant
water from wells.
Vineyards beyond Qara Tepeh.
Numerous streams in this neighbourhood, gravelly downs
with plenty of grazing between Qara Tepeh and Kufri.
Numerous flocks of sheep in winter and spring.
Track leaves Qara Tepeh, going about NNE. and ascending
rolling downs.
Cross an irrigation canal, 14 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep (January
1903). Broken brick bridge.
Direction about NE. by E. (60°).
Top of downs.
Track goes about N. by E.
Chemen Köprü : brick bridge of six arches in good repair
(January, 1903) over a stream flowing W. (Another
account, of 1910, gives five arches.) In January 1903
the water was 18 yds. wide, muddy and sluggish, flowing
among reeds. Country in neighbourhood of track between
this point and Kufri is well cultivated.
Cross a stream flowing SW. to join the Kufri Su. It has
little water except in spring. Remains of a brick bridge
with only two centre arches standing. The r. bank is
steep, the l. sloping. Banks would need to be repaired
for guns. After much rain a bridge would be necessary :
no materials locally available. The bed is 80 yds.
wide.
Cross some broken ground, with small ravines, on leaving
the stream. Then across a wide plain of soft sandy
loam, with much cultivation on both sides. Several
villages of about 50 houses each.
100
101
103
104








ROUTE 25 a
151
Miles from
Baghdad
107
108
109
110
115
117
Cross the shingly bed (300 yds. wide) of the Kufri Su
(or Chechepan). Little or no water except in flood.
Track turns E. (?) towards two large mounds, 1 m. away.
Track turns N. by E. again.
Teleshān on the other side of Kufri Su valley. Route
crosses some low hills ascending by easy gradients,
bearing due N. after 2-3 m.
Road reaches the crest and continues over nearly level
ground for about 11 m., when a gradual descent towards
Salāhiyeh begins.
Cultivated plain. Several villages. In this region ruin
field of Eski Kufri.
Salāhiyeh (Kufri). For coal in neighbourhood, see p. 371.
On leaving Kufri, for the first 8 m. the Mosul road runs
WNW. about å m. from the foot of a quartz ridge
(Jebel Dā'ud) to the l'. The height of the ridge is
variously estimated at 100-150 ft., and at 500 ft. On
the l. the ground falls gradually to the bottom of the
valley. To Tūz Khurmatli and for 5 m. beyond the
track is throughout commanded by long-range rifle-fire
from the Jebel Dā'ud. Troops and transport could
march farther away from the hills, but would find the
ground softer and would have to close in on the usual
track at the wadis mentioned under m. 125 and m. 135.
From Kufri to a point 8 m. beyond Tüz Khurmatli the
route lies through a grassy undulating country, with
several streams and nullahs which usually have gently
sloping sides (but see under m. 135). About 4-5 m.
to the S. lies the N. edge of the Kufri Dāgh, of which
this part seems to be known also by the name of Jebel
Koruk. The T.L. follows closely the 1. side of the
road. In spring there are numerous encampments of
Biyāt Arabs in this region.
Mouth of gorge in the ridge to the r. This contains the
shingly bed of the Koru Su (200 yds. wide), which on
leaving the hills takes a SE. direction. It usually con-
tains only a few pools of water. The l. bank is gently
sloping and low, the r. higher and steeper.
Village of 100 mud-walled houses 3 m. to the 1. (lower
down the course of the Koru Su ?). The line of hills on
the r. approaches to within 200 yds. of the road.
Beaten track, leading N. into the hills, crosses the road
125


152
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
-
-
in this neighbourhood. It seems possible that it follows
the valley of the Koru Su. It is said to lead in 5 hrs.
(? +15 m.) to a settlement near the Aq Su of 1,000
households of Dā'udiyeh Kurds, whose chief is Samim
Bey. These people are apparently warlike semi-nomads.
127 Gharreh Hill on r., with white patch. Hereabouts the
floor of the valley apparently slopes to the NW., and
there is little or no cultivation.
131 A branch track takes off to r., leading across hills to
Abu Sarkāl oil-springs, situated in a maze of rugged
ridges and valleys, through which it is difficult to find
one's way. There are about seven borings altogether,
situated on both sides of a small ravine. Near them
stands a small fighting-tower. The springs are said
to yield about ten donkey-loads of oil daily, and the
load sells for 2s. to 2s. 4d. at Tüz Khurmatli. The
principal pit is 15 ft. in diameter, and 25-30 ft.
deep. The oil is brought up in goat-skins by men
who clamber down for it. The springs are the
property of the Dā’irat es-Sanīyeh. In the neighbour-
hood are some rock dwellings cut in the face of the
cliffs, and near the springs is an open plain in the hills.
Here were in April 1910 two households of Na’aim
Seyyids, who had then been settled here for about
thirteen years.
From Abu Sarkāl a beaten track, made by the oil
caravans, leads to Tūz Khurmatli, a distance of about
6 m.
134 Some cultivation.
135 In this neighbourhood a wadi is crossed, at which
blasting would be necessary to enable guns to pass.
1373 | In this neighbourhood the tracks from the valley of the
Neft Dereh join the road on the l. Head of the Neft
Dereh valley 2 or 3 m. to the S.
Khasradālah, village of Biyat Arabs (100 households),
2 m. to the l.
, 1411 Āq Su (white water) (Āv-i-Spi in Kurdish, Nahr Abyadh
in Arabic). This river here flows in a SW. direction
over a gravelly bed, 1 m. wide, usually containing
little or no water. Its banks are easy and about 15 ft.
high, the left being the higher. Usually the stream is
easily fordable, but it rises rapidly, and is dangerous








ROUTE 25 a
153
Miles from
Baghdad
when swollen with rain or melted snow, for there are
several holes in the bed. It may in a few hours become
a broad and impassable torrent, and then with equal
rapidity sink to fordable dimensions. Men and horses
are sometimes drowned in it. On the l. bank are three
water-channels, each 6 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep, with a
small brick bridge about 4 ft. wide over each. Smaller
water-cuts without bridges occur between the river and
Tūz Khurmatli.
The Āq Su has its head near Kitshan on the S. slope
of the Qara Dāgh, apparently about 47 m. ENE. of Tūz
Khurmatli, above which place its course lies through
low, broken hills, scored by ravines which open into its
valley. As it approaches Tüz Khurmatli it flows through
a gorge under the comparatively high Neft Dāgh on the
1. bank. Much of its water is used for purposes of irri.
gation in the neighbourhood of Tüz Khurmatli. Below
it turns SSW. and flows through a plain to join the
Adheim River about 11 m. away. Its junction with
the 'Adheim is near the edge of the Hamrin Hills, and at
the middle of the valley which the latter stream cuts
through that range. For the last 5 or 6 m. of its course
the Aq Su skirts the S. end of the great marshy area
flooded in spring by the 'Adheim and its tributaries.
Tüz Khurmatli (Salt and Dates'). Pop. ? 3,000 (about
600 houses). T.O.? The town lies at the mouth of
the defile between the Neft Dāgh and the 'Ali Dāgh,
which is traversed by the Aq Su. This defile, which
leads in the direction of Suleimāniyeh, was guarded by
an old fort, now apparently ruinous. The houses are
principally mud-built, with some of stone. There are
two khans in the centre of the bazaar. One khan has
an upper story for half its circumference; but there
are no doors, and for windows only holes in the wall.
Water scarce in l.-W.; one spring in hills : grazing
good. Fuel plentiful. The plain in the neighbourhood
seems to be fairly well cultivated. There is a local
industry of some importance in the refining of oil from
the adjacent hills. There are about twenty stills outside
the town (six working in 1910). Oil is sent to Salāhiyeh
(Kufri), Kirkuk, and Suleimāniyeh, and occasionally as
far as Mosul. A petroleum spring is marked on recent
1421


154
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
maps near the town on the l. bank of the Aq Su under
the Neft Dāgh. It seems possible that this is due to
a confusion with the Abu Sarkāl springs. From a
spring S. of the town salt is obtained by evaporation.
The working of the salt-pans is Government property.
In 1909, 400,000 kilos of salt were taken ; and the
selling rate was approximately equal to 7s. 7d. per 100
kilos.
The inhabitants are for the most part Turks, with some
twenty households of Jews. The place is the centre
of a nahiye under a Mudir, and there has been usually
a Turkish military post of about 200 men.
On leaving Tūz, the route takes a NW. direction (3200),
crosses two small nullahs, passes some gardens, and for
the first 21 m. runs through a little cultivation. The hills
to the r. are rather lower. The 'Adheim River, bordered
by a great belt of swamp which is flooded in spring, is
about 7-8 m. to SW., beyond which the Hamrīn Hills are
visible. The road is on the whole level and good going
as far as Dahuk.
Two villages on the plain are passed (1903).
Road here is rising. The hills to the r. converge towards
the road and die away ; but mounds continue near the
road for 3 m. farther.
Āi Bū Sabāh village (200 houses of Da'udiyeh Kurds)
2–3 m. SW. by W. of this point. A path crosses the
road leading from this village to the Dā'udiyeh settle-
ment to the E. near the Aq Su, mentioned under
m. 125.
Other villages are reported to be visible in the plain to
the W.
Road reaches highest point of the gradual slope which it
has been ascending for some miles.
Mound on r. of road.
Quru Chai, water-course running SW. from the hills on
the NE. to the ‘Adheim River, which it joins 9 m.
SSW. The Quru Chai is rarely a continuous stream,
but rain or melting snow may convert it into a torrent
presenting a serious obstacle at least for a few hours.
In general character it is similar to the Aq Su. It has
a pebbly bed 300 yds. wide, and there was a pool'l m.
up-stream from this point in January 1903, while there
1491
1501
151








ROUTE 25 a
155
Miles from
Baghdad
1513
156
1581
were several pools in the neighbourhood in April 1910.
The banks are quite low and the passage is easy.
A second arm of the Quru Chai, about 100 yds. wide, is
said to unite with the first at a point a little farther to
the W.
During the next 10 m. between the Quru Chai and
the Dahuk Chai a few water-courses, usually dry and
with easy banks, have to be crossed. There are now
some low hills to the r., beginning at a few miles dis-
tance, gradually closing to within 1 m, of the road, as
the Dahuk Chai is approached. The road first covers
slightly undulating ground and then ascends a long
gradual rise. Direction about NNW.
About this point a village of Da'udiyeh Kurds under Namūk
Agha lies WSW. 2–3 m. distant. It contains about 300
houses.
Top of the long rise.
In the hills to the E. are some settlements of Dāʻudiyeh
Kurds, one of which is Shoraweh (50 houses) about
1 m. from the top of the long rise above mentioned.
To the W. is a conspicuous mound, about 3 m. distant.
A group of trees, rather nearer and a little N. of W. ; at
this grove is said to be a village called Iftighār, 300
houses of Kurds under Namūk Agha (1910).
Ruined tower and house on mound. To l. of road small
canal 6 ft. wide bringing water from Dahuk Chai.
Dahuk Chai, in a shingle bed 800 yds. wide. There is
always some water in the Dahuk, and in winter and
spring the stream flows in several channels, the width of
which varies according to the season and weather: the
broadest was reported as 15 yds. wide in January 1903,
and as 40 yds. wide in April 1910. The current in
January 1903 was 6 m.p.h. The river is unfordable
when at its highest, as after rain, but sinks rapidly.
The r. bank is 20 ft. above the bed, and the l. about 10,
the r. being generally the steeper. For guns and trans-
port the descent to and ascent from the river-bed would
need improvement.
The Dahuk flows to join the 'Adheim, of which it is the
the largest affluent. It rises from the W. spurs of the
hills SW. of Suleimāniyeh.
It flows in a formidable torrent when in spate, and brings
161
1611


156
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
1624
down at times such a large and rapid volume of water
that it has made for itself below Dahuk village a bed
about 1 m. in breadth.
The Dahuk is the boundary between the territories of
the Dā'udiyeh Kurds in the SE. and the Talabānīyeh in
the NE. The latter are accounted Seyyids (of the blood
of the Prophet), and are turbulent and predatory.
Between the Dahuk Chai and Dahuk village are several
water-channels, some of which are as much as 20 ft.
deep and 20 ft. wide : all are crossed by palm-tree bridges,
but these are not more than 4 ft. wide.
Dahuk village. Just before entering the village there is
some high ground on the l. on which stands the minaret
of an old mosque which has disappeared : the tower is a
conspicuous landmark.
The village contains about 200 houses. Water from the
the Dahuk Chai is good and plentiful. Grazing good :
fuel poor. Inhabitants were reported in 1873 to be
Turkomans: in 1905 there were more Shiahs than
Sunnis among them. A canal from Dahuk Chai runs
through the village. The place is the seat of a Mudir,
with a zaptieh post. 11 m. NE. of Dahuk is the shrine
of Zain el-Abidin, with one large and three small white
domes and a few houses of Seyyids beside it. This shrine
is a conspicuous landmark.
From Dahuk a route, reported to be easy, leads over the low hills
in a NNE. direction to Leilan about 25 m, distant. From Leilan
there is a track over the grassy plateau of the Makanjeh Dāgh to
Chemchemal (about 24 m. NE. of Leilan). Here the high-road
from Kirkuk to Suleimāniyeh, which is accompanied by a T.L.,
is joined. See Route 37. The country between Dahuk and
Chemchemal is open, but contains numerous gravelly undulations
and ravines, and many small streams. Villages are few owing to
Kurdish raids.
For a shorter route from Dahuk to Kirkuk see m. 1643
below.
From Dahuk the route runs in a general direction NNW.
over rolling downs, accompanied by T.L. Track easy :
only slight repairs needed here and there for guns.
A considerable ridge is crossed. Villages 2-3 m. to SW.
of road, Tepeh (40 houses), Yangiyeh (60 houses) and
'Abd el-Ghanim (140 houses): all inhabited by Tala-
bānīyeh. Dahuk lies behind, S. by E.
164








ROUTE 25 a
157
Miles from
Baghdad
1643
A few water-cuts with narrow palm-tree bridges. Open
cultivated plain : hills 12 m. to right.
At a point some distance beyond this ridge a track branches
to r, in a general N. direction to Kirkuk, which by this
way is about 18 m. distant. The way by the main road,
which makes a détour to the W., is about 5 m. longer. The
following is a description of the shorter road to Kirkuk :
10
10
10
º
Coco
Hrs. Min.
0 0 Dabuk.
10 45
Cross the ridge mentioned above.
1 55 After passing on the 1. Matareh village (so called in
Kurdish: Arabic name Ma'amareh : 50-60 houses of Arab
Seyyids, see m. 1681) this shorter route to Kirkuk crosses
a small shingly stream and enters low hills.
An eminence is reached, from which Matareh bears a very
little S. of SSE.
Another eminence, from which Dahuk lies a very little to
the S. of SSE.
In the hills to the l., and not far off, is the village of
Shirinjeh Balaq, consisting of 50 houses of Talabānīyeh.
Descent from the hills begins, and Kirkuk is seen lying
about due N.
Zandaneh village (70 houses of Arabs and Kurds) is seen
to NW. of W. at 11-2 m, distance.
The road emerges from the low hills.
Small clear stream called Qara'All Chai(Khór Chai), running
in a deep ravine, is reached. The descent from the water
to the s. bank is steep. There is a mill near the crossing
(1910). On ascending the farther bank the village of
Qara 'Ali appears to the NE.
3 50 Pass Qara 'Ali village (100 houses of mixed tribes), about
300 yards to the r. of the road.
Tarjil village (200 houses of mixed Kurds) is visible 4 m.
away, ENE. To the r. Qara Hasan Hills, extending
N. to E.
4 18 | A small water-course (dry, April 1910) is reached, and in
another 2 mins. on the l. side of the road is the Turkoman
village of Tokmakli (about 60 houses).
A shingly bed 70 yds. wide (Chai Tokmakli) is crossed.
To the WNW. at 1-11 m. are three villages called col-
lectively Sari Tepeh (200 houses of mixed Kurds).
4 40 A covered-in well, Sabīì Khaneh, on the road. Rijeibat,
an Arab village of 50 houses, lies about 2 m. off ENE.
Kirkuk is due N. Cultivation near road into Kirkuk.
7 15 . Kirkuk is reached, standing up boldly as one approaches.
5
1652
Tel Mustafa village and others at some distance in plain
to l.


158
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
1681 Matareh village, to the r. of the road 4 m. off at the foot
of a low line of hills.
171 The Setal Dereh is crossed : a ravine 10 ft. wide and 5 ft.
deep. Transverse track to villages on r. and 1. about
4 m. off.
1712 Nullah 100 yds. wide, of shingle: banks cut up by small
ravines.
1731 Nullah (Matareh Dereh?) : 100 yds wide: dry in
January 1903. Villages to the l. on the plain.
Cross numerous stream-beds, usually dry.
176 Qara 'Ali, or Khor, Chai: 12 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep (January
1903), in a pebbly bed 60 yds. broad. This water-
course comes from the direction of Leilan (ENE., see
alternative route under m. 164?), and near this point
turns S. to join the 'Adheim River (6-8 m. away) at the N.
end of the Hamrīn 'Adheim marshes. The valley of the
Qara 'Ali Chai above this point apparently contains
a practicable route.
Taza Khurmatli on the r. bank of the Qara 'Ali Chai, near
a high mound about 100 ft. high. The place contains
about 100 houses. Good water and camping-ground.
The country round is marked by a number of tumuli.
The 'Adheim River, which from the N. end of the marshy
belt above mentioned is known under the name of the
Hasa Su, flows in a S. direction about 1 m. W. of the
village. There are some villages to the SW. of Taza
Khurmatli between the Hasa Su and the Qara 'Ali
Chai.
From Taza Khurmatli the road runs in a general NNE.
to NE. direction.
Hills at first lie close to road on the r.; then after { m.
through walled gardens and over water-cuts, some low
hills are crossed. The country is open but rather stony.
179 Cross the Hasa Su (almost dry in January 1903), in a bed
300 yds. wide of shingle and sand.
The Hasa Su (upper course of 'Adheim River) is formed
by a number of torrents in the hills NW. of Chemchemal,
and runs in a great curve to the W. to Kirkuk, whence
it takes a S. by W. direction till it becomes known as
the ‘Adheim River below its junction with the Qara 'Ali
(see m. 176).
| At this point the river leaves the last of its defiles (2 or








ROUTE 25 a
159
Miles from
Baghdad
1793
181
1837
1874
3 m. broad) and enters the plain. It has little or no
water, except after rain or the melting of the snow.
Chardakli village in plain to W.
Mound on the r. bank of river, 200 ft. high, with a
guardhouse on the top.
Pass some cultivation and skirt the river-bed. To the r.
the valley of the Hasa Su opens out into the broad valley
of Leilan. The village of Leilan is 15 m. to the E.
To the l. is the low ridge of the Chardakli Dāgh.
Slight descent towards Kirkuk begins. The r. bank of the
Hasa Su is still followed. The country is undulating,
the track easy, and on both sides of the road there is
cultivation. T.L. to the l.
The bed of the Hasa Su is here å m. to l. When dry it
may be used as an approach to Kirkuk.
Kirkuk.
Between Kirkuk and Altun Köprü (*25 m. NNW.) is
a range of hills of moderate height, variously marked as
Jebel Gurgur or Shamaskin Dāgh, which run from
WNW. to ESE. The E. end of this range is known as
Bābā Gurgur. To the S. of this eastern end are a number
of low ridges divided by gravelly ravines, which lie to
NW., W., and S. of Kirkuk. The watershed between the
Hasa Su and the Lesser Zāb lies among these ridges
about 10 m. from Kirkuk. On the NE. side of the
Jebel Gurgur is a valley between these hills and the
Shuan Dāgh. At the lower end of this valley is Altun
Köprü town, and it is drained by a stream-bed called
by some authorities the Mayar Dereh (see m. 2087 below),
which joins the Zāb about 2 m. below Altun Köprü.
A traveller who crossed this stretch of country in 1909
says that there are three roads between Kirkuk and
Altun Köprü. The safest, though not the shortest, was
that which kept to the W. to avoid raiding parties of
Hamawands, via Tepeh Köi and a ruined khan before
crossing the hills. As far as can be gathered from
reports and recent maps there are several possible
tracks both on the S. and N. sides of the Jebel
Gurgur. Besides the pass over the hills mentioned
under m. 1982, there is apparently another pass by
Shamaskin.
Leaving the Korieh suburb of Kirkuk on the r. bank


160
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
1923
193 (?)
of the Hasa Su, the road passes the large village of
Shatarli (200 houses, with leaning minaret), proceeds
through cultivation for 2 m. in a WNW. direction.
It then crosses low stony downs.
Bābā Gurgur Pass. This place, which lies a little to the
r. of the road, is a slight hollow in some high ground,
about 50 yds. by 20 yds., and there are some twenty
vents of natural gas in it. These are generally alight
unless artificially extinguished. If one of the vents be
stopped with earth, the gas usually escapes at some other
place near by, where it can be lighted with a match.
There is a strong smell of sulphur in the air.
A little farther on beyond the gas-vents in the same
direction from Kirkuk, but quite near the road, are four
to five oil-pits called Diär (wells). (These wells are
marked 67-7 miles from Kirkuk in a recent map of the
road, but they have been reached in 1 hr. 10 minutes
from Kirkuk, and are described as “just beyond’ Bābā
Gurgur). They are the property of Sālih Pasha, and
are said to yield eight donkey-loads (say thirty-two tins)
of crude oil daily. The pits are situated on a slight
hill, and are 12-15 ft. deep. The water is separated
from the oil at the wells, and the oil is afterwards
refined at Kirkuk. There is a sulphurous spring in the
hills, a little farther on than the oil-pits.
The road to Khān en-Neft, as described below, may
be somewhat NE. of the main road. Another track,
followed in 1903, passed the ruins of Khān Hangia
over broken country by a stony track which required
improvement for wheels.
The Bābā Gurgur sandstone hills are now entered (Qara-
chok mountain, with two peaks, lying WNW.) and the
top of the outer ridge followed for some distance.
After 23 min. ride, Bajiwan (30 Kurdish houses) lies 11 m.
SW. by S.; Bataweh (150 houses of Turkomans) 3 m.
SW.; Qumbatlar (120 houses of Turkomans) about
4 m. SW. by W.; and Choprījeh (100 houses of Turko-
mans) 21 m. W. The Jebel Makhul, on the other side
of the Tigris, can be seen to SSW. at a great distance.
Road continues along outermost ridge for 8 min.
Road bears N. by W., crossing the strata diagonally and
making for an inner ridge of hills.
1941
1942
í








ROUTE 25 a
161
Miles from
Baghdad
196
197
1983
The nearer peak of Qarachok lies W. by N. from about
this point.
The road runs now NNW.
Cross ravine containing water, and zuptieh post called
Khān en-Neft. Road runs in a general N. by W.
direction to the pass over the inner ridge.
Cross summit of the inner ridge of the Jebel Gurgur;
very steep and pebbly ascent and descent for 1 m. each
side were reported in 1903. The track is 12 ft. wide.
This is the watershed between the Hasa Su and the
Lesser Zāb. The plain of the Mayar Dereh can be over-
looked as far as the Lesser Zāls.
From the pass the following villages were observed in
1910:-Kalwur, NE. by N., Daraman el-'Aliyeh, ENE.,
Daraman es-Sifileh, E. by N. The road descends to
the plain in a general NNW. direction.
There appear to be a number of alternative tracks
from the pass to Altun Köprü. In the latest mar
made of the route (1912) the main road is shown as
running through Ki Bibaneh and Gök Tepeh, and crossing
the Mayar Dereh about 22 m. from Altun Köprü. It
does not exactly coincide with either of the routes
described below.
From the further side of Jebel Gurgur a track leads
NNE. to Köi Sanjag, crossing Lesser Zāb by a ford
(impassible in winter) at foot of range bounding the
Shuan country on W., and continuing over easy foothills,
below which water is found, to a pass from which Köi
Sanjag is visible.
ROUTE (i)
The following account is taken from a report of 1910:-
Descend from pass to plain. In 40 min. Kalwur lies due N.
Kalwur village, 1 m. to r.
From this point Bibaneh Zaghair (15 houses) is 1 m. N.
by E.
Bibaneh Zardak (20 houses) is about 3 m. NE. by N.
Bibaneh Kebīr (60 houses) is about 4 m. NE. by E.
The road runs NW. by N. T.L. now on l.
In 1 hr. 35 min. from Kalwur a point is reached from
which the prominent mound of Gök Tepeh is 4 m. to
N. Nebī Aweh (30 Kurdish houses) 1 m. W.S.W.
2001
2013
2021
207
MES, NII


162
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
208
2091
In the country through which the road now passes
are a number of villages inhabited by Sawālih (or
Salihi) Kurds. There are said to be about 30 villages
of this tribe in all.
The road crosses a small clear stream in a shingly bed
called by the Turks Injesūi and by the Kurds Galal (so
reported in 1910. This may be the stream marked on
maps as Mayar Dereh).
Road crosses two small canals spanned by small bridges.
Kitkeh village about 2 m. to SW.
Broad depression followed by a stony ascent.
Road crosses a small dry shingly ravine called Qara Chai
in Turkish and Wīshkakhan in Kurdish.
From this point the whole way to Altun Köprü is down-
hill.
Altun Köprü town.
2104
2113
2118
213
1997
201
2032
ROUTE (ii)
The following account of another track is taken from
a report of 1903 :
Foot of the hills. Open cultivated plain extending about
10 m. in all directions and up to Altun Köprü.
Five or six small villages in the plain to the r.
The road turns to the l. from the foot of the pass and
runs parallel to the hills at a distance of about 2 m.
Track level and good, through cultivation.
Small stream of good water to r. Small copse.
Pass small village on l. 1 m. off. Several villages to r.
2-3 m. off.
Karez with good drinking water on either side of the road.
Copse on r. T.L. parallel to the road on the l. (?).
Mound 100 ft. high to r. (This is possibly to be identified
with the mound called Gök Tepeh by a 1910 authority.)
Some copses about 1 m. from the road. Small village
2 m. off to l. Cultivation on both sides of the road.
Hills 4 m. to l.
Cross small stream. Copse on r. Country undulating.
Pass two streams on r. near road, the larger indicated by a
line of trees along its banks.
Over stony downs to Altun Köprü. T.L. 1,000 yds. to l.
| Altun Köprü (bridge).
204
206
208
209
211
215








ROUTE 25 a
163
Miles from
Baghdad
(Mileage continued from Route i, above.)
2141
215
The Baghdad-Mosul road leaves Altun Köprü in a NNW.
direction up the valley of the Injesūi, a tributary of the
Lesser Zāb. This valley contains corn-land, and is
enclosed on either side by low hills, which form a
semicircle to the front. Those l. of the road rise about
500 ft. above the road ; those to r. are lower.
Pass a copse (1903) on 1. of road. General character of
country to Qush Tepeh is open, fairly well cultivated,
undulating to hilly. Road is stony but easy.
Apparently in this neighbourhood the line of the semi-
circle of hills which close in on the river is reached.
Direct Mosul road avoiding Erbil turns I. (So Report
on Route, 1910: W.O. Map, following a description
of 1873, marks this route as diverging about 4 m.
farther on.) It is described as an easy route through
fairly well-populated country: water from wells and
streams. For Zāb ferry at Quweir see p. 69. .
The track to Makhmūr and Qalah Sherghat (see Route 27)
is marked on map as diverging to the l. about 11 m.
farther on : but further information on this point should
be obtained.
In this neighbourhood a bend of the Injesūi is apparently
crossed (28 mins. ride from Altun Köprü): another
bend is crossed 4 mins. later, and a third touched
3 mins. after the second. In April 1910 there were
only a few inches of water in the stream.
Apparently there is an alternative track over the downs
to r. not far from the river: it crosses the bed of the
Ilinjak Chai, a tributary of the Injesūi (20 ft. wide,
1 ft. deep in February 1903).
Direct Mosul road about m. 1. (?). Near it is the hamlet
of Makhsāmeh (12 Kurdish houses). Between the two
roads is a mill.
Open undulating country. T.L. (two wires) crosses from
1. to r. of the road.
Descent into hollow; bend of Injesūi is touched. (In this
neighbourhood is the Birinji Chai, a mountain torrent
entering the Injesūi on 1. bank. There were 90 yds. of
shingle and about 2 ft. of water in pools in February
1903.)
2162
2174
218
L 2


164
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
2184
2192
225
Ascend shingly slope, and strike into stony downs, keeping
NNW. from Altun Köprü. The valley and river-bed of
the Injesūi now disappear to l.
This is the country of the Dizeih Kurds. There are
villages to r. and 1. of the road. 1 m. W. by S. is
Sheikhān village (50 houses), apparently on or close to
the direct road to Mosul. Cherkuchan (20 Kurdish
houses) lies 11 m. to E. Erbil is said to lie N. by W.
of this point, out of sight.
T.L. recrosses from r. to l. of the road. Country open and
undulating, the track fair, rising to high featureless
downs. High ground is reached about å m. (10 mins.
ride) beyond the point where the T.L. recrosses the road :
no special features were seen from it.
Small stony hollow crosses the road from r. to l.
Second small stony hollow.
High ground from which Altun Köprü lies to S. by E.;
Bāsh Tepeh, whitish mounds, to SW. in valley ; Dolar
Sazeh, 40 houses of Dizeih Kurds, 1 m. SW. by S.;
Kasikhān, 20 houses of Dizeih Kurds, 4 m. SW. by W.,
on the other side of the Injesūi.
(From about here a shorter track to Erbil diverges to r.
from T.L. and main road. It passes Hamzakor, Kele.
basha, Mulka, and Qara Chinaga. It is about 18 m. to
Erbil by this way.)
Depression, 100 yds. across. Qūl Tepeh village, 25 houses
of Dizeih Kurds, 1 m. WSW.; Hamzakör village, 15
houses of Dizeih Kurds, 11 m. E. by N.
Qül Tepeh mound, 60 ft. high (in April 1910 covered with
barley).
Qūsh Tepeh mound (at some distance to l. of main road),
from which about a dozen Dizeih villages are visible
within a radius of 6 m. The most important are Qush
Tepeh village (100 houses, 11 m. W. by S.), Girdamala
(60 houses, 1 m. to E.), and Mirghuzar (70 houses, 5 m.
WNW.). At Qush Tepeh good and plentiful water can
be obtained from two karez. Other villages and black-
tent settlements in the distance. At a village about 10 m.
WSW. near the direct Mosul road lives Ahmed Pasha,
recognized by the Turkish Government as the official
head of the Dizeih. An influential Dizeih chief, Mahmud
Agha, lives at Girdamala (1910).
2272
2284
2303








ROUTE 25 a
165
.
Miles from
Baghdad
236
2372
2441
2451
Road runs N. by W., through a valley about 20 m. wide,
bounded by ranges of hills apparently running.NW. and
SE., across undulating stony country. Road easy though
stony in places.
Qarachan Agha Tepehchi (25 Dizeih houses). (Apparently
in the neighbourhood the branch line to Makhmūr leaves
T.L.)
| Small stream is crossed: and immediately afterwards a
little dry hollow. Near latter, to r. of road, Hamwarkeh
village.
In this neighbourhood small village on I. of road followed
by authority of 1903. It has square mud-walled enclosure
50 yds. square and 12 ft. high. km. farther small village
to r. with similar enclosure.
Cross a karez (25 ft. deep, 20 ft. wide, with 1 ft. of water)
by a brick bridge (1903). Route now runs over broken
ground.
Erbil.
The post-road between Erbil and Mosul runs through
a rolling plain, the undulations of which sometimes rise
to the height of downs. The country is treeless, and in
parts stony, but well cultivated. More especially, the
plain beyond the Zāb contains numerous villages. The
Great Zāb (see under m. 2622) is a serious obstacle at
any season, but especially in the spring floods. The
Ghāzir Su (see under m. 2692) would not be fordable in
spring.
From Erbil the road runs somewhat W. of NW. to the
neighbourhood of —
Girdashir (30 huts of Kurds). Good water from wells
25 ft. deep, drawn by rope and bucket. Thence the
track runs generally WSW, over an open plain with
some cultivation, but few villages in sight for 81 m. to
the Great Zāb. Some stony ravines draining towards
that river are crossed.
The Great Zāb, Eski Kelek (called now Hasan Agha) ferry.
The channel in October 1903 was 150 yds. wide, with
a fairly strong current and some 10 ft. deep at the ferry.
It is not usually fordable, though it is sufficiently low to
ford late in some years. The whole stream-bed (i m.
wide) is covered at the flood season. There are two
ferry-boats to hold six laden animals, but usually loads
2532
2621


166
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
are taken off and put in the boats and the animals swim.
There are 15 houses inhabited by Kurds who have to
work the ferry) and a khan on the l. bank. The r. bank
is open shingle, but the 1. is rather steep, with gravelly
cliffs in places. A short way down-stream the l. bank
is easier.
Girdaresh village is 4 m. up-stream on the l. bank,
and Baishir 3 m, up on the r. bank. (On the Great Zāb
see Tigris, Route III E, at m. 1503.)
An alternative track to the Zāb leaves Erbil in a W. by N. direction
and crosses the Demir Dāgh downs, while the post-road skirts
their northern side. (Details from report of 1903.)
This other way, after { m., crosses a nullah, the banks of which
afford complete cover from the Erbil citadel. It runs NE. by
SW. The country is undulating and cultivated. At +1 m. two
small enclosures are passed to the l., the first 15 yds, square with
a wall 12 ft. high, and the other 50 yds. square with a wall 12 ft.
high. Both have mud walls and watch-towers. Then a small
stream is crossed 10 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep. At +4 m. a small
village lies m. to the l., with mud-walled enclosure 50 yds.
square. At t5 m. the route begins to ascend over ground undu.
lating to hilly. At +7 m. the top of the downs is reached, and
at +8 m. their watershed is followed over ground full of holes.
The T.L. (two wires) crosses the road in this neighbourhood. At
+16 m. a village 1 m. to l. is passed. The road is stony over undu-
lating country. At +18 m. another small village lies to r. of
road, with a small well containing good water; thence over undu-
lating country gradually descending to river. At +20 m. the
final descent to the river leads down by a steep and stony track
winding along a pebbly ravine bed. A little farther on emerge
on cultivated plain. At +22 m. the Zāb is reached. The river
bed is here 800 yds. wide, of pebble and sand, but in flood ex-
tends to 1 m, in width. In February 1903 the stream was about
150 yds, wide with a current of about 4 m, an hour. Ferry-boat
was punt-shaped, and lightly built, 20 ft. long and 8 ft. wide,
There is a village on each bank. That on the l. is 11 m. distant
with 50 mud houses, and a walled enclosure on a mound which
commands the road as it descends from the high ground to the
river plain.
The road leaves the river and ascends some low gravelly
undulations. Tamarisk shrubs and a few trees in the
river-flat.
Manguvar village on the I. bank of the Ghāzir Su, which
in October 1903 was 60 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep. The
bed is 300 yds. wide, and consists of shingle and sand.
In spring there are freshets from 8 ft. deep with a great
rush of water. It has then to be crossed by raft. In
2631
2691








ROUTES 25 a, b
167
Miles from
Baghdad
2741
2784
winter and spring, even when the river is fordable, its
depth and current make the passage difficult. There are
some small villages down-stream.
Continue over open plain of good soil well cultivated.
The road passes close to the S. extremity of the hilly
country of the Maqlūb and Zardak ranges.
Pass Targulla, 11 m. to the N. of road. It lies at the S.
extremity of the Zardak Hills (or Jebel 'Ain es-Safrā).
Large spring in these hills.
Keremlis. Christian village of 120 well-built stone houses
near a mound. The main road passes close to it, but
there are several parallel tracks all equally good. Water
from stream and from wells. A few vegetable gardens
and an olive-grove. Birtulla is another large Christian
village, 4 m. to the NW. One track goes through it.
There is a track running along the 1. side of a stream-bed which
leads S, by W. to Nimrūd (+19 m., see Tigris, Route III E, m.
1591). From Nimrūd there is a track along the 1. bank of the
Tigris to Mosul (+22 m. from Nimrūd).
From Keremlis the post-road runs across the open
plain to Mosul, which lies W. by N. of Keremlis.
Ruin-mounds of Nineveh (Qoyunjiq and Nebi Yunus).
Mosul.
2901
2923
ROUTE 25 b
BAGHDAD—MOSUL (230 m.)
Via Right BanK OF THE TIGRIS
Authorities :-Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iii, 1904 (route report of Feb. 1903);
a report of a journey in autumn 1903 ; and other sources of information.
Baghdad--Samarra.-Before the present war there was a route
passable for wheels as far as Samarra. This was followed by the
large pilgrim-waggons which plied between Samarra and Baghdad.
The road appears to afford good going in dry weather, but is likely
to be very heavy after rain, and in the neighbourhood of Baghdad the
country traversed is more or less flooded in spring. Numerous water-
channels are crossed. The palm-tree bridges described in the itinerary
below as occurring near Baghdad do not appear to be suitable for
heavy wheeled traffic, and it appears that the pilgrim waggons did
not follow exactly the course here detailed. At many places there


168
LAND ROUTES
are several possible tracks for pack-animals. Near Baghdad the
tops of the canal-banks and riverside dykes may sometimes be used
in order to avoid flood or marshy ground. For railway see Appendix.
Water appears to be plentiful, from canals, wells, or the Tigris.
There is a fair amount of cultivation and at least two flourishing
villages (Sumeikeh, m. 39, and Beled, m. 51) are passed : a certain
amount of supplies for small bodies of men could therefore perhaps
be obtained. As regards grazing, there is some camel-thorn, and
apparently some grass here and there in spring. Fuel probably
scarce.
Samarra-Mosul.--Beyond Samarra the character of the route
changes. Before the present war it was just passable for wheels
(though with difficulty) throughout. Light carts had occasionally
traversed it, and a few years ago a motor-car was brought by this
route from Baghdad to Mosul, but it broke down on the return
journey. For most of the way there would be no serious difficulties
in road-making. The track passes sometimes along the floor of the
Tigris Valley (for description, see Route III E) over stony ground or
alluvial soil, crossing fairly numerous wadis : sometimes it leaves the
river-trough and ascends the low plateau or hills bordering the valley :
here it generally runs through open rolling country, but in places has
to traverse broken ground (as near Tekrit : see m. 1003). At one point
(see m. 134) it makes a long détour from the river, about 34 m. in
length, where the r. bank becomes impassable owing to the Hamrin
Hills. These hills though low are very rugged and broken, and the
river flows close under their NW. side from Qal'ah Sherghat to the
Fet-hah gorge by which it breaks through them. The track by which
the route eventually crosses the hills to rejoin the river near Qal'ah
Sherghat would need in places considerable improvement before it
could be made easy for wheels (see m. 157). The authority whose
report is here chiefly followed made the journey on horseback in 1903.
Between Samarra and Mosul water can generally be obtained from
the river, but on the détour of 34 m. already mentioned drinkable
water is very scarce. Between Samarra and the cultivated area near
Mosul, patches of rather poor cultivation occur at intervals along
the Tigris Valley, but there are few permanent villages and those
are usually small. In peace time camps of Shammār and other
nomads were occasionally to be found near the river. Unless the
flocks and herds of the Jezireh nomads could be drawn upon, no
amount of local supplies worth considering could be found on the r.
bank of the Tigris, except for a limited quantity at Tekrit. There is
much good grass grazing in spring in places between Qal'ah Sherghat
and Mosul (see note under m. 168, m. 173, m. 206, m. 210 below):








ROUTE 25 b
169
between Samarra and Qal'ah Sherghat spring-grazing for horses is
much more scarce. In Feb.-March 1878 there was some wild barley
and rye in places near the river, and good grass pasture was reported
in the valley a few hours N. of Tekrit. Grass is found in April in
the Jebel Hamrin, where the track crosses the hills. Grazing for
camels apparently fair near the river. Fuel is apparently scarce
throughout: tamarisk is found in places near the river.
Note on left bank. The route along the r. bank is followed by
travellers, as fewer obstacles are to be met with on that side of
the river than on the l. bank. It is possible on the l. bank to follow
the Baghdad-Salāhiyeh road (see Route 25 a, ii) as far as the neigh-
bourhood of Khān Nahrawān, whence a track apparently leads to
Samarra. But the 'Adheim River (see Route III D, m. 591) would be a
serious obstacle in spring and the distance from Baghdad to Samarra
by the l. bank would be considerably longer. Supplies as far as
Khān Nahrawān would probably be more plentiful than on the
r. bank. For the Nahrawan canal, see p. 33.
Above Samarra the l. bank track as far as Tekrit (and probably as far
as the Hamrin Hills) seems to be much the same in character as that
on the r. bank. The only details available as to the crossing of the
Hamrin range near the E. bank of the river are given in Route 26.
Above the Hamrin the Lesser and Great Zābs would be difficult
obstacles especially in the flood season. Local means of crossing
are merely a few ferry-boats or keleks. Material for raft or bridge-
building is lacking in the neighbourhood of the mouths of these
rivers. In the immediate neighbourhood of the l. bank above
Samarra local supplies would seem to be as scanty as on the r. bank
of the Tigris : but on the plain E. of the Tigris between the Zābs
the district of Erbil produces enough corn to export in normal times
to Baghdad, and the plain between Erbil and Mosul is fairly populous
and well-cultivated. For a general description of the country
between Baghdad and Samarra on the r. bank of the Tigris see
Tigris, Introduction to Route III E.
Fords across the Tigris, passable in the l. w. season, are mentioned
on p. 19 and p. 40.
and Sate III Es in the
Miles from
Baghdad
Baghdad. From the neighbourhood of the boat-bridge the
route follows the line of the tramway to Kazimain, or
by Zobeideh's tomb and thence farther inland passing W.
of Kazimain. Railway line at some distance to W. of
road.


170
LAND ROUTES
18
Miles from
Baghdad
Kazimain. From here the possible tracks strike across an
open cultivated plain, liable to inundation in the spring
floods. In Feb. 1903 the water-cuts in this region were
easy to pass. The best track for wheels is said to keep
about 3 m. from the river in order to avoid water-cuts
and marshy ground.
For the track which diverges to the 1. beyond Kazimain and
leads NW. across the desert to Anah, see Route 48.
162 A possible track follows the top of a raised dyke along the
river, leading to two water-cuts i m. farther on, which
have to be crossed. One had no bridge in 1903, and its
ford would require improving for guns. The other had
only a palm-tree bridge 3 ft. wide.
Cross two small canals, with palm-tree bridges 6 ft. high.
Road follows top of canal bank 20-30 ft. high. Keeping
in a general direction between N. and N. by W., it now
leaves the neighbourhood of the river, which bends to the
E. near Haseiweh.
A track apparently branches off in a NNE. direction to the Bābi
tract on the r. bank of the Tigris, whence it runs N. to the
Qal'at Tarmīyeh police post. Beyond Qalʼat Tarmīyeh a track
seems to follow the course of the river. (Thus on the right bank
opposite Sindiyeh about 9 m. NNE. of Qalʼat Tarmīyeh is
a grove of poplar described as a halting-place for caravans from
Baghdad.)
A line of ruin-mounds is passed.
Well with good water 20 ft. below the surface.
A canal with bank 10 ft. high is skirted.
Khān Meshāhidiyeh. Railway station. A brick khan
100 yds. by 90 yds., with walls 18 ft. high, crenellated on
top. There is a semicircular bastion at each corner, and
a small square one in the middle of the curtain. Close to
the khan is a two-storied zaptieh post, with stabling for
six horses and a courtyard 15 yds. by 12 yds. There is
a well, perennial but brackish, water being 35 ft. below
the surface. Water can also be obtained in skins from
the river, about 4 m. to the E. (opposite Reshidiyeh on the
1. bank). The country round the khan is desert.
241
Ground low : boggy in winter. Beyond this cultivation
begins again.
29 Khör Tarmīyeh : swamp about 1 m. to E. Ruin-heaps
and old canal beds henceforward frequent.
311 | Road runs through a group of ruin-mounds.








ROUTE 25 b
171
Miles from
Baghdad
32
34
37
39
Ruins of Wāneh on old bed of the Tigris about 14 m. to E.
of road.
R. bank of the Tigris, at Mansūriyeh ferry and near mouth
of Tarmīyeh canal, lies about 64 m. to E.
Ruin heaps to left.
On W. side of railway-line, which apparently runs to left
of the track, are small irrigation-cuts belonging to the
Dujeil system (see Route III D, m. 812), some of which
may still carry a little water in the h. w. season. W. of
these (? about 2 m. WNW. of this point on the route) is
the tomb of Sheikh Ibrāhīm.
Ruins of Akbareh about 1 m. to E., on the old bed of the
Tigris, which above 'Akbareh makes a détour to E.
From here to Sumeikeh the route takes a general NNW.
direction. Several dry canal beds are crossed. The soil
here is sandy clay.
Two small canals with water in them in Feb. 1903. They
are about 15 ft. between the banks and 10 ft. deep ; the
water was 4 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep.
Old bed of the Tigris about 1 m. to r.
Sumeikeh (or Dujeil) village, and date-groves watered by
the Dujeil Canal ; about 2,000 inhabitants; khan. Rail.
way station. The village and neighbouring lands are the
property ofthe Dā'irates-Sanīyeh. Supplies fairly plentiful.
Water good and abundant: wells and canal.
Sumeikeh lies about 9 m. W. by N. of a point on the r. bank
of the Tigris opposite Sa'diyeh. The old bed of the Tigris
runs about 1 m. NW. of the village, outside the date-
groves.
From Sumeikeh the road takes a general NW. direction.
The railway apparently lies to right. The road runs
parallel to the course of the Dujeil (1-4 m. to r.) and
the old Tigris bed (21-1 m. to r.). Between the old
and present beds of the Tigris a space about 12-8 m. wide
is dotted with ruin-mounds and ruin-fields.
The country-side is fairly well cultivated.
Khazraj Arabs in this neighbourhood.
In the next 8 m. several canals are crossed, varying in
width from 10 to 40 ft. and in depth from 5 ft. to 20 ft.
below the level of the plain. Some of them contained
water in Feb. 1903. Almost all were traversed by palm-
tree bridges about 10 ft. wide.


172
LAND ROUTES
47
Miles from
Baghdad
Route runs along bank of small water-channel, 10 ft. wide
i by 5 ft. deep: the water in it was 3 ft. wide and 2 ft.
deep in Feb. 1903.
49 The old bed of the Tigris is visible to r. for about 4 m.
51 | Country intersected by dry canalbeds, with banks varying
in height from 5 ft. to 20 ft.
Ruins of Harbeh to r.
Beled village, with date-groves and some vineyards (the
property of the Da'irat es-Sanīyeh) lies 3-4 m. between
ENE. and NE. of this point. Railway station, Water from
wells. There are fords in the low-water season across the
Tigris at Darāwīsh Island and Baheirdeh Island, in the
neighbourhood of Beled (4 and 3 m. from the village
respectively). These fords have pebbly bottoms.
The soil is sandy clay : the track is good except after rain.
52 Harbeh Canal, from Tigris, consisting of three channels,
I each about 15 ft. wide, 10 ft. deep, the banks 15 ft. high.
: Only one channel had water in it in Feb. 1903.
The canal is crossed by a brick bridge (Jisr Harbeh) of solid
construction. In 1903 it was reported to have four arches,
and to be 60 yds. long, carrying a roadway 27 ft. wide.
Beyond the Harbeh bridge is an open plain much inter-
sected by dry canal beds, with pebbly waste and acacia
scrub.
55 ; In this neighbourhood apparently T.L. leaves route, and
runs NNW. to cross the river near El-Hāwiyeh ferry,
whence it goes NW. to Samarra.
57 Feshātīyeh canal (45 ft. wide, banks 25 ft. above bed).
Water in Feb. 1903 6 ft. wide, 3 ft. deep, crossed by
a brick bridge about 10 ft. wide.
For about 4 m. the country is covered with old and dry canal
beds, with banks varying from 5 to 40 ft. in height.
Some of them are crossed by the route.
Dry canal reported to r., 30 ft. deep and 60 ft. wide ; sides
very steep.
Mouth of Dujeil Canal, a short distance to r. Henceforward
up to Samarra boat-bridge the route runs close to the
river: the railway is apparently close to it on the l., and
near the railway seems to be the bed of the dry Ishaki
Canal. Istablāt station is 13 m. by rail from Samarra.
66 Istablāt: zaptieh post in the immediate neighbourhood.
The country is a pebbly desert without cultivation; a
little scrub acacia in the hollows.








ROUTE 25 b
173
70
Tine
74
86
Miles from
Baghdad
Tīneh, village on river bank. Ford at l.w. season (1910).
Level plain, partly cultivated.
Samarra boat-bridge. Khan and village. Railway station.
From Samarra boat-bridge the route runs about 300 yds.
from the river bank, with a line of hills to the W. The
country generally is sandy and uncultivated. There are
numerous ruins.
Qal'at el-'Ashiq, ruined fort. Ma'shūq ruins on a mound.
Well-preserved walls and towers.
The track after this becomes pebbly and poor. Some
cultivation by water-lifts on the river bank.
82 The track crosses a pebbly ridge diagonally.
Line of mounds to the W. Eski Baghdad lies opposite,
on the E. bank of the Tigris.
The road is now good over an alluvial cultivated plain
(1903) with low hills about 50 ft. high, 1 m. to the W.
Loweyyeh camp-ground. Stream running to the Tigris,
with good water, 20 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep (Feb.).
El-Muheijir camp-ground on a stream running to the
Tigris. The track is still easy and level.
After El-Muheijir the track divides, the eastern path
affording better going, through continuous cultivation.
The track crosses a pebbly ridge.
i Hills to the W. recede. The track is about 2 m. from the
river. Dūr is about 3 m. distant on the E. bank of the
Tigris (see Route III E, m. 202).
971 Nahr Ishaki, an old canal here 35 ft. wide and 5 ft. deep,
with easy banks, lies beside the track on the W.
981 The track is good, skirting the hills to the W. The hills
begin to approach the river, gradually dwindling in
height.
The track runs along an alluvial plain about 100 yds. from
the river ; low cliffs, 50 ft. high to left.
100 Small wadi.
1002 The track now becomes stony, and rises slightly over
country cut up by ravines on the E. The country to the
W. is more open and flat.
101 Steep, stony ravine, 200 yds. wide, 150 ft. deep. The track
is here about 300 yds. from the river.
102 Wadi, 200 yds. wide. The track leads over undulating,
broken, stony ground.
103 | The track bends slightly W. to avoid some ravines. The


174
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
104
106
1121
113]
118
119
road descends through ruins and over stony broken
ground towards Tekrit.
Tekrit. Moderate quantities of supplies are obtainable.
Caravans usually rest here for a day on the road to
Mosul. Most of the Tekrit muleteers do not go up the
river, but work between Tekrit and Baghdad. (A 1903
authority estimates the distance from here to Sherei-
miyeh--see m. 131 below—at 31 m.)
N. end of the ruins of ancient Tekrit. Small nullah, after
which the track emerges into undulating desert, high
above the river, towards which run many deep ravines.
The track is now fairly good, over nearly flat country.
Broad, shallow nullah. The track is now very stony and
the country broken by ravines.
Wādi Mahzim. There is here a little cultivation and some
acacia scrub.
The track now skirts some low hills to the W., and is broken
in places.
Sherīyet el-Hamzeh, camp.ground, with good water from
an arm of the Tigris, 30 ft. wide, 5 ft. deep.
The track now lies through continuous cultivation.
At 3 m. it touches the river, which is here about 150 yds.
wide. The hills are here about i m. to the W., rising to
70 ft. above the plain.
The track is easy, occasionally touching the river bank.
The track skirts the river, which is here about į m. wide,
å m. from the hills to the W. At some point in this
neighbourhood is the ravine, reported by a German
traveller in 1893, which marks the boundary between
the Vilayets of Baghdad and Mosul.
The hills are 1 m. to the W., with cliffs 70 to 100 ft. high,
and after some distance give way to sandy mounds.
Qal'at Mekrān, ruins on a projecting bluff. This is perhaps
identical with Khān el-Kharnīneh, Turkish barracks on
the site of the ruins of a thirteenth-century building.
The track here runs N. by W., skirting low sandhills, 50 ft.
high, on the W., over a sandy, ellipse-shaped plain, 7 m.
long and 11 m. broad.
Shereimiyeh, guard-house and camp-ground. To W. is
a line of low sandy hillocks about 50 ft. high.
The track bends away from the river, having on the NE.
| low spurs of the Jebel Hamrin, winding through low
122
124
126
128
131
134








ROUTE 25 b
175
Miles from
Baghdad
137
141
145
152
155
sandy mounds with a very brackish stream on r. A few
pools of very salt and quite undrinkable water. The route
from here to the point where it rejoins the river at
Qal'ah Sherghat is lacking in good water. The country
is desert. There is here no settled population, but
occasional encampments of Dilaim may be seen.
In autumn 1903 water reported 5 ft. below surface. Arabs
camped here in spring.
In autumn 1903 water was reported 4 ft. below surface.
In autumn 1903, it is reported, water-holes were found in
a nullah about 14 m. from Shereimiyeh at a locality called
Museltain. The water was 3 ft. below surface, and was
estimated to be sufficient for 5,000 camels a day. It may
be brackish.
Track approaches Jebel Hamrin creek, rather difficult for
wheels.
Bilalij, spring at foot of the Jebel Hamrin. The water is
scanty and brackish. This is perhaps the spring reported
by another traveller as being bitter with sulphur and
pitch. The quantity of water has been estimated at
50 gall. p.h.
The hills are here intersected with many nullahs, up and
down which the track winds. The ascent to the crest of
the range, which is here about 200 ft. high and 1 m.
wide, is easy. The track keeps along the crests of the
spurs.
The track crosses a valley (? the Wādi Jahannam) at right
angles, and gradually ascends the Jebel Khanūqah by
a sandy track.
Jebel Khanūqah, summit of the range. The track is
difficult for wheels, and winds over occasional outcrops
of marble among low hills. From the summit it descends,
winding in and out of ravines.
'Ain Shababik. The track descends, winding through low
sandy mounds 60-100 ft. high.
Large mound, probably on the site of an ancient city.
i Qal'ah Sherghat ruins on large tel, close to the bank of the
Tigris. For description see Route III E, m. 109.
Turkish post.
There is good camping-ground on sandy soil, with a fair
but limited supply of water. There is some cultivation
i in the neighbourhood of the tel.
157
1661
168


176
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
The Wādi Tartar lies about 28-30 m. W. of Qal'ah Sherghat.
In this part of its course it carries water perennially, and
is much frequented by the nomads of the Jezireh, especially the
Shammār, for its water, which is good, and for the pasture along
its banks. The country between Qal'ah Sherghat and the Tartar
is open and undulating, traversed by a number of deep wadis
which have water in spring. There is much rich pasture in
this region in April. The Wādi Tartar near El-Hadr (see
below) is 25-30 ft. wide, and in spring is 5-7 ft. deep. The banks
are rotten. There are few places where camels can cross.
About 731 m. WNW. of Qal'ah Sherghat are the ruins of Hatra (el-
Hadhr), situated about 22 m. W. of the Wādi Tartar. These ruins
include the remains of a palace with seven vaulted halls, some of
the walls of which are still standing to a great height, built of
squared blocks of stone. Protection was afforded by a wall over
3 m. in circumference and strengthened at intervals with towers,
and by a wide, deep moat. Considerable portions of the wall are
still standing.
At the SE. corner, inside the wall, is a sulphur spring, and a little
to the NE. of this spring, outside the wall, a pool of rather brackish
water. There is said, however, to be a good spring of fresh water
just outside the walls, though no other indication is given as to its
position.
The period of the greatest prosperity of Hatra fell in the first and
second centuries A.D., under the Parthian Empire. It was
destroyed by the Persian king Sapor I (A. D. 242-72).
The mileage up to Shura (see m. 204) is very uncertain ;
the authority from which these distances are taken gives
7 hrs, as the time between Qal'ah Sherghat and Shura,
but this appears to be an error. Another authority
estimates the distance between Qal'ah Sherghat and
Shura as 42 miles and gives the time taken from Kaiyara
to Qal'ah Sherghat at 83 hrs.
Creek, 20 ft. wide, 5 ft. deep.
The track now enters the open desert again, the hills
trending to the W.
The track skirts the hills, with the river 1 m. E.
172 The track enters a small alluvial plain called Sherghat,
partly cultivated. The road is good and sandy, skirting
the hills, which are here about 100 ft. high.
173 | The track touches the river, which here has banks 20 ft.
above the water. In 1903 there were sheep grazing on
the plain and nomad Arabs in the valley.
1731 The road is good, lying up the bed of a stream over a low
line of hills.
1743 Summit of the hills. Stony downs to r. and l. The track
1 is fairly easy.
171








'ROUTE 25 b
177
Miles from
Baghdad
175 Jarnaf camping-ground, with fair drinking water from
a stream and rain-pools.
The track now crosses a creek, 20 yds. wide and 20 ft. deep.
Water good, 25 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep (Feb. 1903).
Depression in the chain of hills for about 1 m.
180 The track is good, about 300-400 yds. from the hills on the
W., which are here about 150 ft. high. On the E. is
a small winding grassy nullah.
181 The track rises over a pebbly path from the cultivated plain
to the plateau, 50 ft. higher.
182
| The road passes over broken ground, crossing a small nullah,
soft, deep, and 40 yds. wide. There is a gap in the hills
i to the W. On the E. is some cultivation, about 1 m.
distant.
183 i The track passes through fairly open country over an alluvial
plain. The hills on the E. are broken by ravines ; those
on the W. are about 150 ft. high.
185 The road is pebbly and crosses a small valley, with some
cultivation on the E.
1851 The track is stony, with ravines to r. and l. The river is
11 m. to the E.
1891 Naphtha and bitumen wells to the W. The country is flat
and open. The track is 1-1 m. distant from the river.
1902 Kaiyara (Qaiyareh). Oil springs and refinery. (For
description, see Route III E, m. 1352.) The descent into
the valley (ascent to N. of it?) is rocky and impassable
for wheels.
193 Romana camp, near a stream impregnated with naphtha
and sulphur. The track is good over some low hills.
194 The track crosses a stream 20 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep in
a ravine 30 yds. wide and 10 ft. deep. The water is clear,
but brackish, and not fit for drinking.
1941 The road enters a large open valley along the Tigris.
196 Small nullah, dry and easy.
201 | The track skirts a creek with steep banks. The water is
clear, but slightly brackish.
203 A nullah on the W. skirts the road.
204 Shura village. There is drinking water here, slightly
brackish. In 1903 there were 20 zaptiehs belonging to
the Sultan's farm and acting as desert-guards, housed in
a khan 60 by 40 yds. The place has a Mudir.
The distances N. of Shura are again uncertain: the
MES. III
M


178
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
205
206
210
212
214
215
2173
authority from which they are taken gives the time
between Shura and Hammām ‘Ali (see m. 2172) as 7 hrs.
Another authority supports the distance given below,
making it 13 m. between Shura and Hammām 'Ali.
A nullah on the W. 30 ft. deep, but easily crossed at various
points, skirts the track.
Splendid grass in April. The ground here is under the
Dairat es-Saniyeh.
Ruined village 2 m. to the W. The country is gently
undulating and easy, with good grazing.
The track descends from a plateau, with a stony and rocky
patch, for 100 yds. The ruins of Nimrūd (see Route
III E, m. 1594) are 4 m. distant on the E. bank.
The road winds through rocky stony hills, passing a ruined
town.
It skirts some low hills 200 yds. to the W., and then runs
along the Tigris, crossing a stream in a ravine 30 yds.
wide.
Hammām Ali. (For description, see Route III E, m. 1671).
Good grazing.
Village among the hills about a m. to the W.
There is cultivation along the level.
The distances N. of Hammām 'Ali are uncertain: the
authority from which they are taken gives the time
between Hammām 'Ali and Mosul as 62 hrs. Other
estimates make the time between these two places 41 or
5 hrs. Another authority makes the distance between
Hammām 'Ali and Mosul 16 m.
The track is good, running along the river bank for 12 m.
All this plain is under the Da'irat es-Saniyeh.
Lezadeh (Lazzāqeh ? see Route III E, m. 1743) village and
khan. The track undulates over stony ground.
Small village to the E. The track runs along the bottom
of an open valley 500 yds. wide, rising, after { m., over
stony downs, with some rocky ravines running towards
the river.
An alternative easy track keeps close to the river.
Village on the E., with mud and brick fort commanding the
track as it ascends the hills from Mosul. It is 60 by
50 yds., with walls 20 ft. high, and two towers. The fort
is apparently the Qasr of Seramūn mentioned in Route
III E, m. 1804.
2182
2222
2243








ROUTES 25 b, 26, 27
179
Miles from
Baghdad
The road now descends over stony ground towards the
river.
The hills recede from the river, and there is cultivation on
both sides of the track.
Mosul.
230
ROUTE 26
TEKRIT-KIRKUK (771 m.)
Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 104 a.
The following is a desert route. The only details obtainable are
those given below. They are taken from a report of 1885.
Miles from
Tekrit
Tekrit. (See Route 25 b, m. 104.)
The first march from Tekrit is N. by E. across an undu-
lating tract of uninhabited prairie.
22 Inkhilā, small oasis, with a brackish spring half hidden in
bulrushes. At no great distance to NW. is the Fet-hah
defile.
From Inkhilā cross the Jebel Hamrin, rising 500 ft. above
the plain, thence for 12 hours over open desert.
53 Bashīrīyeh, Kurdish hamlet of about 100 hovels on the
Kirsa Chai in open cultivated country.
From here follow the broad depression of the Kirsa Chai.
Taza Khurmatli on Baghdad-Kirkuk-Mosul road.
Follow this road to Kirkuk. (See Route 25 a, m. 176-1873.)
771 | Kirkuk.
ROUTE 27
QAL'AH SHERGHAT-ALTUN KÖPRÜ (67 m.)
Authority :-Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam (journey of 1903).
This route is easily passable for wheels as far as Derban (m. 54),
except at the Hasan Ghāzi Pass over the Qarachok Dāgh (m. 34).
From Derban onwards it is only just passable for wheels. Supplies
probably lacking as far as Makhmūr, fair from that point onwards.
M2


180
LAND ROUTES
Water not plentiful till beyond Derban. Pasture good in spring.
Fuel probably lacking.
The details of the following route are taken from an authority
who went over it in April 1903.
Miles from
Qal'ah
Sher-
ghat
11
Qal'ah Sherghat. Ascend r. bank of Tigris for about 2 m.
to a place where a ferry-boat is moored. (The ford about
5 m. above Sherghat reported by an authority of 1893 as
passable in the l.w. season is not included in a list of
Tigris fords compiled in 1910 from information of native
raftsmen. See Route III E, m. 1131.)
Cross Tigris by Mezār esh-Sherghat ferry. In 1903 there
was one crazy boat steered and moved by one oar. From
the ferry proceed in a northerly direction to-
El-Haichel camping-ground. Here in April 1903 there
was a camp of Jebûr semi-nomads, who had left their
village and migrated into tents for the summer.
From El-Haichl strike across plain in an ENE. direction.
a hr. from El-Haichl, cross bed of ancient canal 30 yds.
broad. This canal is said by local Arabs to run S. to the
Lesser Zāb. It is called the Wādi el-Hafr.
Through a line of low hills (hr. from canal) dotted with
artificial mounds. Here is passed a small permanent
spring.
Enter a broad open plateau 800 ft. above sea-level,
dotted with villages. In the spring of 1903 these had
been abandoned owing to drought and locusts. Makhmūr
lies under the saddle between the northern and southern
heights of the Qarachok Dāgh which lies ahead across
the plain.
Pass artificial mounds (3 hrs. from hills). Between this
point and Makhmūr water in small quantities is to be
found as a rule.
Makhmūr (3 hrs, from the mounds). Outside the village
are the remains of an ancient town, each side measuring
about 420 yds., surrounded by a square of mound walls
as at Nineveh. In the centre is a large mound.
Makhmũr itself is a new place, being the centre of
a large estate of the Da'irat es-Sanīyeh, which comprises
most of the country between the two Zābs in the
neighbourhood of the Qarachok Dāgh. Makhmūr is
21








ROUTE 27
181
Miles from
Qal'ah
Sher-
ghat
34
connected by telegraph with Erbil. There are here a
large khan, a bazaar, and a serai (government building)
erected by the Dā'irat es-Sanīyeh. The town in 1903
was flourishing, a good many caravans passing through
the place. Some Turkish troops under a captain were
stationed here. In 1903 Agha Ibrāhīm, the chief of the
Disdiyeh Kurds, resided at Makhmūr. He exercised
civil jurisdiction over his tribe, who are semi-nomads
(1,200 families) having their head-quarters in the Qara-
chok Dāgh. In 1903 they were armed with Martinis
manufactured at Suleimāniyeh.
From Makhmūr the track ascends the saddle leading
across the Qarachok Dāgh. This pass is called Hasan
Ghāzi, after a Kurdish saint, whose tomb is here. The
shrine is much reverenced by the Disdiyeh, and is
a place of refuge for outlaws and persons pursued by
a blood-feud.
At some points the pass is difficult for wheels, but it
might easily be improved.
Summit of the Hasan Ghāzi Pass.
At the eastern foot of the pass, the track bears ESE.,
running over an open plain parallel with the southern
part of the Qarachok Dāgh. It is quite easy in fine
weather. There are a number of villages in the plain
and along the slopes of the Qarachok. These are mainly
inhabited by Disdīyeh. Flocks of sheep were seen in
1903 : the animals appeared to thrive on the pasture in
the neighbourhood.
Across the plain, here about 15 m. to E., is the line of the
Zergezawan Dāgh.
In the neighbourhood the track bears to E., crossing the
plain towards a pass in the Zergezawan.
Derban village (62 hrs. from Makhmūr). The residence
of a Kurdish Agha. From here to Altun Köprü the
track is just passable for wheels. Water is plentiful.
Cross pass over Zergezawan Dāgh.
Summit of pass: wide view obtained here.
Girdlanik village in plain below pass.
Join Altun Köprü-Kirkuk high road (see Route 25 a,
• m. 215, p. 163), along which runs the T.L. Follow the
high road into Altun Köprü.
49
571
591
64


182
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Qal'ah
Sher-
ghat
67
Altun Köprü. (The time taken between Derban and
Altun Köprü is variously given by the same authority
as 37 hrs. and 5 hrs.)
ROUTE 28 a
BAGHDAD-KIRMANSHAH (222 m.)
Via KHANIKIN
Authorities : Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 96 (1910); Corrections to vol. iii, 1914;
Route Report of 1909.
This is the main caravan and trade route between Mesopotamia
and Persia. It is passable for wheels in dry weather, but in wet
weather, unless the season is exceptionally mild, the road becomes
very heavy and in places a quagmire. In the years immediately
preceding the war there was a motor-car service between Baghdad
and Bāqūbeh. The complete journey is performed in 20 days by
camels, and in 14 days by horses and mules. Mules, ponies, and
donkeys are the usual transport animals, camels being used only in
the summer and not after the rains have set in.
As far as Khanikin, on the Persian border, the road lies over rich
alluvial soil which in many places is subject to inundation. After
1 in. of rain the whole country becomes so boggy as to be almost
impassable. From November to April the road is impassable for
camels owing to the rain and snow. A Persian company was
formed in 1905 to put and keep the road in repair. A few years
before the war it was reported to be in fairly good order and quite
passable for wheeled traffic, though very rough in places, especially
beyond Khanikin. The range of low hills over which the road passes to
Khanikin would offer no obstacle to the construction of a railway.
In January and February the cold is considerable and water often
freezes. During July, August, and September the heat is intense
during the day, but very hot nights are unusual at any time, and in
June there is generally a refreshing north breeze. The annual rain-
fall is about 7 in. and falls in the cold weather. Between Baghdad
and Khanikin the rainy season may be said to commence about
November and to end in March. Beyond Khanikin the rain starts
somewhat earlier, and ends later. Snow falls in the region between
Ser-i-Pul and Kirmanshah.








ROUTES 27, 28 a
183
Supplies of all kinds would be available in large quantities,
especially after the harvest, as the surrounding country is very
rich and well cultivated in the Baghdad districts. In the Persian
districts there is not such a large amount of cultivation, but still the
country traversed is fairly rich.
The grazing varies much from year to year, there being seldom
much except in the spring. Mules, donkeys, and horses using
this route are fed on barley and straw, which are always procurable.
In the spring camels graze on what they can find en route. At other
seasons they are fed on barley-flour made into cakes, and straw.
Until Persian territory is reached, fuel is very scarce ; there it can
be obtained in any quantities from the mountains.
Water is good and plentiful throughout the route, generally being
obtained from streams or canals.
At Baghdad about 1,000 camels could be collected in a fortnight;
other animals ordinarily about 100 daily. Beyond Khanikin
no animals are obtainable until Kirmanshah is reached. Most of
the mules and ponies used in this route come from Persia. If
time were given very large numbers could be collected, as large
caravans are continually passing along this route. As far as Qasr-
i-Shīrīn (m. 112), there are practically no obstacles, except for the
heavy state of the road after rain and the numerous irrigation
channels which have to be crossed. The boat-bridge over the
Diyāleh River (m. 301) might require to be improved. When last
reported on (1907) it was only fit for the passage of light vehicles,
unhorsed and man-handled across, and was unfit for the passage of
guns or heavy vehicles. The river is fordable in the l. w. season.
The pass over the Jebel Hamrīn (beginning m. 64) is narrow but
passable for carts drawn by 4 horses abreast. At the Tāq-i-Gārra
Pass (m. 143) guns would have to be double-horsed in certain places.
In the stretch from Karind (m. 1644) to Khorāsābād (m. 1753) the first
3 m. are stony and exceedingly rough, and the remainder of that
stretch along the valley is heavy and swampy after rain, and passes
over frequent streams. The Na'l Shikan Pass (m. 1903) would have to
be improved to render it fit for the passage of guns.
T.L. accompanies the route on left hand.
The general direction of the route to Khān Beni Sa'id (m. 18) is
NNE. The road to that point is good and passable for all arms in
all weathers. Supplies, fuel, and forage scanty. Water from wells.
Miles from
Baghdad
0 1 Baghdad. Road leaves by North Gate, the Bāb el-Wasitāni.
The track across the plain to Bāqūbeh is clearly marked.


184
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
152
18
When there is any doubt, as at night, the telegraph-line can
be followed. General direction to Khān Beni Sa'id NNE.
For the first 3 m. the road is a broad level track over
a plain of alluvial soil, showing frequent signs of flood.
An irrigation channel is crossed by a rickety wood and
stone bridge with 12-ft. roadway. Width of channel
12 ft., depth below bank 3 ft. Some cultivation.
Khān el-Bīr ruins on r. Limited supply of brackish water.
About here a second irrigation channel similar to first is
crossed. On the other side of the channel is the postal
staging station. From here the Nahr Tahwileh runs
parallel to the road for 1 m., then diverging N.
Line of mounds crosses road running NE. and SW. The
road from here shows no sign of flood up to
Khān Beni Sa'id or Ortah Khān, a village with two
khans, one of which is 100 yds. square, of massive brick,
in which there is accommodation for 300 men and horses.
There is also plenty of room for camping. Brackish
water from wells. Grazing scarce. Fuel scarce locally.
There are villages in palm groves about 4 m. to NW.
From Khān Beni Sa'id to Bāqūbeh the general direction
is NNE. The road throughout is good and passable to
all arms except at the Diyāleh bridge.
Road to Beledrūz via Bahrīz branches off NE. See Route 30.
Cultivation on both sides of the route.
Irrigation canal, 6 ft. wide, 3 ft. below the banks, crossed
by a stone bridge in bad repair; the bridge roadway is
12 ft.
| A narrow deep channel is crossed, 6 ft. wide and 10 ft. below
the banks, running N. and S.
Reach r. bank of the Diyāleh, here a sluggish river, 60 yds.
wide, with deep-cut banks. Gardens, dates, and poplar-
trees on either hand. Road now runs up river bank,
ground becoming hilly and broken.
Small khan 1. of road.
Swinging bridge over the Diyāleh, consisting of 11 boats
(with two spare for increasing the span when the water
rises), over which a 12-ft. roadway is laid. It is rickety,
serviceable for pack-transport, but unfit for guns or any
wheeled vehicles except very light ones. The pontoons
are in good condition ; a very slight repair (materials for
which are obtainable on the spot) would put the roadway
281
30
301








ROUTE 28 a
185
Miles from
Baghdad
into condition for the passage of guns. The river is
fordable in this neighbourhood during the l. w. season.
The approaches on both sides are soft and likely to be
slippery after rain. The banks of the river are perpen-
dicular, the r. being 15 ft. and the l. 30 ft. above the
level of the water. The road now runs in an easterly
direction through high-walled gardens and enters Bāqübeh.
• It is reported that a force attempting to cross the river here
from either side could be brought to either bank under
cover, on the r. owing to the configuration of the ground,
on the l. owing to the town walls and palm-trees.
Bāqūbeh. Pop. 4,000-5,000. P.O., T. There is good
camping ground to be found anywhere outside the town.
Supplies abundant. Water from the river. Forage and
fuel plentiful. No camels. About 20 other transport
animals could be collected daily.
The route now runs in a general north-easterly direction to
Abu Jezreh. To this point the road is good and pass-
able to all arms in dry weather. Some of the canals
would require ramping, and some of them are crossed by
rickety bridges. In wet weather the worst part of the
road is the last mile. Between Bāqūbeh and the frontier
(100 m.) the road used to be dangerous owing to the
depredations of the Shammār Arabs and Hamawand
Kurds, and more recent accounts (e. g. 1909) suggest that
this was still the case in the years immediately preceding
the present war.
The road emerges from the northern entrance of Bāqūbeh
through the walled gardens, bearing easterly, and winds
through hillocky ground over numerous irrigation chan-
nels, and would be deep and bad in wet weather.
Cross an irrigation channel. Road here broad and level
over an alluvial plain. To NW. lie numerous villages.
The ground is low and in parts marshy, and cut up
by frequent irrigation channels which sometimes contain
water. To E. is a plain stretching to a distant range of
low hills on which there are a few hamlets visible. The
plain is barren but green with camel-thorn and patches of
grass.
1 Cultivation on either side, and large villages 4 m. to NW.
Ground very bad in wet weather.
| Caravanserai of Abu Jezreh ; accommodation for some
34
47


186
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
200 men and horses. This is not a usual halting-place
for caravans, which generally go right through. Fuel
scarce.
From Abu Jezreh to Shahrabān the general direction is
NE. The road is passable in dry weather for all arms,
but is deep and heavy and impracticable for wheels
in wet weather. Many culverts, ramps, and bridges
would be required. Supplies could be collected from
neighbouring villages. There are quantities of cattle,
sheep, and goats. Water good but muddy from canals.
Good grazing. Fuel scarce.
Leaving Abu Jezreh caravanserai the road runs over uneven
hillocky ground liable to flood. On the r. is a deep, high-
banked irrigation canal. Numerous irrigation channels
cross the road which is somewhat confined with banked
canals on either side up to Shahrabān (see m. 57 below).
53 Road passes the high-walled caravanserai, 100 yds.
square, of the village of Jellāli; there are gardens and
date-palms. Emerging from the village the road crosses
a canal 30 ft. broad, running swiftly SE. ; the bridge
consists of one 12-ft. arch of stone, strong, and in good
repair.
57 Shahrabān. T., P.O., several caravanserais, and a roofed
bazaar. There are walled gardens and date-groves. No
camels. About 20 other transport animals could be
collected daily. Supplies plentiful in normal times.
Water good and abundant from wells and canals. Fuel
scarce.
From Shahrabān to Qizil Ribāt the general direction is NE.
The track generally has been described as a carriage.
road, but a very bad one, both over the hills where it is
very stony and the gradients are apparently steep, and
over the plain where it is very soft. For the first 4 m.
from Shahrabān the road is heavy in wet weather and
impracticable for wheels. Numerous culverts and small
bridges are required.
Passing through the roofed bazaar and walled gardens
of Shahrabān the road emerges over undulating ground
liable to flood. There are numerous irrigation channels
in all directions, some deep and narrow with few and bad
foot bridges.
61 | Two canals, each about 12 ft. broad, crossed by masonry








ROUTE 28 a
187
Miles from
Baghdad
63
67
bridges of one arch ; height of bridges above water 5 ft.
(It seems possible that one of these canals' mentioned in
one report may be identical with the canal mentioned
by another authority under m. 63.) Ground becomes
more elevated.
Canal 15 ft. wide and 3 ft. below the banks is crossed
by a bridge in bad repair ; roadway 9 ft. Immediately
beyond this is a sluggish river 20 yds. wide with perpen-
dicular banks 15 ft. high. The road crosses by an
ancient brick bridge with roadway of 12 ft. between the
parapets. Some ruined houses near by. From here the
road traverses undulating gravelly country crossed by
broad, shallow ravines.
Rising gently, the road enters the Jebel Hamrin range
(low barren hills) by a narrow pass. See also under
m. 69 below. On the ordinary track the path here, only
wide enough for single animals, is a deeply worn gut
in the smooth rock. After about a hundred yards the
gut widens and the road spreads into several deep worn
paths divided by ridges of smooth rock. Gradual ascent
for 2 m., road widening and traversing some plateaux.
Summit of pass, 400 ft. above the plain. Apparently at
the summit the pass is narrow but passable for carts
drawn by four horses abreast. The descent is gentle by
a broad track over stone and gravel.
| The road emerges from the hills and descends a gravel
slope. There is said to be a comparatively easy cart-track
over the Jebel Hamrin range by which guns could pass ;
it enters the hills about 1 m. to the S. of the ordinary
track, winds about till it joins after reaching the summit.
The following is a description of a track just fit for vehicles across
these hills. The gradients are variously described as “steep' and
easy'. The hills nowhere command the track by more than
about 15 ft. Direction on leaving plain 50° (somewhat E. of NE.) ;
after 2 m. pass Nuqtah on E. of track. 2 m. beyond the Nuqtah
the track bends more towards the N., going on about 150 for 1 m.,
then on 20° (slightly N. of NNE.) for another mile, after which it
enters the plain 7 m. from Qizil Ribāt, which lies about NE. by N.
Salt stream. The road now enters a broad plain, bounded,
except to the N., by low hills and ridges in which there
are a few villages and on which herds and flocks graze.
Cultivation on both sides ; the Diyāleh 2 m. to the l. flowing
in a broad stony and rushy bed.
69
71
713


188
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
75
Qizil Ribāt. T., P.0. Several caravanserais on the farther
side of the town. Supplies plentiful in normal times.
Water abundant. Good grazing. Fuel scarce. No
camels. About 50 other transport animals could be
collected daily.
Authority :--Routes in Persia, Corrections to rol. iii (1914), 96 (D) ;
a report of 1911.
From Qizil Ribāt to Pāi-Tāq (see m. 143, below) there is an alterna-
tive route practicable only for lightly laden mules and donkeys
(65 m.). Difficulty would be experienced in crossing the Ab-i-Dereh,
Sarāb-i-Garın, and Ab-i-Qal'ah Shāhīn for a day or two after rains.
The water from the Tangāb stream is bad, but otherwise drinkable
water is obtainable everywhere. No fuel except in the Shāh Kūh
(Dar-i-Barū). Grazing is plentiful from January to March, after
that a little only is available in the mountains. In the Dīrā
plain small quantities of supplies and fruit are available in
season, and from Dīrā to Pāi-Tāq supplies are plentiful. Inter-
mediate distances are uncertain ; Pavānmakā is about 33 m.
Miles
| From Qizil Ribāt to Pavānmakā, the general direction is E.
Nomad camps on the route in spring. The track is at
first over flat country, then over rising and stony ground
between northern and middle portions of the Bāghcheh
Hills. At the frontier the ground is broken and cut up by
ravines, and this terrain continues up to the foot of the
Gamakavū and Shāh Kūh, where the ravine of the
Tangāb stream is followed straight through the hills to
Pavănmakā. The water of the Tangāb is indigestible and
sometimes oily and sulphurous. The Pavănmakā gorge
is approached over gypsum hills ; going is very bad and
treacherous.
33 Pavānmakā gorge. Here the Tangāb ravine takes a turn N.
into the gorge which is entirely enclosed by precipices.
No permanent habitation here. The Tangāb ravine is
then followed out of the hill. Thence the track makes
across the valley towards the Bāzī Darāz range. It passes
by undulating ground to the water of Mai Quri Khān.
The track then follows this stream, but keeps above it, on
the level plain, as the ravine is deep and precipitous in
places. It then passes through the outer gypsum range
into a narrow valley called Pushteh, and strikes across
the ridges of the Bāzi Darāz. Here it is a very bad and
stony road. Water is to be found between Pavānmakā
and Bazī·Darāz, but not in the latter region.
50 ? Dīrā, a fertile plain at the foot of the Bāzi Darāz. Villages
and nomad camps. In the authority followed Dīrā plain
is given at 42 m., and Pāi-Tāq at 50 m., but the total
distance given at the head of the route is 65 m.
From Dīrā the track goes NE. It passes round the end of








ROUTE 28 a
189
Miles from
Baghdad Miles
the Danavishk mountain into the Qal'ah-i-Shāhin plain,
which it crosses to a pass between the Qal'ah-i-Shāhin and
Enzal mountains. After crossing the Ab-i-Dereh the main
Baghdad-Kirmanshah road is joined 2 m. from Pāi-Tāq.
Pāi-Tāq (see m. 143, below).
65
83
From Qizil Ribāt to Khanikin the general direction is NE.
The road throughout is good and passable to all arms
in dry weather. The first 4 m. from Qizil Ribat would
be in wet weather very heavy and impracticable for
wheels. No water or supplies between m. 80 and m. 90.
Leaving Qizil Ribāt the road runs past walled gardens and
houses, crosses a canal by a massive bridge, 25-ft. roadway,
and traverses a cultivated plain. Irrigation channels
run across the road, which gives signs of flood in places.
Two canals crossed in succession by bridges of strong
masonry. The road is now gravelly over undulating
į country.
| Low, bare hills are entered, the road, a broad, stony track,
ascending some 150 ft. gently to a kutāl (pass or col).
Emerging from the hills, the road crosses the stony plain
for about 4 m.
Nuqtah passed on E.
Another range is now traversed.
Level plain of alluvial soil begins, bounded on all sides
by low hills. There are villages some 3 m. to NW. with
flocks and wheat fields.
Low gravel ridge is crossed and Khanikin comes in sight.
Stream ; the road passes between and over stony streets.
Khanikin. T., P.O. Situated on both banks of the
Alvand among gardens. One authority gives the distance
from Qizil Ribāt to Khanikin as 22 m. Supplies are
plentiful and water abundant. No camels. About 20-30
other transport animals could be collected daily.
Bridge over the Alvand, a rapid stream ; river bed 100 yds.
wide ; bridge is solid brick and stone 154 yds. long,
20 ft. above water in a low river, 10 ft. in flood season,
with 10 arches, roadway 24 ft. The stream is 60 yds.
wide, and fordable in l.w.
Alternative route from Khanikin to Ser-i-Pul (see m. 132, below)
via Imām Hasan (30 m.). See Corrections to Routes in Persia,
vol. iii, 1914, Route 96, Alternative (E): a report of 1912.
According to the authority from which this description is taken,
the route described here cuts off 4 m. of road. The estimate of


190
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
its length is, however, 8 m. less than the estimated length of the
route in Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 96, stages 6-8.
The route is possible only for mules and donkeys throughout its
length. Carriages would be able to get as far as the Alvand,
opposite Kāni Biz, or to Kāni Biz itself by crossing the river at
Khanikin bridge and proceeding near the 1. bank, via Kārīz and
Akbar, to Kāni Biz (about 10 m.).
The climate is unpleasantly hot only during July and August
(shade temperature about 110º) and is very dry. It is cooler at
Imām Hasan, and over the Shisrā pass. Water ample. Green
grazing for all beasts, all the way, from January to April, and
drier grasses for the rest of the year except in Ganumbān. No
fuel. Wheat is plentiful; otherwise, the only supplies would be
at Kāni Biz where 10 sheep could be furnished almost at once by
Mahmud Bey. The following rivers are crossed : Alvand, Hūdarā,
Imām Hasan (along the course of which the road runs for 2 m.),
and Āb-i-Dereh.
95
1001
- 104
From Khanikin to Qasr-i-Shīrīn the general direction is
NE. The road is good and broad throughout, passable to
all arms in all weathers, with the exception of places at
m. 107 and m. 110 (see below).
Road which is hard and stony still runs NE., rising gently
over broken and hilly country
Road rises gently over some barren hills.
Turco-Persian frontier line. In the neighbourhood is a round
mud tower and a Turkish picket. Thence a descent
over slabs of rock deeply worn into many tracks, after
which the road ascends and descends low bare hills.
Cross stream of brackish water. On the spur above is a
ruined fort, and the houses occupied by the Persian
frontier guard. From here the road ascends gently,
passing springs of water and Kurdish camps.
Track here goes over some sheet rock, which is not only
steep but inclined at an angle sideways.
Spring of good water crosses road.
Qasr-i-Shīrīn and Alvand river sighted.
Alvand River, 30 yds. wide and fordable.
Large grove of poplar and willow on the l. bank.
Road runs along r. bank.
Road along hillside had fallen away a few years before
the war, and there was only room for one horse at a
time.
| Road passes under a hill crowned by a stone fort to
107
108
110
112


一
​………
--
-
-





ROUTE 28 a
191
Miles from
Baghdad
Qasr-i-Shīrīn (see Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii). Supplies
plentiful. Water abundant. Grazing good. Fuel scarce.
Road to Mindar (Route 28 b, m. 1221). For routes to
Suleimāniyeh and Chiāh Surkh see App., pp. 397–398.
Authority :— Routes in Persia, Corrections to vol. iii, 1914, no. 96.
From Qasr-i-Shīrīn to Ser-i-Pul there is a route, alternative to that
described below, fit only for lightly laden mules or donkeys, but
5 m. shorter than the main road. The Alvand River can be
recrossed at any point desired to regain main road, and so avoid
crossing the Ab-i-Dereh. No water, supplies, fuel, or fodder.
Leave 'Ali Murād Khān village, opposite Qasr-i-Shīrīn, on the
S. side of the Alvand river. Route almost immediately enters
Sumbulak (gypsum mountain), passing over ridges and hills of
gypsum for 4 m. Road extremely bad in places, and treacherous
in wet weather.
Miles
Qasr-i-Shirin.
| Seyyid Khatil village passed on I.
5 l 'Ajab 'Ali.
15 Ser-i-Pul.
For the rest of the route only a summary account of the
general character of the stages has been given. For details
see Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 96, stages 8-15.
From Qasr-i-Shīrīn to Ser-i-Pul the main road runs in
a general E. by S. direction. It is passable throughout
to all arms, but would be heavy in wet weather, and
laborious owing to the amount of loose shingle and
stones.
132 Ser-i-Pul (i-zuhāb). Supplies are procurable. Water
abundant. Forage and grazing good. Fuel from adjacent
mountains. For route from here to Deh Bālā see Routes
in Persia, vol. iii, 97.
| From Ser-i-Pul to Surkhadiza Khān the road runs in a
i general ESE. direction. It is passable for all arms, but
the Turks are reported to have difficulties with transport
į at the Taq-i-Garra Pass.
143 In this neighbourhood is the Tāq-i-Gārra Pass, at the
W. end of which is Pāi-Tāq village (see above m. 75).
Surkhadiza Khān. Supplies scarce. Water abundant.
Fuel plentiful. Forage abundant. From this point to
Karind the general direction is SE. Road bad throughout,
for the first 3 m. on account of loose stones and rocks,
and later because it is not only stony and rough, but liable
to become heavy and swampy after rain and snow.
149


192
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
1647
1753
1832
Karind. Supplies, water, forage, and live stock plentiful.
Fuel obtainable. General direction to Khorāsābād is SE.
Road for first mile from Karind and between m. 170 and
m. 1741 is bad and stony, otherwise good. It is passable
for all arms throughout, runningover cultivated plain with
friable soil.
Khorāsābād village (see Route 28 b, m. 1703). Camping
ground beyond village on grassy plateau. Wood, water,
and forage plentiful. Supplies obtainable from villages
in neighbourhood. Road to Harūnābād runs SE. It is
mainly a gentle descent crossing several streams, and is
passable throughout for all arms.
Harūnābād. Limited supplies. Water plentiful. Forage
except in winter. Wood from the mountains. Route
runs in a general NE. direction to Sālārābād. It is good
except possibly at the Na'l Shikan Pass (see m. 1907 below)
where the Turks are said to have met with difficulties of
transport in summer, 1916. An alternative route to
Māhidesht (see m. 2054 below), though it also goes
through the Na'l Shikan, is said to be good and passable
for all arms. See Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 96, Alterna-
tiye (A).
Here an alternative route to Kirmanshah branches off to E.
See Routes in Persia, vol. iii, No. 96, Alternative (C).
As far as Tang-i-Shuvan village it is good and passable for all arms.
1861
Miles
(contd.
from
main
route)
2061 Tang-1-Shuvan village, just below pass of same name.
Supplies might be collected. Water plentiful. Forage
abundant. Wood from adjacent mountains. From here
across Tang-i-Shuvan to the Siah Chaga the general direc-
tion is NE. Road is passable for laden animals as far as
Adawar, but bad in parts. From Adawar the road is
passable to all arms, but would be very heavy in winter,
| Head of Tang-i-Shuvan pass. Descent for first m. very
steep and dangerous.
212 Adawar village in plain.
2171 Siah Chaga village on Āb-i-Mark river. Supplies could be
collected. Water good and plentiful, No fuel, except
cowdung, available nearer than the Kurkur range.
General direction_to Kirmanshah NE. Road passable as
far as the Ser-i-Āb for all arms.
· 220 | Road begins to ascend to the pass of Sāfid Kuh. Gradients
210








ROUTE 28 a
193
Miles from
Baghdad
29
Miles
(contd.
from
main
route)
over this range are sometimes steep, and guns would have
to be let down with ropes in places.
2223 Summit of pass. Descent steep at first.
Ser-i-Āb at foot of slope : a large spring from which flows
the chief water-supply of the city of Kirmanshah. From
Ser-i-Ab several paths, some narrow and intricate, lead
through gardens to Kirmanshah. Route from Ser-i-Ab
is passable for laden animals. Guns should make a con-
siderable détour to W. to strike main road from Harūnābād
via Māhīdesht.
2291 ) Kirmanshah.
Entrance of Na'l Shikan Pass (see above under m. 1831),
over which road is very bad and stony. Descent from
summit contains gradients which are steep and slippery
for guns. (Another account describes the gradients as
easy, the going being rocky and slippery in places.)
Sālārābād. Supplies scarce. Water from streams. Forage
in spring and summer. Fuel procurable.
From Sālārābād to Māhidesht the general direction is N. by
E. The road is good and passable for all arms.
Here alternative route to Kirmanshah branches off to l.,
going NE. See Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 96, Alternative
(B).
1902
1937
2011
Miles
(contd.
from
main
route)
207
Cross the Āb-i-Mark stream, 14 ft. broad, 10 inches deep,
between 18-ft. banks, 20-30 yds. apart. Much cutting
necessary to render river passable for guns. Cross alluvial
plain, with villages.
213 Route runs through down country.
2151 Summit of hill, 400 ft. First few hundred yards of descent
impassable for guns. Beyond, the descent is gentle.
2161 Ser-i-Āb-Nilnfar, small village. Water good from neigh-
bouring lake. Grazing good in the vicinity. From here to
Kirmanshah the general direction is SE., but in the earlier
part of the stage the route makes a bend to northwards.
219. Kirmanshah-Suleimāniyeh road is reached and followed
into Kirmanshah. See Route 35.
2301 Kirmanshah.
Māhīdesht (generally known as Moidasht). Supplies plen-
tiful, except in winter. Water and forage abundant.
Grazing good in spring and summer. From here to
2057
MES. III
N


194
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
222
Kirmanshah road goes in a general ENE. direction. It is
throughout good and passable for all arms.
Kirmanshah (see Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii). Supplies
abundant. Water and forage plentiful. Fuel from the
mountains.
ROUTE 28 b
BAGHDAD-KIRMANSHAH (2171 m.)
Via MANDALI
Authority :-Routes in Persia, vol. iii, no. 95, from reports of 1897, 1903, and 1906.
There was very little traffic on this route before the war. It was
used by the people of Mandali to carry produce to Kirmanshah, but
not by people from Baghdad. As far as Beledrīz (also spelt Bālādöz)
it has been in use as a route for carts carrying heavy machinery, &c.,
for the D'Arcy Oil Company. (For another road to Beledrīz see
Route 30.) The remainder of the route in its present condition
is only a mule track. It is a difficult route for camel transport. As
far as Mandali the route lies over alluvial plains which after rain.
become more or less inundated and impassable owing to the boggy
nature of the soil. Even a little rain, by making the road slippery
and sticky, may produce a serious obstacle. After heavy rain
some 24 hours at least are required to allow the road to dry sufficiently
to permit of the passage of caravans. The latter part of the route
lies through mountainous and rocky country, and the going is bad
until the main Baghdad-Kirmanshah route is reached at Khor-
āsābād (see m. 1702). To render the route fit throughout for the
passage of carts a large amount of labour would have to be expended
on a great number of points.
Till Khorāsābād there would be practically no supplies along the
route with the exception of the stretch from about 16 m. before
Beledrūz and the stretch between Beledrūz and Mandali. A certain
amount of live stock, however, might be purchased from nomads.
After the rains in the spring there would probably be an abundant
supply of grass and grazing for animals, but later in the summer
it would be extremely scarce. Fuel would be scarce or practically
non-existing until the Persian border was crossed, after which there
would be a certain amount of small shrubs and bushes, becoming
more plentiful in the later stages. The water for the first 73 m.
is rather brackish, more particularly in the summer months. In








ROUTES 28 a, b
195
the latter part of the route the water appears to be good and fairly
abundant from streams. Along the road itself there would be
practically no transport animals obtainable, as the districts passed
through are almost without inhabitants except for some nomad
tribes.
Miles from
Baghdad
Baghdad. The general direction of the route is NE.
The country through which it runs is flat but inter-
spersed with mounds which are seldom more than 15 ft.
above the surrounding country and have gently sloping
sides. They form no real obstacle to the movement
of men, horses, or even carts, but they afford cover
to view or fire to a considerable distance in rear of them.
For the first 8 m. the track is passable for carts in dry
weather, but even a little rain is a serious obstacle, and
after a heavy fall it would be impassable for at least
24 hours after the ground began to dry. An inch of rain
makes the country difficult even for men on foot.
The first group of mounds mentioned above.
Silted-up remains of old canals running generally N. by W.
to S. by E. There are two or three such embankments
varying in height from 15 ft. to 5 ft., and in breadth from
40 ft. to 10 ft.
The soil, which up to this point has been a light clay,
now becomes more sandy.
Boat ferry at the Diyāleh. The river here has steep banks
even at the ferry, and they are in many places precipitous.
It is about 60 yds. wide. The depth varies considerably
according to the season, say from about 15 ft. to 2 ft.
The current of the river varies according to the season
from 4 m.p.h. after a rise to an almost imperceptible
flow during the dry season. The ferry a few years before
the war consisted of a light boat of rectangular or punt
shape, about 30 ft. long by 10 ft. wide, one end of which
was open and nearly flush with the bank ; at this end
embarkation and disembarkation took place. A slack
hemp rope was stretched from bank to bank and moored
to wooden pegs let into the banks. Along this rope the
ferry-boat was hauled by men in the boat; two men
sufficed for this unless the wind was unusually strong and
directly up and down stream, when more labour would be
required. The boat could carry eight horses at a time,
13
N 2


196
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
and a proportionate number of mules or other animals.
The sides of the boat were only about 3 ft. above the
water, and if the animals were restive there was some
danger of their jumping out of the boat or putting their
feet through the sides, which were lightly built of laths
laced between timbers about 4 to 6 inches in diameter,
which formed the ribs of the boat. The outside of the
boat was covered with a kind of pitch or bitumen,
apparently a sufficient protection against leakage. The
boat was furnished with a long rudder built out on
a framework of light timber. The rudder made a powerful
lever, and the boat was proportionately handy. Despite
the steepness of the banks, it is not necessary to unload
animals laden with ordinary weights. On the far, or l.,
bank there are at a distance of 50 ft. the remains of an old
canal - the Nahrawān Canal. It is silted up but is about
20 ft. wide and about 10 ft. high.
Abu 'Arūj, a little N.
General direction of route NE. The country E. of the
Diyaleh is said to be much greener than that on the
Baghdad side. There is sporadic cultivation in some
hollows where rain-water has collected, but it is not
annual. There are one or two encampments of wander-
ing Arabs who halt at places where there is water until it
is finished. The country is featureless and flat, with
a few mounds at intervals. During the h. w. season this
portion of the desert is dotted with shallow lakes,
and it is not possible to move in a straight line in
any direction for more than 3 or 4 m. at a stretch.
These lakes are merely collections of rain-water in depres-
sions of the ground, and do not generally exceed 3 ft. in
depth. There are no reeds or grass in these lakes and no
cover of any kind on or near them. During winter grass
is abundant but very short, and in the hot season the
water and grass disappear, and the place becomes a burn-
ing desert of dust. A portion (not located) of the land
along this route belongs to the Dā'irat es-Sanīyeh and is
fertile. As one approaches Beledrūz the land becomes
lower and marshy. During or soon after rain this part of
the country must be quite impassable.
At 2 or 3 m. from Beledrüz a few irrigation channels are met
with, but they are not a serious obstacle even to carts.








ROUTE 28 b
197
Miles from
Baghdad
46
The main canal from the N., however, known as the
Beledrīz Canal, is about 8 ft. deep and about 20 ft. wide,
and when full is a complete obstacle to all progress except
at the few places where it is bridged. There are only
three such places in the neighbourhood of Beledrūz,
and when they were last reported on one bridge only
consisted of two palm-trees thrown across with some
dust and mud spread over them. The other bridges
are one of brick and one of wood in the village of
Beledrūz itself. The brick bridge is about 10 ft. wide
and strong enough for field artillery or ordinary carts.
It leads into the farm-yard of a farm which belonged
some years ago to a Constantinople Greek named Zarifi.
From the farm-yard there is an exit to r. and l. on the
opposite side of the bridge. The farm-houses and
buildings are of brick and consist of four courtyards
leading by narrow passages one into another.
Beledrūz (Bālādöz). The place is thickly wooded and con-
sists largely of date gardens and orchards. All these
gardens and orchards are enclosed by walls, about a foot
and a half thick and about 10 ft. high. Each enclosure has
one or two narrow doors. The bazaar consists of one street
and is insignificant. The lanes between the gardens are
about 12 ft. wide and very filthy; they are nearly all on a
rectangular plan. The wooden bridge over the canal in the
centre of the village has been described as a frail structure
of wood fit for loaded mules and perhaps camels, but hardly
for anything heavier. It was about 4 ft. wide and was sup-
ported in the centre by a brick column. Water plentiful
and good. There are no trees or bushes between Baghdad
and Mandali except at Beledrūz, and the country round,
with the exception of a few mounds and canal-banks, is
perfectly flat.
At Beledrūz Route 30 joins the present route.
The general direction is now E. by N. Leaving the gardens,
the route starts over a broad clay track through grassy
fields skirting an irrigation-cut. For 2 m. the only road
leads through a reedy marsh with from 18 in. to 2 ft. of
water; the bottom is fairly firm, but in places there are
deep muddy cuts into which the animals sink. The
track is cleared of reeds, and there is no chance of missing
it in the water. The marsh is said to be dry or nearly


198
LAND ROUTES
582
662
Miles from
Baghdad
so in the summer months. By making a détour of some
miles to the S. the marshy part to be crossed is said to
be less, but the route described seems to be the regular
caravan route.
503 The marsh is left, and the plain regained, in the hollows of
which there is an abundance of short green grass.
Small stream, with an occasional pool of sweet water (in
spring ?). From here the ground slopes down gently to
Mandali.
The Nāfāt River, a sluggish stream 20 to 25 yds. wide and
6 ft. deep, with steep earth-banks lined with reeds and
tamarisk scrub. In the hot weather the water is not
only unpleasantly flavoured with petroleum, but is un-
wholesome to drink, causing diarrhoea. The banks of the
Nāfāt are at present impassable for carts, but ramps could
easily be made, for the soil is a soft red sandy loam.
Ford over the river, which is some 40 yds. wide and 2 ft.
deep, with easy approaches. Bottom muddy.
The large tomb of Nabi Tehrān or Imām 'Abdallah is
passed, on a mound 15 m. to the S. A stream flows mid-
way between it and the road. There are several springs and
streams passed in this dip, all brackish and unfit to drink,
and the ground is thickly covered with saline incrusta-
tions. The only vegetation is a few low bushes.
702 | A few scattered fields of barley as the town is approached.
73 Mandali, village situated in a large patch of date gardens.
It is surrounded by trees in walled gardens similar to,
but much more extensive than, those in Beledrūz. The
houses are largely built of mud or sun-dried bricks, and
the enclosure walls in nearly every case of mud. Mandali
is on ground sloping to the S., and is amply supplied
with good water, which is brought by a canal taken off,
from the Gangir River, at a distance of about 3 m. to the
NE. of the town. This canal divides into three branches,
of which one turns northwards without entering the town
and is lost in the desert about 6 m. to the N. of Mandali.
(This branch may be almost parallel to the first part of
Route 29). The other two branches pass through the
town and bifurcate in various directions on the way.
The supplies available at Mandali are of the same kind
as at Beledrūz, but about treble the quantity. There is
ample water in the Gangir River all the year round. This





-
-
-


ROUTE 28 b
199
Miles from
Baghdad
74
Aku
761
stream is very rapid near Mandali, about 5 m. an hour,
and the water is about 21 ft. deep and 60 ft. wide at the
end of February. The banks are greatly shelving and
the bottom is pebbly. At the time when the snows have
begun to melt the stream is probably much larger.
The road continues in a general NE. direction. It runs
at first through the narrow street and date gardens
between high mud walls, and crossing several small
irrigation channels emerges on to the plain and follows
the edge of the enclosures.
Date-groves end, and road crosses a wide grassy plain, leading
towards gap in the range in front.
Two small irrigation canals 6 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep are
crossed. Small date plantations, with tombs dotted along.
side these canals. There are also several mills, and the
banks are lined for a short distance with barley crops.
The clay soil ends here, and the ground becomes stonier
and rougher.
The Rūd-Khāneh-i-Gangir or Āb-i-Ravān (Gangir River)
lies 500 yds. S., running in a wide gravel bed along
several small channels. The road crosses some low
undulations.
Route lies along the course of the river here 400 yds. wide.
The water is brackish, and the banks quite bare of
vegetation. On the l. bank are some low sandstone
cliffs.
The Turco-Persian frontier is here marked by a pile of
stones standing just at the mouth of the open valley
through which the road now runs, leaving the plain.
The road is a good 30-ft. track over red sandstone and
gravelly conglomerate. This open defile, where the
river debouches into the plain, is known as the Tang-i.
Sunmar.
Road continues up the valley, here about 1 m. wide, bordered
by low undulating hills. A small and very brackish
stream enters on the left bank from the direction of
Jebel Atish. Naphtha springs lie in that direction. The
river here winds considerably.
[From this point only a summary is here given of the detailed report
in Routes in Persia, vol. iii, no. 95.]
Road continues up Gangir Valley by a track generally easy
774
777
78


200
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
981
105
1074
and broad, occasionally crossing spurs of hills over
gravelly or stony soil. Patches of grass occur here and
there. Rounded hills at first border the valley, becoming
steeper and more rugged farther on. River forded at
m. 79, m. 941 (or possibly m. 953) and m. 981. The
second ford is difficult owing to swiftness of stream.
River-water brackish up to m. 91. Sweet spring on 1. bank
at m. 79, and several springs of good water at m. 90.
Muaranna camping-ground. Good water, excellent grazing.
Summer camp of Karind Kurds; no village.
Direction still NE. and up valley, across several ravines
and clay undulations. Track rough where it follows
river-bed from m. 997 to m. 100. Then fairly easy till
Steep rocky spur juts across valley causing river to make
a sharp bend. The track ascends a side valley for a short
distance and then turns up over the ridge, following a steep
ascent for 300 yds. by a series of short zigzags.
Road descends into the river valley and again reaches a wide
grassy terrace overlooking river-bed. A cutting in the
soft shale round the extremity of the ridge would make
this into a good cart-road. About 1 m. farther on the
road becomes for 500 yds. a track along a 1 to 2 foot ledge,
taking advantage of the broken parts of nearly vertical
strata overhanging the river. It is impossible to avoid
this bad portion as the river is not fordable here. Cuttings
in the soft shale would not be difficult. The road then
becomes a broad track closely overlooking the cliff along
the left bank.
Pass through Tang-i-Shatar Gardān gorge.
Ford river. The ford is 40 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep over
a rough, rocky bed in a rapid stream. Approach and
ascent easy. Road now enters Sambak Valley.
Road turns sharply to the right up a side valley, the Tam
Valley, the track following bed of a small stream.
Valley gradually opens out into the wide undulating plain
of Cham-i-Surkh, rising towards the N. with some signs of
irrigation and cultivation, with several side valleys. The
stream flowing through this plain is crossed four times.
Camping-ground in centre of valley. The only supplies
would consist of sheep and goats, which could be pur-
chased from the nomads in large numbers. Water from
the stream good. Grazing excellent.
1082
1093
1104
1111
1144








ROUTE 28 b.
201
Miles from
Baghdad
1159
1174
General direction to Zarneh Valley is SE. Road at first
follows a broad track up the centre of the valley on the
stream bank inclining towards N.E. and gradually
ascending. Several small springs in the hill-sides, and
the water-supply good and abundant. On the W. of the
plain is a curiousisolated hill called the Qal'ah-i-Markara,
the top of the hill being crowned by a cliff 60 ft. high and
the ruins of an old fort.
Road skirts slope of Bāgh Kūh range to E. : lower slopes
earth, with large boulders ; shrubs, stunted ilex, and oak.
Road turns up through the Tang-i-Khushk and ascends
a gentle slope up a valley. Gilān Kūh, a steep, rocky
ridge bounding the valley to the NW., lies to l. The pass
is a deep gap between this and the Bāgh Kūh. At the foot
of the pass the gradient is 5º and the valley is 60 to 80 yds.
broad with a small stream. The road winds among trees
and boulders and is stony, but is fairly easy going. The
ascent to the summit of the pass is gradual the whole way,
and could be made a good cart-road. It is at present
passable for artillery.
Summit of pass, 1,875 ft. above the Cham-i-Surkh Plain.
Immediately below to the NE. lies a deep narrow valley
running down towards the Gangir. The road from the
summit keeps along that side of this valley and is rough
and narrow ; in places it is only an 8 to 5 ft. ledge. Soil
rich clay covered with grass. After 2 m. the road descends
by a series of sharp zigzags.
Road takes a sharp bend through the lower pass, also known
as the Tang.i-Khushk. The pass is a rift in the mountain
range from 30 to 40 yds. wide, the total length being
1,300 yds., bordered by precipitous cliffs of grey limestone.
The road is rough and stony and in the spring a torrent
sweeps down the centre. It is level throughout and for
the last 300 yds. the track lies in the dry bed of the torrent.
There are several caves at the N. mouth of the pass. im.
farther on the road opens out into a narrow valley with
steep stony sides, and 1 m. farther emerges into the
Mindar Valley running NW. in the direction of Gilān and
SE. in the direction of Zarneh. It is here 13 m. wide.
1192
1211
1221
Route, passable for wheels except at some bad ravines, to Gilān and
Qasr-i-Shīrin (Route 28 a, m, 112).


202
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
See Roules in Persia, corrections to rol. iii, 1914, no. 95 B.
125 The summit of a long gradual ascent on an easy track is
reached, this ridge forming watershed of the Gilān and
Zarneh valleys. Road passes ruins on the site of Karan.
Trees gradually disappear as descent is made, and Zarneh
Plain is quite bare.
1341 Camping ground near the ruins of old Zarneh. Supplies
possibly procurable from nomads..
General direction of road to Charmilleh NE. It follows
a broad track down centre of the valley over gravelly
soil where going is easy. It slopes gradually towards the
centre and numerous small streams are passed flowing
towards Zarneh. These join the head-waters of the
Gangīr.
1392 Ruins of village of Zarneh on a large tumulus 200 yds. in
diameter and 100 ft. above the plain. A few of the houses
are still standing. Just north of the tumulus lies a large
spring called the Chasmeh-i-Zarneh, from which a stream
of good water issues. Numerous other small springs are
passed and water is abundant at all times of the year.
The plain grows good grass, and patches of Indian corn
are sown on it by nomads as soon as snow is off the
ground. At southern end of plain is Manisht Kūh.
1401 The road leaves Zarneh Plain and turns up through a pass
in the ridge bordering it on the E. The pass is 30 to
40 ft. wide at its narrowest, and 400 yds. at its broadest,
bordered by steep grassy slopes dotted with a few trees
and topped with steep rugged cliffs. The track is level,
but the going is rough owing to loose stones which might
at parts easily be cleared away. At times the road follows
the dry bed of a stream.
143 Road emerges into a small grassy valley 1 m. broad bordered
on the N. by a steep ridge called the Gumir Kūh im-
passable on this side because of sheets of vertical limestone
strata. The valley runs up 2 m. in a NW. direction
and is well wooded. The road leads diagonally across the
valley. To the S. lie the undulating table-land and hills
of Asimābād or Asmānābād, where are the extensive
ruins of an ancient city. A long gradual slope rises from
here to the flat summit of Manisht Küh.
1443 | Head of the valley is reached and the road turns E. up








ROUTE 28 b
203
Miles from
Baghdad
1452
1473
a stony, rough ascent for 400 yds. through trees. The
track is rough and occasionally much obstructed by large
stones and (at m. 1454) by a rough, steep ascent under
overhanging trees.
Summit of col is reached and road proceeds along ridge by
a broad track. Soil is rich and grows good grass. Track
is broad and well defined through forest and the going is
easy. The head of the Chillav Valley is passed. Track
descends from the head of the col into it and then turns
north again and emerges into
A small grassy basin shut in between hills. This place,
Charmilleh camp, is sometimes used by the nomads as
a camping-ground. Supplies, especially live stock, might
be obtained from the nomads.
A road runs through the Chillav Valley from Gilān, and another
branches off here to Harūnābād through Guar.
Through the valley also passes a route from Ser-i-Pul (i-zuhab) to
Deh Bālā. See Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 97.
The route now goes in a general N. direction to Tirau camp.
Begin the ascent of the Kalāja Kūh, a lofty rocky ridge
separating the road from the Harūnābād district. Track
rough at times: it could be improved by clearing loose
stones. Steep stretch for 300 yds. at m. 150. Ascent
thence to summit more gradual and consisting of several
mule-paths running between large stones ; along the side
a stony ravine: dwarf oaks, &c., on hill-side.
Summit of Derbend-i-Kalāja Pass. This is the highest
point on the route. The crest of the ridge, a rounded
summit, lies 1,000 ft. higher to the right. The descent of
the northern slope of the range is much steeper and
occasionally rough, but becomes easier towards the end.
Foot of the range is reached and the route strikes across the
Guar Valley, which extends for some 20 to 25 miles. It
averages 3 to 4 m. in width and is covered with abundance
- of fine grass and watered by numerous small springs and
streams from the foot of the border ranges. Stream in
the centre of the valley 12 ft. wide and 8 inches deep with
sloping earth-banks, flowing over a gravelly bottom.
Defile of the Tang-i-Juimerk, 300 yds. broad, is entered, in
the range bordering the valley on the N. Road is a level
and much used track : rocky shelving slopes on either
hand ; no difficulties except from stoniness of road.
1502
156


204
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
156
158.
159
1601
1614
Road bifurcates, one branch going direct to Karind over the
Nua Kūh : said to be a rough mountain track.
The other side of the valley reached and road ascends a suc-
cession of stony spurs and mounds. Track good but very
rough with scattered loose stones.
Summit of ridge reached and route zigzags down a narrow
track over stones and boulders and between low trees.
The slope of the hill is 22°. This is the most difficult
portion of the route between Charmilleh and Tirau camps.
After a descent of 320 ft. the road reaches the level of
the Tirau Valley and starts along a broad track across
a grassy valley. Several old ruins.
Camping-ground by small stream. Soil rich gravelly clay.
This is a summer camping-ground of nomads, from
whom supplies might be obtained. Water from the
stream. Grazing plentiful. Fuel good.
General direction of road N. It strikes diagonally across
valley to ascend rounded ridge NW. of the valley.
Route ascends rough, stony mule-track 6 to 8 ft. broad
following the side of a small ravine. This might be made
a good road. The series of undulating hills hereabouts
is known as the Chalbaca Kūh, which forms part of
a long spur from the Nua Kūh to the NW. Paths cross
it at any point.
Undulating plateau dotted over with good oak and pistachio
trees. There is no perceptible track here and horses sink
into the soft friable soil at every step.
Gradual descent begins, following the line of a rocky ravine.
Road emerges on to a lower grassy terrace of the ridge by an
easy gradient. m. farther on the ruins of a village are
passed and the road descends a grassy valley bordered by
a few stunted trees. Soon after the valley narrows to
4 m. with craggy sides and the going becomes more
stony.
Route emerges into an open basin 2 m. wide with fine grass.
1 m. farther on the valley again narrows to 100 yds, with
low cliffs on either hand. The track is stony but the
going easy; a little clearing would make a road of easy
gradient through this pass. m. farther on valley opens
out again. Side valley bounded by rounded hills stretches
away to l. for about 1 m. All this ridge is fertile and
grows rich grass. It has numerous ruins but is unin-
1621
1632
1641
1673








ROUTES 28 b, 29
205
Miles from
Baghdad.
169
habited. The road now enters a craggy valley bordered
by cliffs of grey limestone down which runs the Karind
River. This is called the Tang-i-Ismā'īlu.
River is forded, 30 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep with a rapid
stream over a stony bed among boulders ; the route con-
tinues along a broad track down the left bank; the pass
is 100 yds. wide and on either side are two high, conical,
craggy cliffs. Emerging from the pass the river makes
a rapid turn off to the r. and the road leaves it and turns
up a small valley bordered by rounded hills. It is
a well-defined, easy track along a stream-bed almost dry.
Some cultivation along river bank. Wheat seen here for
the first time since leaving Mandali.
Main road from Baghdad to Kirmanshah via Khanikin
reached.
Village of Khorāsābād, 50 flat-roofed huts of mud and stone.
Grazing good. Fuel plentiful.
For continuation of route to Harūnābād (1783 m.), Sālār.
ābād (1883 m.), Māhīdesht (2003 m.), Kirmanshah
(2174 m.), see Route 28 a.
1704
1702
ROUTE 29
MANDALI-KHANIKIN (45 m.)
Authority :-Routes in Persia, Corrections to vol. iii (1914), Route 95 A.
This route is much used, especially by oil caravans. It connects
Route 28 a and Route 28 b. In 1912 it was reported to be
unsafe in winter and spring owing to brigands, as it lies on the
Persian frontier, and to be subject to raids from the Kalhur, Sanjabi,
Ahmedavand Buhtai, and Qaraūlūs. It runs across a plain for most
of its length, and is practicable for light wheeled traffic. The climate
is excessively hot during June-September owing to the hot wind
known as bād-i-sām. Grazing in plenty is to be obtained from
January to March, none at other seasons. General direction N.
In the neighbourhood of Mandali beyond the date plantations
of the town the ground is broken. Water, good and bad, is here to
be found. Encampments and villages of Qaraūlūs are to be seen.
There is a choice between several tracks out of Mandali. One track
is said to go a little E. of the Gangīr River, which is rapid and


206
LAND ROUTES
contains ample water at all times. The route then approaches the
Bāghcheh Hills, and follows round the foot, passing over the spurs.
The ground is stony and bad : gullies are crossed in places. After
April no water is to be found beyond a small spring in Qatār. Having
passed the Bāghcheh Hills (? 33 m.) the country is flat as far as
Khanikin (45 m.).
A report of 1916 refers to one canal of good water, and slightly
brackish water elsewhere between Mandali and Khanikin : exact
route not specified.
ROUTE 30
BAGHDAD-BELEDRŪZ (524 m.)
Via BAHRĪZ
Authority :-Routes in Persia, vol. iii, 95, Alternative Stage (A).
Miles from
Baghdad
24
28
282
294
Baghdad. General direction NE. For the first 24 m. of
the road, see Baghdad-Kirmanshah via Khanikin (Route
28 a). For general description of the country on the
route see introductions to Routes 28 a and 28 b.
Here main road and T.L., which proceed in the direction
of Bāqūbeh, are left.
Bed of an old canal is crossed.
Sudden dip in the plain is reached. The Diyāleh River is
here about 1 m. S., the river making a sharp bend. The
road crosses a hollow, said to be the ancient bed of the
river, in which there is water in high floods.
River bank is reached. The stream is about 150 yds, wide,
with a moderate current. It runs in a deep bed sunk
25 to 30 ft. below the general level of the plain with
steep earth banks. Ferry, as last reported, consisted of
an old hull of a native craft (baghalah) which carried about
six animals.
Bahrīz, 400 houses on 1. bank of the stream. There are
two caravanserais and a small but well-supplied bazaar,
in which grain and dates, &c., are procurable in abun-
dance, and fruit in autumn. Supplies plentiful. Good
water from the river. Grass on the plain in the spring.
Road now goes in a general E. direction. Leaving the
caravanserai the road at first skirts the Khorāsān Canal,
crossing several small side channels emerging from
291








ROUTES 29, 30, 31
207
Miles from
Baghdad
311
it. The track is 10 to 12 ft. wide, through barley and
wheat fields. Good clover and grass on the waste land.
The canals are mostly 4 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep, and easily
crossed. The main channels are 6 to 8 ft. deep, and
difficult for mules. Flocks of sheep and goats are grazed
on the plain.
Small shrine of Imām Abu Feyyāb passed 1 m. to the S.
There is a cluster of huts, with a few date-trees round it.
This forms a good landmark on the plain. The belt of
irrigated land now gradually ceases, and open alluvial
plain commences. The shrine of Abu Khums lies about
6 m. to the S.
Irrigation cuts are left, and the route strikes across the
plain in a direction almost due E. Winding track.
Shehr Habīb, extensive ruins, strewn with broken pottery
and bricks, marking site of an ancient town. Water
lodges close by in some of the hollows of old canals,
where plenty of green grass is to be found.
Good water hereabouts, apparently from canal.
The last of the brick mounds is passed.
Small tomb 2 m. to the S. on a mound.
Marshy hollow, about 1 m. square, to the N. The water in
these hollows is not good, but is sweet and drinkable.
A few Arab encampments with flocks of sheep and goats
may be seen. The general direction of the canals is NE.
and SW. They are not in straight lines, but wind in
all directions.
Road reaches the W. side of the large grove of dates, in
which Beledrūz (also written Bālādöz) is situated. (For
description, see Route 28 b, m. 46.)
AWAH
HR4
523
ROUTE 31
BAGHDAD–BĀQŪBEH (47 m.)
Via The DIYĀLEH BRIDGE AND LEFT BANK OF THE DIYĀLEH RIVER
Authority : Route Report of January 1904
For main road to Bāqūbeh see Route 28 a. In 1904 the country
for 2 m. above the mouth of the Diyāleh (m. 9), near Bahrīz (m. 43),


208
LAND ROUTES
and between that place and Bāqubeh, was cut up by numerous water-
cuts which were impassable for wheels. The soil on the l. bank of
the Diyāleh is a sandy clay, in places heavy going. The authority
above referred to calls the country on the river bank, from 2 m. above
the Diyāleh mouth to near Bahrīz, open desert. But another account
describes the plain to the E. of the river in the region of Abu 'Aruj
as bearing abundant short grass in winter (which, however, dries up
completely in summer) and as containing patches of cultivation here
and there in the hollows. (See Route 28 b, m. 14.)
Miles from
Baghdad
9
Baghdad. Leave the city by the gate called Bāb esh-
Sharqi, and proceed SE.
Qarāreh, on l. bank of the Tigris. (Boat-bridge here
across the Tigris often removed in flood season: for
description, see vol. ii, Route III C, m. 1903.) Proceed on
1. bank of Tigris.
Mouth of Diyāleh River Cross boat-bridge. In 1904
this bridge consisted of 16 boats, with one spare boat:
each was flat-bottomed, 32 ft. long, 12 ft. wide, and
6 ft. deep. The bridge was divided into four sections
connected by planking. The banks at the bridge, though
ramped, were reported steep (about 20%) and difficult for
wheels. In the neighbourhood of the bridge they were
precipitous and 30 ft. above water. A few mud huts at
each end of the bridge.
Turn NNE., and ascend 1. bank of Diyāleh River. Many
water-cuts, described in 1904 as 'very difficult or rather
impassable for wheels without a little bridging or
ramping'.
Water-cuts cease. Country "an open desert-cultivable
but uncultivated in all directions' (1904).
In this neighbourhood there was in 1904 an encampment
of Arabs belonging to a small tribe called Neza Daag (?).
The authority already mentioned 'camped in their
vicinity after having marched for six hours' (from
Baghdad).
Continue along 1. bank over open sandy plain. In some
places the sandy dust is heavy and trying to animals.
Track crosses and recrosses several times an old dry
canal or river bed, marked on recent maps as the
Nahrawān Canal, on earlier ones, apparently, as the old
bed of the Diyāleh.








ROUTES 31, 32 a
209
Miles from
Baghdad
231
32
Pass 'Abu Arūj ferry across the Diyaleh, near Sifweh
ruins. Continue along l. bank.
In this neighbourhood the authority of 1904 crossed the
old bed of the Diyāleh '(Nahrawan Canal ?, see p. 33) at
the point where it took off from the Diyāleh. He adds,
* This point was about 5 m. S. of Abu Khums, and the
alignment on the map (Sheet 56, SW. Asia Series) of this
old bed of the Diyāleh is quite misleading. At this point
it looks as if the bank of the present stream were giving
way on the E. side, and as if the river would in a high
flood again take the old bed. This might result in a
large marsh near Sifweh, which would probably affect
the climate and health of Baghdad.'
Pass Abu Khums, a shrine in the plain, apparently 2–3 m.
E. of the river.
As Bahrīz is approached, the country is much broken by
water-cuts with narrow plank bridges. These water-
cuts would be quite impassable for artillery or wheeled
transport (1904).
Bahrīz. (See Route 30, m. 291.)
Between Bahrīz and Bāqūbeh the road crosses numerous
water-cuts impassable for artillery or wheeled transport
without some bridging. Date gardens along river begin
to l. of track a short way beyond Bahrīz.
| Bāqūbeh.
37
47
ROUTE 32 a
KHANIKIN-SALAHIYEH (KUFRI) (331 m.)
Authority :--Lorimer, Report on a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan in
April-May 1910.
This route lies over open rolling country, the only serious
obstacle to artillery being the Diyāleh River (see m. 133). On the
W. side of the river the road is reported to be frequently intersected
by small ravines, few if any of them more than 12 ft. deep and
20 ft. broad, and probably all capable of being easily made passable
for artillery. The country seems to be fairly well populated, and
there is a certain amount of cultivation. Water seems sufficient,
but there is no information with regard to a water-supply, beyond
MES. 111


210
LAND ROUTES
the references to streams in the itinerary. Clover was seen here and
there E. of the Diyāleh.
The times given in the text of the itinerary are from the authority
mentioned above : they are those of riders, not of the baggage
caravan. The riders took 3 hrs. 22 min. from Khanikin to the
Diyāleh ferry (E. bank), the baggage a little over 4 hrs. (Passage
of river by raft-ferry, 3 hrs.) From the W. bank of the river to
Zengabād the riders took 30 min., the baggage 40 min. From
Zengabād to Salāhiyeh (Kufri) the riders' time was 5 hrs. 9 min.,
that of the baggage 7 hrs. 50 min. The approximate distances given
in the margin are only calculations from the riders' times at an
average rate of 31 m. an hour.
Miles from
Khani.
å
| At 15
Khanikin. Follow r. bank of Ālvand River, here 20–30 yds.
broad and generally fordable.
At 15 min. leave bank of river crossing flat lands (fallow, &c.),
passing a hollow called Darwanjik coming from hills on
the N.
At 20 min. cross a canal called Quleh, 20 ft. wide, water
3 ft. deep, coming from W. Khanikin lies to SE.,
Kawazi village 1 m. NE., tomb of 'Abbās on a mound
å m. SW., Aliwayeh (100 houses of Kurds) 1 m. W.
Just beyond this point the Quleh Canal is spanned by an
aqueduct 4 ft. wide.
13 | At 35 min. Aliwayeh village, mentioned above, lies 1 m.
to S. by W. on a ridge, with small village (Mohammed
Shehr Bey) in line with it {m. nearer. Husein village
(50 Kurdish houses) lies 17 m. to ENE. Imām Beidhā
Mahmūd, tomb on light-coloured mound, 3 m. to NNW.:
two palm-groves on each side of mound (see m. 44),
behind them (out of sight) Băweh Palau (or Falawi)
village, 150 houses of Kurds. Sheikh Hasan, 30-50
houses of Arahs to NW. by W., on road farther on.
Red peak of Marwari Hill, near Dekkeh, about 10 m.
NW. by N. Proceed NW. by W.
23 | At 56 min. Sheikh Hasan village mentioned above.
3 small Kurdish villages 3 m. to NE. Marwari Hill
about NW. by N.
31 At 1 hr. 6 min., Khanikin lies SE. Imām Beidhā Mahmud
lies 1-11 m. N. Part of Bāweh Palāu, mentioned above,
lies 13-2 m. N. by W.








ROUTE 32 a
211
Miles from 1
Khani.
41
PHNE
12
At 1 hr. 18 min., pass Imām Beidhā Mahmūd, 3 m. to r.
At 1 hr. 24 min., pass second of two date-groves mentioned
under m. 11. These date-groves are irrigated by a spring
from Marwari Hill.
At 1 hr. 38 min. Bāweh Dāgh mound to r. of road.
Several small Arab villages from W. to SW. at various
distances. Tel Mal Quleh 2 m. SW. by W. Crops of
clover, wheat, and barley, irrigated from Quleh Canal.
Hamrin hills visible on l. front from WNW. to WSW.
At 1 hr. 58 min. reach rising ground.
At 2 hrs. 8 min., top of rising ground. Marwari peak at
3-31 m. N. by W.
At 2 hrs. 19 m. pass Bankan, Kurdish village to l. of road.
At 2 hrs. 30 min. Ghaznah Tepeh, light-coloured mound
on r. of road. Hamrin hills along horizon from W. to
SW. To WNW. at 2 m. Mahmud Rõsam, small Kurdish
village. Dekkeh to NW. Marwari peak slightly W. of
N. Khanikin slightly E, to SE. Sangar Canal runs from
W. along 1. side of road between this period and Dekkeh,
6 ft. wide and 6 in. of water.
At 3 hrs. 2 min. reach Dekkeh, just beyond a ruined village.
Dekkeh contains 60 houses of Jaf Kurds. Marwari
peak 2 m. to ENE. Beyond Diyāleh River the Ban Sanduq
hills appear from NW. to W. (called Kara Bulak on
W. 0. Map, E.T.A., sheet 38: they are there marked
extending too far S. : they do not go farther S. than
Dekkeh). Zengabād village across the Diyāleh, 4 m.
distant. For 15 min. through thick growth of palk (a
bush with round leaves which vary in size between
a shilling and a half-crown). Then for 5 min. over
shingle to the edge of the Diyāleh.
131 | At 3 hrs. 22 min. Diyāleh ferry. Marwari peak bears ENE.
at 3-4 m. To NNE., apparently at 7-8 m., upper
Qara Bulāq, village of 30 houses of Talabānīyeh Kurds
(Sheikh Tayyib's section) at a red hillock : said to be on
W. bank of Diyāleh. To N. at about 5 m. the greater
Qara Bulāq village, 50-60 houses of Kurds of the same
tribe and section.
Small raft-ferry (16 skins): it was said in 1910 that no
other ferries existed either up or down stream. Raft in
April 1910 drifted i å m. down stream and reached
o 2


212
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Khani.
kin
16
171
181
opposite side at off-take of a canal called Kashawul leading
towards Zengabād. Width of stream at narrowest, in
April 1910, 150 yds. General direction of river N.-S.
It took 3 hrs. to ferry two travellers over with servants
and baggage, the raft making more than one journey.
Unloaded mules swam by a more direct line. · See further
Route 32 b, m. 25. From landing-place Zengabād lay
WSW. Ban Sanduq hills from NW. to nearly N.
Cross open ground and fields.
At 30 min. for riders, or 40 min. for baggage, from landing.
place, reach Zengabād village. 200 houses of Zengabad
Kurds. Small suburb about 1 m. to W. A few Jews.
Mosque. Gardens of Dā'rat es-Sanīyeh. Irrigation from
two water-cuts on W. and E. of village.
About 1 m. to W., Tepeh Girān, conspicuous mound.
Road proceeds NNW., passing crops.
At 25 min. from Zengabād, Ban Sanduq village, 40 houses
of Zengabād Kurds. Shaitapaneh village, 25 houses of
Zengabād Kurds, W. by S. Low hills to r. of road.
Direction to m. 181, somewhat W. of NW.
| At 40 min. from Zengabād neck of low hills. Zengabād
lies SE. Shaita paneh 2 m. SSW. Marwari peak to E.
Just beyond this point on road is a ruined village.
At 55 min. from Zengabād, Tazashan village, 30 houses of
Zengabād Kurds. Direction to m. 20 NW.
At 1 hr. 7 min. from Zengabād, Hājilar village (70 houses
of Zengabād Kurds belonging to Majid Pasha of Salāhiyeh)
is 1 m. distant, a little W. of SSW. Direction to m. 211
a little N. of WNW.
At 1 hr. 12 min. from Zengabād pass Kokaz village,
30 houses of Zengabād Kurds, to 1. of road.
At 1 hr. 27 min. from Zengabad, Tepeh Chami hamlet
(7 houses) 11 m. SW. by S. Direction to m. 221 WNW.
by N.
| At i hr. 50 min. from Zengabād the tomb of Ibrāhim Samim
is 4 m. to SW., Tepeh ‘Ali, 40 houses of Zengāneh Kurds,
about 31 m. SW. by S. Arab village of 30 houses 2 m.
to r. On l. the Hamrin range runs from WNW. to SSE.
| At 2 hrs. 15 min. from Zengabad, Kushk, ruins and mound,
on r. of road. Ibrāhīm Samim, mentioned above, bears
SSW. and Tepeh 'Ali S. by W.
194
20
21
221








ROUTE 32 a
213
Miles from
Khani.
kin
241
27
Cross Kodareh watercourse, dry, about 8 ft. deep and 24 ft.
broad. End of Zengabād territory. Direction to m. 27
NW. by N.
At 3 hrs. 9 min. from Zengabād, Zardeh village, 120 houses
of Zengāneh Kurds, lies 1 m. WSW. Mound of Teleshān
(or Tel Ishān) about 2 m. to W. (Village of same name
on road ahead.) Eski Kufri several miles WNW. Near
here, at a place called Salaisheh, there is a garden
belonging to Haji Husein, son of Sa'id Ahmad of Kufri.
The low hills to r. of road are hereabouts called Chalau
Khurik (or Chalāo Khurik): to NNE., beyond them,
other reddish hills called Shirwāneh are visible. Direction
to m. 281 NW.
Cross shingly bed of Zardeh stream, which is here formed
by the junction of a stream of sweet water coming from
N. with another stream not so sweet from E. Each
stream in April was clear, a few feet broad, and quite
shallow. The Zardeh is said to run W. for a mile or two
and to be expended in irrigation.
At 3 hrs. 32 min. from Zengabād, Teleshān village, 40
houses of Zengāneh Kurds. Direction N. by E. to m. 283.
Ground hilly.
At 3 hrs. 40 min. pass mill of 'Abd el-Aziz Agha of Qara
Tepeh.
At 3 hrs. 52 min., mound by road, from which Salāhiyeh
(Kufri) bears due N. Tanaishimyeh village (60-70
houses of Zengāneh Kurds) 21 m. to NE. Rāhi Murgheh
village, 100 houses of Zengāneh Kurds, 31 m. E. by N.
Proceed through low hills, not far from bed of a stream
flowing from Salāhiyeh.
At 4 hrs. 29 min. Sercham, temporary harvesters' village,
was passed in April 1910.
Cross flat land, with some cultivation.
| At 5 hrs. 9 min. from Zengabād, Salāhiyeh (Kufri).
283
282
292
311
33


214
LAND ROUTES
ROUTE 32 b
SALĀHIYEH (KUFRI)–KHANIKIN (40 m.)
Via Kula SU
Authority :-Route report of 1910 (apparently of a journey taken in 1909).
This track is over level ground all the way, and suitable for guns
and wheeled transport, though the soft soil would make very bad
going after rain or the passage of heavy traffic. The only serious
obstacle is the Diyāleh (see m. 25 below). Sheep and goats plentiful,
and perhaps some other supplies from villages in the Diyāleh Valley.
Water plentiful in the Diyāleh Valley (canals from river). Very
good spring grazing Fuel plentiful. Good camping-ground near
the Diyāleh. A few horses might be collected en route.
It is possible that Defteh (m. 27 below) village is the same as
Dekkeh in Route 32 a, m. 12.
Miles from
Salāhi-
yeh
Salāhiyeh. Track leaves Salāhiyeh slightly E. of S. by
E. (165º). Cross wadi (apparently the bed of the Kufri
(Chechepan) Su is meant).
Reach rolling downs; cross these.
Reach plain. Here track runs S., with wadi parallel to it.
Aleaza village, about 50 houses, on both sides of wadi,
which is here about 4 furlongs broad, with 2 streams,
each 12 ft. broad, 1 ft. deep.
Track leaves wadi (which bends to E.), and bears slightly
S. of SSE. (160°) across sandy desert.
Cross small stream. Track changes to between SE. and
SE. by E. (1300).
River to W. Thence continues slightly E. of ESE. (1109).
Grass more abundant. Bear slightly E. of E. by S. (1009).
Bear slightly E. of ESE. (110º).
Shrine passed on W.
Kula Su village, 600-700 inhabitants. Other villages in
neighbourhood at intervals of a mile or so.
Bear between NE. and NE. by N. (409).
Diyāleh River. Camping ground for large force on bank.
Bed of the river here about i m. wide; in spring it is





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--
--
-
-
-
-
-


ROUTES 32 b, 33 -
215
Miles from
Salāhi-
yeh
filled from bank to bank and unfordable. At other times
two channels run in it, enclosing a large island. In 1909
the western channel was only 1 ft. deep and 20 ft. broad,
easily crossable; the eastern was about 50 yds. broad
and generally 6 ft. deep, but shallowing to 4 ft. at a ford,
which runs from the southern end of the island above-
mentioned, just N. of another, smaller, island. The
Diyāleh, however, alters considerably with every spring
flood, and these details may not hold at present.
Keleks are constructed at Defteh village.
From E. bank of river track continues as before between
NE. and NE. by N. (409).
Defteh village. Proceed, apparently, between SE. and
SE. by E. (Authority has here and at m. 36230° ,
apparently an error for ‘130°?:)
Gāzābād village. In same direction as before to-
Large conspicuous mound. Proceed SE.
Direction apparently between SE. and SE. by E. See above,
m. 27.
Khanikin.
ROUTE 33
QASR-I-SHĪRĪN--SALĀHIYEH (KUFRI) (553 m. ?)
Authority :-Routes in Persia, vol, ii, no. 72.
On at least one stage there seems to be some confusion in the
authority with regard to distances : see under m. 204. The report
dates from 1888: the route was apparently traversed at some time
in the dry season. The route appears to be very little used. The
track is often ill-defined, and is much intersected by streams and
ravines. It would be unsuitable for wheeled traffic without much
previous preparation and labour. The Diyāleh River would need
bridging: this, it is stated, could be easily done by pontoons or
trestles.
In 1888 good crops were passed en route. Cattle were available
in limited numbers. Water from streams, &c., throughout. Forage
scarce. No information as to fuel. Transport not obtainable.


216
· LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Qasr-i-
Shirin
Qasr-i-Shīrīn. General direction to Merkez W. Leave
Qasr-i-Shīrīn and strike across some low, gravelly un-
dulations by a well-defined track, in direction 258°
(W. by S.). Soil, light clay and gravel, growing thin
grass mostly burnt up in dry season. For 1 m. out of
town, barley and wheat crops (1888). Gradient ascends
gradually till a few pools and little streams are passed
in a ravine. Gradient now becomes steeper, ascending
low, rounded range of conglomerate hills. Broad, easy
track over ridge, which can be passed at any point.
Grass sometimes available in hollows.
Rounded summit of ridge, alt. 2,020 ft. (a rise of nearly
600 ft. from the start). Cross it skirting a dry, gravelly
ravine to r. Along the summit of the ridge runs the
Turco-Persian frontier, as settled in 1914. The NW. side
of ridge is cut up by several long ravines running towards
the Diyāleh. Begin easy descent along ridge of a spur ;
valley with dry water-course to l. Wide view over
Diyāleh Valley, a gently undulating country intervening.
Short steep descent for 100 yds. from end of spur at
junction of two valleys. Valley to r. contains gravelly
bed of stream 150–200 yards wide ; stream in valley to
1. nearly dry in l.w. season. Water disappears in this
gravelly soil, but could be found in wells or karez.
Follow stream bank: easy going over gravel and pebbles.
Track in 1888 seemed to be hardly ever used. Stream
contains good clear water. Tall hedges on banks; no
trees in sight; some fields of Indian corn close by. Pass
round masonry tower, some 30 ft. high, on spur to r.
This in 1888 was a frontier mark (but see above). A
line of these towers runs about NNW. towards Diyaleh
(341°), and between SSW. and S. by W. (1979) towards
Khanikin. Pass through some low gravelly mounds,
and emerge into a flat valley 1 m. wide. Well-defined
track over light, gravelly soil, well cultivated with good
wheat and barley, to :
1211
Merkez village, 80 well-built houses (1888). Alt. 1,045 ft.
Population Turkomans, speaking only Turkish. On
spur close by strong brick loopholed building, which in
1888 contained 50 zaptiehs. Water from a karez, from
which runs a clear stream 4 ft. wide, 6 in. deep. Soil








ROUTE 33
217
Miles from
Qasr-i.
Shirin
204
a light loam, growing wheat and barley well, also
rice.
General direction NNW. to Salāhi. Follow easy track
over undulating gravelly plain. Cross dry bed of stream,
100–150 yds. wide, running south towards the Diyāleh.
Ascend a flat-topped ridge which here crosses the plain :
track only very slightly defined. The northern side slopes
very gradually towards the Diyāleh Valley. Grass on
hill-slopes poor, but improves nearer the valley. Track
easy and gravelly.
Salāhi village, 1 m. to r. of track, surrounded by three
large orchards and cultivation.
General direction to Sheikh Sa'id on farther side of
Diyāleh, N. (Another Sheikh Sa'id is passed just after
leaving Salābi.)
With regard to this stage there appears to be some
confusion in the route-book, and possibly in the W.O.
map, sheet 38. The distance given between Salāhi and
Sheikh Sa'id in Routes in Persia, vol. ii, no. 72, is 20 miles.
This seems to be too long, unless a very considerable
detour is made, of which there is no mention in the
report. On the other hand, Hamrala is marked on the
map as lying to the S. of Salāhi, whereas the Sheikh
Sa'id which is passed near Salāhi is placed about WSW.
of Salāhi, between it and the Diyāleh. The Diyāleh
River at about 5 m. from Salāhi, on bearing 26° (slightly
E. of NNE.), breaks through a ridge in the hills and
emerges into the plain.
Cross large canal which runs through Salāhi and irri-
gates country between it and river by numerous minor
cuts. Canal 20 ft. broad and about 2 ft. deep.
On the eastern bank the ground slopes up, and is
drier and less cultivated. Clay track 15-20 ft. wide,
through wheat fields, follows r. bank of canal. Pass
deep irrigation cut 8 ft. wide and sunk 6-8 ft. below
the surface. It is crossed by rough bridge of tree
trunks with fascines and earth : there are several of
these little bridges, otherwise the canal would be difficult
for laden mules. Several mills dotted about the plain,
each with a loopholed watch-tower some 30 ft. high.
Pass Hamr'ala village (150 houses, some well-built of


218
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Qasr-i-
Shะจีน.
254 (?)
.
bricks) surrounded by fruit gardens. Close by is a large
ruin mound, containing bricks which in 1888 were being
dug out by natives for building purposes. Inhabitants
of this valley are Bagilan, half Arab, half Kurd, wearing
Arab dress. Extending S. from here is a well-cultivated
plain 8-10 m. long, dotted with several villages, each
surrounded by an orchard. Another ruin mound 1 m.
to r. From Hamr'ala cross plain to NW., approaching
the Diyāleh. Soil fertile, irrigated by numerous small
canals ; narrow track through tall grass and cornfields.
Pass Shaki village, 250 houses in 1888, including some
good two-storied buildings, but apparently suffering from
Hamawand raids; low mud wall breached in several
places round village. Good crops of wheat and rice
grown in this valley. Rafts constructed here for passage
of the river in 1888: none ready-made. On nearing
river enter belt of tall hedges and osiers extending to
river-bank.
Diyāleh River. The river flows in a wide gravelly bed,
with several channels. The course taken by the stream
varies from year to year, and also the point for crossing.
Rafts can only take light loads in high water. Mules
and horses have to be swum across. When the river
was crossed in 1888 there were broad sedgy flats and
creeks on the l. bank, and on the r. low gravel cliffs
25 ft. high, with ruins of small village. The main deep
channel was then near r. bank, and the other channels
were fordable. Opposite ford the ruins of a small village.
Route from r. bank passes low gravelly undulations
covered with a little grass. Soil improves, and, later,
cultivation (wheat and barley) is to be seen. No cultiva-
tion or irrigated ground on r. bank, which rises rapidly
to some low undulations on the l. Pass dry gravelly
bed of ravine from l. On nearing Sheikh Sa'id cross
rich soil, unirrigated, growing good wheat and barley.
Easy track between fields.
Sheikh Sa'id, 150 mud huts : Kurds. Cultivation in
a sort of basin of 3-4 m. radius round village. Plain
quite treeless. Water-mill turned by a small irrigation-
cut. (On river bank 3 m. from Sheikh Sa'id is Qal'ah
Shīrwān, in 1888 winter residence of a Jaf chief, a fine
292 (?)








ROUTE 33
219
Miles from
Qasr-i-
Shirin
stone building. Some 6 m. to NE. a range of low
rounded hills, at the foot of which were some ruins and
a ziyāret.)
From Sheikh Sa'id to Salāhiyeh (Kufri) general direction
W.
Leave village along a good track over a broad valley
sloping gently upwards from river. Good gravelly soil.
Pass dry, gravelly bed of stream running into Gök Su.
Pass several dry ravines. Plain 6-8 m. wide, perfectly
open and bare; gravelly soil would grow good wheat
crops.
Reach bank of Gök Su, a large stream flowing into the
Diyāleh. Gravelly bed, 200 yds. wide, with many small
channels: good clear water. Ford stream. Good soil
with a little grass on the plain: only ruined village
visible. Good soil with a little grass. Gradually ascend
a low range of hills on r. bank of Gök Su. Turn up
side valley over some low spurs. This range is called
Jebel Kushki (Dry Hill) owing to absence of water in
ravines. Best line to Salāhiyeh is parallel to ridge, the
general direction of which is from NW. by N. to SE. by
S.; it is easily passable at any point. No well-defined
road, but several small paths. The range is cut up by
many gravelly ravines with strata of gypsum cropping
out here and there.
Reach crest of ridge (alt. 1,290 ft.): view back over plain
of Gök Su: no village or trees in sight. Descent winds
among steep gravelly spurs; no well-defined track; cross
several small stream-beds; a little grass in the hollows.
Cross stream with little water in wide and stony bed ;
some clear pools. General direction of valley and
undulations 216° (between SW. and SW. by S.). Pass
a small stream and valley with some good grass. A few
ledges of sandstone rock begin to appear at intervals.
Soil improves, becoming less gravelly. Some herds of
cattle and sheep seen in 1888 ; patches of wheat between
undulations.
Leave spurs of range and emerge on level cultivated plain
of Chenimassi. Cross several sandstone ledges; white
incrustations here and there in the soil ; water sweet.
Pass Chenimassi village (100 houses) in centre of plain
391
461


220
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Qasr-i.
Shirin
2 m. to SE. The other side of the plain is bounded by
a ridge called Imām Divānza, similar to Jebel Kuskhi.
(In front of this ridge a ruined village in 1888.) Track
follows bed of stream. Wheat and barley grown on
plain without irrigation. Continue down plain and cross
one branch of the Darkhāneh River, flowing over
several small channels in a gravelly bed 150 yds. wide;
only a few pools of water in dry season; some melon
plantations along bed. (The main post road' from
Baghdad to Mosul was met near here in 1888. Road
described in Route 25 a, m. 107–117 runs on other side of
Kufri Su Valley.) Cross main bed of Darkhāneh river,
flowing in several channels; bed gravelly, 400 yds.
broad. Pass Eski Kufri on low gravelly mounds 2 m.
to l. Cross wide bed of Kufri Su (Chechepan). Good
wheat and barley crops in the plain. Pass another
branch of stream 300 yds. broad. Water in several
channels among banks of shingle; most of it led off into
irrigation cuts.
558 | Salāhiyeh (Kufri).
ROUTE 34 a
SALĀHIYEH (KUFRI)—SULEIMĀNIYEH (882 m.)
Via ZAGIRMEH Pass
Authority :- Military Report on Eastern Turkey in Asia, vol. iii. (1904), Route 105.
(The account of the Route there given dates from May, 1888.)
It is clear that there is much confusion in the mileage of this
route as printed in the Military Report, and in two places at least (see
under m. 541 and m. 641 below), there is difficulty with regard to
the times. The total distance in the Military Report is brought out
to as much as 2003 m. The distances given below are generally
calculated at the rate of about 3–31 m. an hour, but at somewhat
slower rates at some difficult places. The times given in the text
of the itinerary are based on those given in the Military Report.
Up to the Tang i-Kalakh they are calculated from Salāhiyeh : beyond
that point from Dolan, Rish Olan, and Temar successively.








ROUTES 33, 34 a
221
No general account is given of this route. It is not suitable for
wheels. For a note on supplies, &c., in this country, see Introduction
to Route 34 b. It would appear from the entry under m. 51 that
fuel on this route is scarce between Salāhiyeh and the Zagirmeh
Pass.
The track described in Route 34 b, though it goes through Ibrāhīm
Khānji and Temar, cannot be certainly identified with any other
part of this route. Route 34 b seems to cross the Qara Dāgh some
way SE. of Route 34 a.
Miles from
Salā.
hiyeh
Salāhiyeh (Kufri : alt. 760 ft.). Along a broad track
between the town and the Kufri Su (Chechepan River).
At 13 min. from start ford river where it emerges from
hills. Gravelly bed, 200 yds. wide, in several shallow
channels. Wind between low gravelly mounds and
ledges of sandstone. Track at first well-defined, but
gradually becomes less so.
2 At 40 min. follow winding track 15 ft. wide along small
stream between two ridges of sandstone. Chechepan
river 1 m. to W.; the valley is 300-400 yds. wide,
bordered by a confused mass of sandstone ridges. Several
fruit gardens and hills along it.
At 1 hr. pass an orchard 200 yds. to l. Alt. here 865 ft.
Several reed huts with patches of wheat and barley in the
little valleys between the undulations.
At 1 hr. 6° min. reach stream flowing from NE. into
Chechepan ; continue up its r. bank. Rich soil : several
irrigation cuts. Track through these ridges generally
level, passable for wheels.
41 | At 1 hr. 25 min. (alt. 850 ft.). Emerge on rolling upland
of gravelly undulations. Good grass found along streams
in first half of May ; elsewhere grass already burnt up.
Continue over undulating gravelly plateau sloping N.
At 2 hrs. track well defined, but little used. Soil rich clay.
At 2 hrs. 25 min. pass Kūh Murmil village (about 100 reed
huts) between mounds į m. to r. It is surrounded by
patches of wheat and barley. Ziyāret of Bukh-rasal
about here. Country much cut up by ravines. Soil light
clay much waterworn.
163 | At 5 hrs. 35 min. stream turns sharp E. in a deep narrow
valley bordered by steep earth and gravel slopes.


222
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Salā-
hiyeh
17
18
202
221
Broad clay track: numerous short ascents and descents
over ridges.
At 6 hrs. 5 min., alt. 1,500 ft. Easy descent into valley
with steep clay sides.
At 6 hrs. 25 min., alt. 1,400 ft. Cross stream flowing E.
over a gravelly bed. Good track crossing several ravines.
Deep valley to l.
At 6 hrs. 42 min., steep descent into narrow valley
bordered by sandstone ledges and slopes of gravel and
conglomerate. An easy clay track winding down in
a few zigzags. Patches of cultivation in the valley :
cuttings in the clay would make this passable for carts.
Valley 200 yds. wide.
At 6 hrs. 47 min., ford large stream flowing W. to join
the Āq Su or Av.i-Spi. Alt. 1,300 ft. Short ascent with
steep zigzags : then reach a rolling plateau. The valley
of the Aq Su lies į m. W., and 2 m. W. is the small village
of Gil, near which are sulphur springs. To E. the
plateau gradually rises to a low flat-topped ridge of sand-
stone.
At 7 hrs. 30 min., alt. 1,670 ft. Gradual descent. Country
cut up by small ravines : it presents a curious tumbled
appearance as of sea-waves.
At 7 hrs. 50 min., alt. 1,450 ft. Steeper descent by a ledge.
3 to 4 ft. wide, which might easily be cut wider for carts.
At 7 hrs. 55 min., Ibrāhīm Khānji in valley of the Aq Su
(see Route 34 b, m. 60). 150 houses in 1888. Valley bare,
but good grass along river. The place lies in a small
basin shut in by steep gravel cliffs about 1 m. each way.
On hill overlooking village is a ruined mud fort. In 1888
there was a ruined khan on mound on opposite bank of
Aq Su, and also a deserted village on that side of river.
At 8 hrs. 5 min., ford Aq Su. This was done with difficulty
on May 11th, 1888, the river being then swollen by rain,
80 yds. wide, with rapid current. It is almost dry in
summer. (Compare Route 34 b, m. 58.) Alt. at ford
1,310 ft. Thence proceed along level terrace 200 yds.
broad above stream. On l. bank are bare earth cliffs
150 to 200 ft. high. Valley 1 m. wide with a few patches
of cultivation.
At 8 hrs. 21 min., ford Aq Su to avoid cliff. River here
232
23
244
25








ROUTE 34 a
223
Miles from
Salā-
hiyeh
264
28
281
282
100 yds. wide, 2 ft. 6 in. deep; rapid current over a pebbly
bottom (May 11th, 1888).
At 8 hrs. 47 min., ruined village of 150 houses (1888).
Over small spur and along a rocky ledge at top of a cliff
overhanging l. bank. Dip into river-valley, here 400 yds.
wide, bordered by steep ground and earth cliffs cut up in
all directions by ravines. River in a gravelly bed 200 yds.
wide : easy track.
At 8 hrs. 59 min., over low spur, and open up another
valley 600 yds. wide, half of which is taken up by stream.
At 9 hrs. 17 min., ford 120 yds. wide, 18 in. deep (May).
Rapid stream flowing over pebbles and round stones.
Dry later in year. Alt. 1,350 ft.
Continue up broad track along r. bank. Valley narrows to
300 yds. Alt. 1,450 ft.
At 9 hrs. 24 min., river turns E. between steep ledges of
rock with vertical strata. Follow a ravine 80 yds. wide
with small stream.
Steep ascent (gradient 1 in 6 to 1 in 8) along a ledge 2 ft.
wide for 300 yds. at the top. Short zigzags among sand-
stone ledges. A little clearing would make it passable
for carts.
At 9 hrs. 49 min., level of plateau cut up by ravines in all
directions (alt. apparently 1,605 ft.). Soil is a rich clay
with good grass on the undulations. Numerous small
springs in the ravines, their position marked by clumps
of oleanders.
At 9 hrs. 57 min., wind along the watershed by an easy
track, avoiding the descent into the deep ravine on
either hand.
At 10 hrs. 14 min., descend into small valley by ledge worn
in hill-side.
At 10 hrs. 37 min., round shoulder of flat-topped sandstone
ridge to r. A good clay track, through low gravelly hills
and ravines.
At 10 hrs. 42 min., fewer ravines. Open up a wide plain
called Chiazarin, bounded by the Qara Dāgh.
At 10 hrs. 49 min., alt. 1,530 ft. Descend into narrow deep
valley of the Chiazarin River which joins the Aq Su.
Wind down a narrow ledge in steep slope. A cart track
might be improvised here. Drop 90 ft. in 3 min.
292
30
324
321


224
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Salā-
hiyeh
331
341
377
377
381
| At 11 hrs. 8 min., ford the Chiazarin River, 20 yds. wide
and 18 in. deep in May, running SE. in a narrow gravelly
channel.
Gradual ascent out of valley, passing some ledges of sand-
stone to l.
At 11 hrs. 22 min., over plateau nearly level. Alt. 1,560 ft.
At 12 hrs. 22 min., cross bed of stream which in May was
found almost dry, but with occasional pools.
Gradual ascent towards gap in ridge.
At 12 hrs. 29 min., pass large artificial mound called Tepeh
Gowāri at the entrance of the gap. Extensive ruins
to W.
Through gap in small ridge 300 yds. wide with steep
sloping sides of hard stone: the strata nearly vertical.
A small stream comes through gap. Alt. apparently
1,785 ft.
At 12 hrs. 46 min., descend into valley of stream. Track
stony in places. To NE. a succession of ridges called
the Hatla Dāgh. Short steep ascent. Pass numerous
springs. Track a narrow ledge among slabs of rock.
An easier track higher up the valley.
| At 12 hrs. 56 min., round foot of grassy mound on which are
the ruins of a stone fort named Qal'ahjaq, a good position
for barring the entrance of the pass. Alt. 1,985 ft.
| At 13 hrs. 14 min., ascend grassy plateau. Rocky ledges
crop out at intervals.
At 13 hrs. 31 min., alt. 2,440 ft. Along flat ridge between
two grassy villages. Good track nearly level.
About 14 hrs. 25 min., alt. 2,605 ft. Open out a wide
undulating upland about 4 m. across. Rich soil with
fine grass (May). A good site for a large camp for
troops. Grass burnt up later in year.
At about 14 hrs. 44 min., summit of plateau. Ziyāret of
Gök Tepeh to l. on mound with a few trees (alt. 2,715 ft.).
Descend grassy ravine. Track a ledge 10-12 ft. wide,
stony in places.
At 15 hrs. 4 min., alt. 2,525 ft. Track in rough stony
bed of stream: sharp descent (12° slope).
At 15 hrs. 21 min., alt. 2,065 ft. Track in deep narrow
valley among stones and boulders. Steep ascent to Gök
Tepeh village.
393
403
414
441
452
461
47








ROUTE 34 a
225
482
Miles from
Salā.
hiyeh
At 15 hrs. 46 min., Gök Tepeh, 50 houses overlooking
the ravine (alt. 2,400 ft.). Some cultivation near water
from small springs on the plateau, and in the valley
grass, plentiful in May.
Cross plateau by an easy track gradually ascending. Skirt
deep ravine to l., with a stream.
51 At 16 hrs. 39 min., alt. 2,690 ft. Beginning of Zagirmeh
Pass. Cross small stream ; a few low trees and shrubs,
the first since Salāhiyeh. Up bed of stream, crossing
several times; ground rather stony ; sandstone ledges.
Valley 150 yds. wide with easy shelving sides bordered
by wooded spurs. Several small springs.
513 At 16 hrs. 56 min., steep ascent for 300 yds, up a spur by
short zigzags. It could be made practicable for carts if
longer zigzags were cut.
523 At 17 hrs. 21 min., alt. 2,935 ft. Ascent more gradual,
over loose stones. Some oaks, 12-18 in. in diameter,
and scrub underwood.
541(?) At 17 hrs. 53 min., alt. 3,720 ft. A rough track joins from
Gök Tepeh Ziyāret. Follow a 12 ft. ledge, stony but
easy, winding through oaks and hawthorns. Deep narrow
ravine to l. (The authority followed makes this entry
under 8.32 p.m., and the next entry under 8.30 p.m. :
the times and distances here given assume that .8.32'
should read '8.22', but this is obviously quite uncertain.)
541 At 18 hrs. 1 min., alt. 3,825 ft. Zigzag up among loose
stones and boulders : by clearing the boulders a cart
track could be made.
54 | At 18 hrs. 6 min. ascent rather easier, along broad
12-15 ft. road to summit.
552 | At 18 hrs. 21 min., top of pass (alt. 4,430 ft.). Reach
a deep gap in the rocky summit of range bordered by
crags. Width about 300 yds. Remains of a wall and
casemated gateway drawn across summit. Gateway
almost choked up in 1888. Track through wide breach
in wall. The pass is easily defensible as the crags on
either side are impassable. In 1888 it was a favourite
resort of Hamawand robbers. A wide view towards
Kirkuk.
552 At 18 hrs. 27 min., alt. 4,255 ft. Follow a ledge 25-30 ft.
wide over shingle and gravel, and at uniform slope of
MES. III
P


226
LAND ROUTES
573
Miles from
Salã
hiyeh
1 in 14. The slopes are craggy with stunted oaks and
shrubs, and to r. is a torrent among rocks.
563 At 18 hrs. 51 min., alt. 3,620 ft. Sharp turn to E., zig-
zagging down a stony spur through low oaks.
At 19 hrs. 1 min. reach foot of slope (alt. 3,600 ft.).
Then follow a fairly level but stony track along a torrent,
crossing several times in a narrow bed among rounded
stones and boulders.
641 (?) | At 22 hrs. 48 min. (?), narrow defile called Tang-i.
Kalakh. The strata are vertical, and in the gorge the
ledges of rock overhang the road to a height of 150–
200 ft. The entrance is 8 ft. wide, through large
boulders in a stream-bed, and for 50 yds. is paved.
Then follows a single 12 ft. arch with a paved roadway
8 ft. wide. 20 yds. farther the stream makes a sharp
turn under the base of the cliff, and there is another
bridge similar to the first. The road could be rendered
impassable by the destruction of either of these bridges
(called the Pul-i-Kalakh). Both arches were in a bad
state of repair in 1888. The arch of the second was
supplemented by a few sticks and fascines.
(There is much confusion here in the times and distances
as printed in the Military Report on E. T. A., loc. cit.
The distance given above between the top of the
Zagirmeh Pass and the Tang-i-Kalakh (83 m.) is that
given in the Military Report. The time at which the
Tang-i-Kalakh was reached is given as 1.8 a.m. The
next entry is under 10.18 a.m. A halt was apparently
made at or near the Tang-i-Kalakh, but the time at
which the march was resumed is not stated. The
distance from the Tang-i-Kalakh to Temar given in the
Military Report(174 m.)does not agree with the W.O. map.)
After passing the Tang.i-Kalakh, alt. 2,960 ft., emerge
into a rolling country crossed by several low wooded
spurs from the Qara Dāgh, the main ridges of which lie
to SE. The nearest slope of the range has a rich soil
with vineyards. Rice in the valleys. Grass along
stream. Track passes through an open country of undu-
lating ridges. Oaks, 2 ft.-22 ft. in diameter.
652 (?) Pass Dolan, 30 huts, 1 m. to W.in a ravine. This place seems
to be about å m. beyond the end of the Tang.i-Kalakh.








ROUTE 34 a
227
Miles from
Salā-
hiyeh
661
674
691
702
703
Alt. 2,780 ft. Cross small stream, 13 min. after passing
Dolan. It flows to the Diyāleh. Over a ridge and
descend into another valley running W.
(This is said to be the watershed between the Aq Su and
the Diyāleh ; but the map (W.O., sheet 36) does not bear
this out.)
Rice-fields.
At 41 min. after passing Dolan, alt. 2,750 ft. Numerous
small springs. Follow a 20 ft. gravelly track up a grassy
valley i m. wide. Few trees here.
At 1 hr. 13 min, after passing Dolan, cross low spur. Alt.
2,960 ft.
Valley narrows towards summit of ridge. Easy gradient.
Alt. 3,450 ft.
Descend broad track following spur with ravine on either
side. A few zigzags would make this easy for
guns.
Rish Olan at foot of the slope 1 m. to NE. This place
is given as 1 hr. 48 min. after passing Dolan. In
1888 the village consisted of 40 flat-roofed mud huts
surrounded by a few trees, orchards, and cultivation.
In spring the grass grows thick on the roofs of the
houses, so that a village is scarcely distinguishable from
the plain around.
Along broad clay track in a well-wooded valley, 3-4 m.
wide, cultivated with barley and wheat. Then by narrow
track through orchards and hedgerows to
Temar (see Route 34 b, m. 22), 30 min. after passing
Rish Olan.
Across valley through wheat-fields, and then over several
low spurs, beginning ascent of Gilzerda Dāgh. Good
track over gravel and clay.
At 10 min. from Temar, several ravines with springs.
Track narrow in places, the soil being washed away by
the rains. The lower spurs of the Gilzerda Dāgh are
covered with brushwood. Steep ascents and descents
among ravines.
At 32 min. from Temar, gradual ascent of Gilzerda Dāgh by
a 20 ft. gravelly track up the side of a spur. Skirt deep
valley 400 yds. to r. The slopes are rounded, with some
rock at intervals. Alt. about here 3,050 ft.
P2


228
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Salā-
hiyeh
741
764
773
At 43 min. from Temar bend round head of ravine by easy
10 ft. ledge: portions of it are paved.
At 1 hr. 8 min. from Temar, alt. 3,670 ft. Through
a dip in the upper part of the range. Along steep slope
with craggy ravine to l. A foot-path takes a direct line
from Temar and avoids bend.
At 1 hr. 15 min. from Temar, rounded summit of rocky ridge.
Road bifurcates, one branch going direct to Suleimāniyeh
by Gilzerda village on a steep rocky slope in front. De-
scend diagonally, bending SE.
Along a ledge 12-15 ft. broad, stony in places, through
low shrubs and brushwood. Easy gradient.
Zaz, 1 hr. 26 min. from Temar: 30 houses in a rocky
ravine 11 m. to l. The strata crop out almost vertically.
Alt. 3,500 ft. Steep stony descent following dry bed of
stream. A cart-track could be made by clearing away
loose stones. Portions of paved road here and there.
At 1 hr. 56 min., alt. 3,090 ft. Track now easy across
plain.
At 3 hrs. 15 min. from Temar cross Khanjiru River in
a gravelly bed 300-400 yds. wide. Irrigation channels
water a fringe of rice-fields on either bank. Ford the
channel 40 yds, wide, 12-2 ft. deep with rapid current in
middle of May. Shelving banks.
At 3 hrs. 53 min. from Temar pass Chenimassir & m. to r.,
40 huts, by a small stream, among grassy undulations.
Pass large spring in which fish are said to be sacred.
Three large mulberry trees overhang it: otherwise the
plain is treeless.
At 4 hrs. 34 min. from Temar pass Balka, 30 huts
1 m. to l.
No gardens or outskirts to Suleimāniyeh. Cross small
813
85
8542
864
873
stream coming from the town in a gravelly bed.
Suleimāniyeh, 54 hrs. from Temar.
88








ROUTES 34 a, b
229
ROUTE 34 b
SULEIMĀNIYEH_SALĀHIYEH (KUFRI) (89 m.)
Via DĀR
Authority.-- Report of a journey, made apparently in 1909 (report dated
February 19, 1910).
This is not a main caravan track, but is used by caravans of mules
and ponies in summer and in winter when the passes are open. The
track, as far as Dār (m. 34), is bad for mules and impassable for
camels, and requires improvement for any kind of transport.
The last 9 m. require repair for camels. The country traversed
consists of rolling downs and stony hills, generally low. The passes
over the Qara Dāgh are the chief obstacles : in winter they may be
closed by snow, but this does not always happen. The plain of
Suleimāniyeh is cultivated ; but beyond Temar, until Salāhiyeh is
reached, practically no supplies are obtainable apart from sheep
and goats, which are plentiful throughout. Water reported plentiful
from streams at Temar (m. 22), good supply from a stream at Dār
(m. 34), abundant from the Aq Su at m. 58, and plentiful throughout
the stage from Ibrāhīm Khānji (m. 60) to Salāhiyeh. Grazing
reported very good at Temar, Dār, Ibrāhīm Khānji, and thence
to Salāhiyeh. Fuel plentiful throughout. No transport.
This route touches Route 34 a at Temar and at Ibrāhīm Khānji,
but the details of the two accounts cannot be reconciled.
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
Suleimāniyeh. General direction to Temar somewhat
S. of SSW. (2009). Track leaves town in a southerly
direction over rolling stony downs.
Track turns from S. (180°) to between S. and S. by W.(1859).
Alternative track to Temar branches off to W.: it is shorter
than, but not so good as, the route here followed.
Stream (Khanjiru ? Cp. Route 34 a, m. 813). From here
two tracks can be seen winding up the hills in front :
the easterly track is the one to be followed. From the
stream the track winds steeply up-hill for 2 m.
Pass over Gilzerda Dāgh begins. In this pass the track
is very stony, steep, and bad, and is impassable for
camels. Blasting would be necessary to turn it into


230
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sulei
māniyeh
a good camel-track. Authority states that he entered
pass here on bearing 310°, i. e. between NW. and NW.
by W.
Track bends sharply to 140° (between SE. and SE. by S.),
ascending slightly.
| Top of pass. Continue nearly SE. by E. (120°) over low hills.
Bottom of pass. Stream. Ascend for 3 m.
Top of ascent. Track bends to SW. and descends.
Bottom of descent. Ascend steep narrow valley, direction
į between WSW. and SW. by W. (245°).
| Temar village, about 4 furlongs E. of track. Village of
about 150 houses. No khan. See Introduction to this
route, and Route 34 a, m. 721.
From Temar to Dār, general direction S.
Descend, going S. for 2 m.
Begin ascent of first of the two ranges of the Qara Dāgh
on bearing 240° (somewhat W. of SW. by W.) towards
large cleft visible in hills due S. Track very stony, steep
through stunted trees.
26 Top of the pass over first range of Qara Dāgh. The
passing of the gap is easy. There is a stream here crossed
by a stone bridge 20 ft. long, 10 ft. broad, 10 ft. above
water.
The track descends slightly for a mile.
27 Foot of pass over first range. Track now proceeds up
valley separating the two ranges of the Qara Dāgh,
going somewhat N. of W. by N. (285°). It is here
stony. Stunted trees and bushes on both sides of valley.
Track turns sharp S., and begins ascent of second range of
Qara Dāgh, going somewhat E. of S. by E. (175°). Track
very steep and stony: impassable for camels and requiring
improvement for other pack-animals throughout pass.
Top of pass. Track descends in slightly better condition.
Reach plain at foot of pass.
Dār village, 200 houses, no khan. See Introduction to this
route.
General direction from Dār to Ibrāhīm Khānji between
SW. and SW. by S. (220°). Track is now suitable for
camels.
Leave Dār in a direction somewhat W. of Sw. by W.
(2409) over rolling downs.








ROUTE 34 b
231
Miles from
Sulei-
māniyeh
49
Track turns S. Enter low hills through which the track is
very stony.
Track bears somewhat W. of S. by W. (1959).
Track bears between SW. and SW. by S. (220°).
View of large wadi at m. 51. It presents the appearance
of a large amphitheatre with perpendicular sides, a small
valley running down into it.
Track bears S.
Large wadi, dry in l.w. season except for a small stream.
It cannot be seen from S.
Track proceeds between SW. and SW. by S. (2209).
Track bears between SW. by S. and SSW. (2109).
Cross Āq Su: crossing easy in l.w. season. Compare Route
34 a, m. 241. Depth here not more than 2 ft., breadth
50 yds. in l.w. Natives report that the stream here is
always fordable even in flood.
Track now bears between SW. and SW. by S. (2209)
running parallel with river.
Ibrāhīm Khānji. See Route 34 a, m. 232.
General direction to Salāhiyeh between SW. and SW. by
S. (220°): track passable for camels.
Track bears between SW. and SW. by S. (2209): crosses
Aq Su twice in first mile.
Track bears about S. by W. (1909).
Pass shrine and graveyard. Enter low hills.
Cross stream. Continue bearing somewhat S. of SSW.
(2009).
A branch track (apparently leading to Qasr-i-Shīrīn) turns
off to SE. The ordinary route bends somewhat S. of
SSE. (1609).
Track bears about S. by W. (190°).
River to W. of road.
Track bends to between SW. and SW. by S. (220°) and
continues in this general direction to Salāhiyeh.
Track enters low hills and becomes very stony. It is still
just passable, though difficult, for camels. This section
would need improvement for continued camel transport.
| Salāhiyeh (Kufri).
89


232
LAND ROUTES
ROUTE 35
SULEIMĀNIYEH-KIRMANSHAH (174 m.)
Authorities :— Routes in Persia, vol. ii, Route 77 (from a report of 1886); Corrections
to rol. ii, 1912, 77; Soane, Through Mesopotamia and Kurdistan (journey of
1908-9).
This has been reported as the best and most natural approach from
the Central Persian plateau to Turkey in Asia, though preparation
would be required before the road could be made passable for all
arms (1886). Beyond the River Sirvan (+m. 70) the route is practi.
cally only a mule-track, and in some places narrows down to 2 ft. in
width. The Sirvan River and the Qara Su near Kirmanshah when
in flood present the only serious obstacles. Movements in the
mountains would be somewhat hampered by snow in winter. Between
Halebjeh and Sirvan the construction of a cart-road would be
difficult, as hill-cutting would be necessary for a few miles (1886).
The snow in winter is nowhere very severe and the summer
heat is not excessive.
Large flocks of sheep and goats and herds of cattle are met with
on most of the stages. Cultivation is not very extensive, but fruit
of all kinds is plentiful. Luxuriant pasture is to be found in most
of the valleys, but the supply of grain is limited. Water from
streams is plentiful throughout.
A sort of low oak scrub which might supply fuel grows on the
hills in many of the stages. Near Mohun (m. 25) and Pavar (m. 97)
is much liquorice.
Numbers of donkeys can be obtained at various places for trans-
port. These animals will carry three-fifths of a mule-load at 2 m.
an hour.
Miles from
māniyen
The road from Suleimāniyeh keeps at first close to the
foot of the hills on the l., with considerable undulations.
The surface is generally firm; width about 18 ft. General
direction to Mohun SE. Later the valley is 6-7 m. broad,
with abundant wheat, barley, and grass; the hills on
either side are 1.000-1,500 ft. above the valley.
Some of the steeper gradients into the ravines would
require to be improved for wheeled traffic.
Sulei.








ROUTE 35
233
Miles from
Sulei-
māniyeh
17
22
25
45
Valley here 10-12 m. broad, mostly covered with grass.
The hills begin to recede to the N.
Mohun village. The valley here is about 6 m. wide, with
excellent pasture. The neighbourhood is a favourite
camping-ground of nomads.
Numerous mounds indicating former settlements.
General direction of track to Halebjeh SE.
The track winds over the flat towards the hills on the
S., crossing many streams flowing in deep channels
between steep banks of clay. Liquorice root, grown here
for firewood, is plentiful.
Two streams, banks flush with the plain. One of these
streams is 100 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep, the other 40 ft.
wide and 21 ft. deep.
The valley here is about 15 m. broad, and in the high-water
season swampy in places.
Pasture luxuriant; numerous nomad encampments and
villages with large flocks of sheep and herds of cattle.
A good many horses are to be seen.
Halebjeh, small town among gardens, which has developed
greatly in recent years. Bazaar. Head-quarters of the
Jaf Kurds. Climate hot in May ; some snow in winter.
Route to Penjevin (40 m.), very bad from Zangisar (m. 25).
From Halebjeh to Nausūd (m. 68 below) the general
direction of the track is E., width 10–15 ft., leading
across the head of the valley through which it has
hitherto run, and over foot-hills.
After some miles the road narrows to 6 ft., ascending
a side valley by a good mule-track.
Head of this side valley. Alt. 3,400 ft. Gradual ascent
for some distance, after which the track becomes steeper
and more undulating.
Summit. Oak-scrub.
On either side are rolling, undulating hills and broad,
deep valleys.
The track runs high up along the sides of the hills which
border the r. bank of the Sirvan. Soil a gravelly clay.
Alt. 5,100 ft. near Bulkhah Jura. Plantations of walnut
and mulberry fill the valley. Timber (in 1886), 18–24 in.
in diameter, 30-40 ft. high.
Alt. 4,650 ft.
50-1?
57
59
60


234
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
61
62 ?
The track crosses the Tavala stream.
For 1,000 yds. the track is in the form of steps.
Path winds up the side of the valley, gradually narrowing
to 4 ft.
Alt. 4,900 ft. Track descends at first gradually, then
more steeply, winding with deep loops to the l.
The track ascends the Nausūd spur.
Nausūd, large village. Summer climate healthy and cool ;
much snow in winter.
From Nausūd the track crosses huge ravines, 2,000-
3,000 ft. deep, with rounded slopes, affording good
grazing for sheep. Then across the Sirvan River, here
50 yds. wide and very rapid. Only the centre arch of
the bridge was standing in 1886. Approaches difficult.
Many villages are passed. The track is now only 2-4 ft.
wide.
General direction to Dishar SE.
Dishar village, 150 houses.
Track well made, ascending valley and crossing stream
several times. General direction ESE.
Pavar village, 300 houses. About 2,000 sheep.
Here a branch route leads to Marivan. It is much used as part of
route between Kirmanshah and Marivān. Water is generally
available from villages and streams. Distances not reliable.
25
Miles from
Pavar
Proceed up valley from Pavar, deflecting before the spur S.
of Avrūmān is passed, and then along banks of Sirvan
River. No particular difficulty on the road as far as
Durud village, at the junction of the Ohang and the Sirvan.
Beyond Durud the Sirvan is forded and the road is
undulating, one or two necks offering some difficulty.
38? | A village in the Avrūmān district.
Leave Sirvan Valley in NNW. direction across lower Avrū-
| mān Hills.
50? | Marivān. See Route 36.
General direction for over 20 m. now SSE.
On this stretch some swampy valleys occur. The track
is at first up over the head of a gradually narrowing
valley. At the head of this valley is the Mīl-i-Palangān
Pass, which is blocked with snow in winter. There is
a lower road by Juanrūd. The track then crosses undu-
lating plateau with some sharp ascents and descents.








ROUTE 35
235
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
121
139
Mar-i-Kharvār, bivouac cave in the hill-side, capable of
holding about 30 men and 30 animals.
The track now ascends a valley by a good road, 10 ft.
wide. An undulating plateau with several villages near
and a good many cattle is then crossed, after which the
track descends to the Qara Su.
General direction to Agha Hasan SE.
Shortly before reaching Ruvānsar the route from Qasr-i-
Shirin to Senna is crossed, at or near Kāni Khadrān
(see Routes in Persia, vol. ii, 73).
Ravānsar village, 100 poor huts, near the river, which
about here is 10 ft. wide, 22 ft. deep, with current
3 m.p.h.
From here alternative roads lead to Kirmanshah :-
(i) Westerly route via Sadikābād, Shalīābād, Patlābād, and
Dustavand (about 48 m.). This route runs close beside
the main road, and is said to touch the latter about 8 m.
beyond Sadikābād. Road passable for all arms except at
two or three points; but in 1897 it was reported inferior
for troops to the main road. A trestle-bridge or cutting
for guns would be needed at the Āb-i-Mark (about m. 22),
the banks of the Lilufar stream (m. 42) need easing for
guns, and small parts of the road between Patīābād (m. 28)
and Dustavand (m. 43') are liable to flood. Supplies on
the whole good; water plentiful; grazing good after
Shalīābād (about 15 m.); little or no fuel. See Routes in
Persia, vol. ii, 75.
(ii) Via Khaglistan. This is a détour to E. (about 54-66 m.
according to the season), following route (iii) below for
about 16 m. and branching off to S. a few miles from
Kamara (Kamaran). Beyond that point it is a camel road
which could with slight improvements be made passable
for artillery, but a détour ESE. has to be made near Kir-
manshah in winter and spring when the Qara Su is
unfordable. Good water throughout; few supplies, little
fuel and forage. See Routes in Persia, vol. ii, 78.
(iii) Via Bilavar Valley and Tang-i-Kinishk; a long détour to E.
(75 m.). Fair track, only in parts passable for all arms;
no great difficulties in road construction. Water plentiful.
Supplies and fuel generally very scarce ; grazing good. See
Routes in Persia, vol. ii, 76.
The valley is broad and rather swampy, and the road
runs across it in a general SE, direction, at first through
scattered villages and then along hard ground on the
hill-sides. Cultivation along the river; elsewhere grass.


236
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
143
1631
Agha Hasan, 50 houses. Large herds of sheep and cattle.
General direction of track still SE. over clay soil. Valley
6-15 m. broad.
Numerous villages along the river, which varies in
breadth from 100-200 ft., with clay banks 3-18 ft. high.
The road is not well defined and is swampy in parts.
Route from Sālārābad, &c., joins (see Route 28 a, under
m. 2011).
Gurabun village, 108 houses.
The track now is broad and muddy, over fields. The Qara
Su is crossed ; it is fordable, except in flood.
Kirmanshah. (See Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii.)
165
174
ROUTE 36 a
SULEIMĀNIYEH–SENNA (144 m.)
Via Mama KULAN AND PENJEVIN
Authorities :-Routes in Persia, vol. ii, Route 85 summarized (reports of 1881, 1882,
1905); Map of Turco-Persian Boundary Commission, 1914 (no. 13).
In parts this route is practicable for led animals only, and would
require considerable labour and expense to render it suitable for
all arms. Military operations on it would be difficult in winter.
Crops are met with along the greater part of the route. There
are no details as to grazing, except what may be inferred from
the presence of animals in villages. The only mention of fuel occurs
near Barudar, 30 m. from Senna, and round Suleimāniyeh. In the
former case the quantity is probably limited. Water is on the
whole plentiful.
The only local means of transport are the donkeys to be found
in the neighbourhood of Suleimāniyeh.
Considerable labour would be required to improve the road over
the Qal'ah Kal Ya'qub (beyond Barudar, m. 114), and the Gerdilan
River (m. 73) would also be a serious obstacle unless the bridge has
been repaired.
An alternative route goes by Harmaleh, rejoining the main route
about m. 41 (see Route 36 b). It seems also that there is a third
route by 'Alāweh, S. of that described, and rejoining it at m. 32, but
no details regarding it are available.








ROUTES 35, 36 a
237
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
co
with
13
Suleimāniyeh. The track runs generally NE. at first over
easy cultivated ground.
Track enters a ravine, and ascends steeply for about
1 m.
Crest of Giuzeh (? Azmir) Hills, alt. 5,250 ft. The W. slopes
of the hills are bare, the E. slopes covered with oak-scrub.
The track now descends a steep winding path into the
Harrik Chai Valley. This name was not recognized in
1912.)
Alt. 4,150 ft. Descent becomes less steep.
Ruins. Track gradually descends a small glen, into a
ravine at a steep gradient. Ploughland and vineyards
on the sides of the valley. Steep ascent.
Steep ascent ends. Country beyond this point becomes open.
Alt. 3,900 ft. The Harrik Chai Valley is left. Track
descends straight for 1 m.
Country becomes wilder and rougher. Cliffs overhang the
road for some miles.
Stream and water-mills. Some villages and cultivation.
Some distance farther on a ford over the Tankabwa
River, just above a mill-dam, is reached ; alt. 3,150 ft.
Track then follows the stream for about 1 m. Width
of river here 100 yards. Track then leaves the river,
running through some cultivation and over a spur, and
then along the course of a brook for about 1 m.
Mama Kulan, small village, 40 huts and a kind of khan.
General direction to Penjevin SE.
The track now ascends a ravine.
Saddle of hill, alt. 4,850 ft. Mama Kulan disappears from
view. Track winds down and across a ravine.
Track runs along ridge for about 1 m. Oak woods and
deep valleys on both sides. Bimānsű River to N.,
Kasha Mt. on S. Large partly cultivated valleys on N.,
with wooded mountains beyond.
Alt. 4,700 ft. Track gradually descends hill.
After some distance the village of Diyyeh in a large valley
to l. is passed, in the neighbourhood of which a track
appears to branch off to Serambal on the N.
Ground becomes less open. Track gradually descends
a small ravine with thick copse on either side. Trees
here thoroughly English-oak, hawthorn, ash, wild rose.
2


238
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sulei-
māniye)
30
Numbers of common wood-pigeons. Track then emerges
on to open, cultivated, undulating ground.
Track crosses small stream called Mashkal or Yahāreh
(apparently a tributary of the Bimānsū), flowing due N.
between high but not very steep wooded mountains, with
a few villages on the slopes in the distance.
Track ascends gently.
Southern route from Suleimāniyeh by 'Alāweh here joins
the present track. Ground shortly after becomes less
open and cultivated. Some small villages high up on
mountains to N.
Track runs high up slopes on W. side of Bimānsū valley
to alt. 5,200 ft. Then comes the steepest descent of
the road, to a level of 4,550 ft. Small huts of Zerqāu.
Track then crosses a ravine, and ascends for about 700 ft.
Summit of ascent. Path now indifferent, winding along
wooded slopes on 1. side of Bimānsű gorge.
A bold, rocky, isolated crag, with a ruined fort opposite a
village called Hāsilin, 50 huts.
Track emerges from the mountains, skirting a low range of
hills on the r.
Some distance on Ahmad Kulvān village is passed on
the r.
Alternative route (Route 36 b) apparently joins the present
route here. The track skirts a low range of hills on the
r. for some miles. Ground cultivated, with numerous
small streams.
Penjevin, village of 200 houses. General direction of track
now E. to Kānimiran. Route to Halebjeh : see p. 233.
Binavasuta village to r.
River Binavasuta and Turco-Persian frontier.
Bayeva village, on the Persian side, 1 m. to r.
Track crosses the plain of Bihif (?).
Kānimiran village. Track bears SSE.
Assadābād village. The track then skirts the E. shore of
Lake Zeribar. Marshy ground.
Siv Sufleh village.
Kulan village.
Qal'ah Merivan, substantial stone fort, about 300 yds.
square, with Persian garrison. Good timber and fruit
trees on surrounding hills. Export of gall-nuts.
48
501
51]
541?)
552
59
623
66








ROUTES 36 a, b
239
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
87
114
(For details of the rest of the track, see Routes in Persia,
vol. ii, 85.)
General direction now E. Good grazing, and some culti-
vation and game.
Sheikh 'Attār village, 30 huts.
General direction to Barudar ESE.
Abundant water, some cultivation.
Barudar village. General direction to Duvizeh E. Steep
ascent and descent beyond Barudar.
Duvīzeh village. General direction S. by E. Track hilly
but good.
Safyān village.
Senna, in well-watered district. (For description, see
Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii, under Sinneh.)
129
1361
144
ROUTE 36 b
SULEIMĀNIYEH-PENJEVIN (37 m. ?)
Via HARMALEH
Authority :- Routes in Persia, vol. ii, no. 85, alternative stages (report of 1881).
The distances over this route are very uncertain. It is said to be
impassable in winter.
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
10
15 ?
171 ?
Suleimāniyeh. Track crosses the plain and ascends a
steep rough slope.
Gardān or neck of pass.
Foot of lower spurs of Giuzeh (? Girgeh) Hills.
Naudeh village. The plain near here is called Bazkadraih
Kimseh ? village. Rough descent for 2-3 m.
Harmaleh village, near a tributary which joins the Lesser
Zāb at Altun Köprü. Camping-ground near stream in
enclosed plain below low hills ; very hot in August.
Valiabar, Maneh, and Suwādlar, Kurdish villages in the
neighbourhood.
The track winds through fairly wooded hills and valleys.
Few villages.








ROUTES 36 b, c, 37
241
Miles from !
Penjevin
Cross wide plain, with some isolated hills on it.
Cross rocky saddle.
From the saddle down line of small stream, and thence
over open plain.
14
L. bank of Sūrāb (or Chiler) River. Here a road from
Suleimāniyeh via Bistan joins route. Bistan is said to
be 2 hrs., and Suleimāniyeh 10 hrs. distant.
Cross Sūrāb River : 70 yds. broad, just fordable.
Up r. bank of small stream (apparently a tributary of the
Sūrāb). Then ascend by zigzag path, not rocky (4,650 ft.-
5,050 ft.).
Over undulating forest ground for 2 m.
Skirt along hill, ascending, with deep wooded ravine on ).
Alt. 6,050 ft. The Turco-Persian frontier is crossed
here.
Down spur, then up for a short distance to
Serambal (or Serambend), 50 houses.
Ascend slightly. Summit of spur (alt. 6,200 ft.). Descend.
In next mile two more spurs and two deep ravines have
to be crossed. Part of path is in zigzags : very difficult.
Between this point and m. 25 there is a 'fearful piece of
road in wind or heavy snow' on the descent of a wooded
spur. Drifts may be too deep for mules.
Ford stream below spur (bridge marked on map, 1914).
Undulating road.
Artificial mound on r. bank of stream (Ab-i-Fan ?).
Through valley : on r., village of Helebjik and the Āb-i.
Fan. Through wooded hills, and up banks of small
stream fringed with willows to
311 Low saddle with ploughland.
32 | Very muddy road.
34 | Banah. (See Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii, under Bāneh).
ROUTE 37
KIRKUK-SULEIMĀNIYEH
The country between Kirkuk and Suleimāniyeh consists of open
rolling uplands. The Hamawand Kurds who live here are noted
brigands and fighters. In 1887 a route from Kirkuk to Suleimāniyeh
MES. III


242
LAND ROUTES
was reported on, which was said to be passable for wheels as far as
the Baziyan Pass. The report on the route, which is given below
under (A), has, it is stated, been confirmed by recent local informa-
tion. In 1903 a route from Kirkuk to the Baziyan Pass via Kurga
was found 'just passable for carriages', and a road similarly described
led from the pass to Suleimāniyeh. (Possibly Routes (A) and (B)
coincide from Chemchemal.) In 1909 a journey from Kirkuk to
Suleimāniyeh via Chemchemal, and, apparently, the Baziyan Pass
was made by a track which was said to be quite unfit for wheels
except in the last 16 m. into Suleimāniyeh. It is impossible to
say exactly what is the relation between the route (given under
(C) below) and the road or roads described in 1887 and 1903. In
1909 a traveller, accompanying a caravan, made a détour to the
N. through the Shuan country to avoid the Baziyan Pass. His route
is referred to under (E) below.
The only supplies to be obtained in any quantity between Kirkuk
and Suleimāniyeh would be sheep and goats from the nomad Kurds.
In peace time large flocks and herds pastured on these uplands at
least from October till June. Beyond Chemchemal very few per-
manent villages, and these deserted April-Nov. Water is reported
plentiful on Route (A) between Kirkuk and Chemchemal. On Route
(B), in spring 1903, it was reported scarce throughout. In 1909
a good supply was found at Chemchemal (wells and small streams)
and Khān Jāriyeh (stream). In the Shuan country to N. (see Route
(E)) water is scarce in summer.
Grazing is very good in spring and until June, especially in the
Shuan country and in the Baziyan Valley. Fuel is very scarce.
An uncertain quantity of mules, horses, and donkeys might be
collected from the neighbouring tribes en route.
(A)
Authority ;— Military Report on Eastern Turkey in Asia, vol. iii, 106 (a report of 1887).
Miles from
Kirkuk
Kirkuk. The route leaves in an E. direction over low
gravelly hills, and is stony and steep in places. Water
was reported plentiful (?) in 1887, but country mainly
pastoral, with a fair number of villages at first.
It would appear that it is not difficult to miss the right
track, there being numerous side-tracks to Kurd villages.
Chemchemal, small town (about 200 houses). T.O. In
1887 there was a post of 250 infantry and a battery of
30








ROUTE 37
243
Miles from
Kirkuk
38
41
mountain guns. In 1909, 8,000 troops were collected
here to deal with the Hamawand brigands.
From Chemchemal the road continues over gravelly hills.
Baziyan Pass, an opening in the Qara Dāgh, with
room for two caravans to pass. There are still to be
seen the ruins of a wall built across the neck of the pass
by 'Abd er-rahman Pasha of Suleimāniyeh in 1805, in an
attempt to assert the independence of this part of
Kurdistan. NW. of the pass are the Chemala and
Khalkalan ranges of earth hills, of no great height, with
furrowed sides.
Deir Gezin, Kurdish village, with streams from the Qara
Dāgh. The road now enters the Baziyan Valley, or
plain, down the middle of which runs a line of hills
lower than the Qara Dāgh. The road passes N. of the
end of this ridge.
Baziyan village, the chief Hamawand village, lies a little
way up the plain.
The road crosses the hills by an easy pass near the Tāsluji
Tepeh, down to the Suleimāniyeh Plain, open undulating
ground, with several streams, all fordable, though the
Khanjiru or Bakhān is deep and swift as late as May.
| Suleimāniyeh. 2,500 houses. T.O.
50
66
(B)
Authority :-Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam (the journey therein described from Kirkuk
to Suleimāniyeh took place in the spring of 1903). Total time, 20 hrs.
Just passable for carriages. Water scarce.
Hrs.
O
3
Kirkuk. The route to Chemchemal apparently goes some.
what N. of that followed in 1887, perhaps by Gulen Ova.
Kurga.
Chemchemal. Over Baziyan Pass to
Bebejek.
| Suleimāniyeh.
14
· 20
(C)
Authority :- Report of a journey made apparently in 1909 (the report is dated
February 1910).
This track as far as Chemchemal is described as absolutely im.
passable for guns, and in need of repairs for camels. Nothing short
of making a new road would make it practicable for guns. From
Q2


244
LAND ROUTES
Chemchemal to Jāriyeh is a very difficult stage, impassable for camels.
Blasting would be necessary to turn it into a good camel track. From
Khan Jāriyeh to Suleimaniyeh the road is level, easy, and suitable
throughout for guns.
Miles from
Kirkuk
Kirkuk. Track leaves town bearing somewhat E. of ENE.
(709) towards hills.
The gradients to m. 12 are very steep. The track leading
up to first pass is very rough.
Top of first pass. Track descends in E. direction.
Bottom of pass. Here is a stream which flows parallel
with the route for some way.
Track improves. It runs up a valley bearing between
ENE. and NE. by E. (60°).
Top of second pass. Descend about E. by N. (809).
Bottom of pass. Track in very bad condition, stony and
broken. Overhanging cliffs in parts.
Continue between ENE. and NE. by E. (60°) over rolling
downs.
Foot of Jebel Mekrān, which is crossed in an E. by N.
direction (80%). Limited water-supply on W. side.
Chemchemal visible. Descend.
Reach Lummocky plain, which is crossed to
Chemchemal. See (A), m. 30.
Continue over plain between NE. and NE. by N. (409.
Reach foot-hills. These are crossed in same general direc-
tion by a very bad road, over several small streams.
Foot-hills cease. Road ascends gentle slope between NE.
and NE. by E. (509).
Reach pass in hills called by authority Jebel Khanzīreh.
This pass, which seems to be the Baziyan, is described
as easy. Beyond the pass continue between NE. and
NE. by E. in middle of valley about 1 m. wide. This
runs into
Baziyan Valley, a large valley running here NW. and
SE. between the Jebel Khanzīreh and the Tāsluji Tepeh
(called by this authority Jebel Taralusa). Track turns
sharply down the side of the valley, going between SSE.
and SÉ. by S. (150°).
Reach stream (12 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep). Suitable place for
camp. Track now crosses to N. side of valley, going
somewhat N. of NNE. (209).
45








ROUTE 37
245
Miles from
Kirkuk
471
501
521
54
Reach N. side of valley. Proceed along it, going a little S.
of SSE. (160°).
Turn sharply to between ENE. and NE. by E. (60) to
cross the Tāsluji Tepeh by a very bad, stony, and steep
track, impossible for loaded camels.
Top of pass.
Reach plain. Khān Jāriyeh, 200 houses (not mentioned
by other authorities). From here the track, which is here
plainly marked, runs across a grassy plain about E. by
S. (100°), following the telegraph poles. It is passable
for guns. Distance given as '6 m.': an error for 16 m. ?
l Suleimāniyeh.
70
(D)
Authority :-H. G. Hony. Correction to W. 0. Map, sheet 35 (1912).
This route goes to the N. of Route (C), above.
Miles from
Kirkuk
101
Kirkuk (alt. 1,383 ft.). Route starts about NE. by N. up
1. bank of the Kirkuk (Kissa) Chai.
Cross mouth of a tributary of the Kirkuk Chai.
Pass Yarvali village on opposite bank of Kirkuk Chai.
Cross to r. bank of Kirkuk Chai and continue up-stream,
going about NE. by E.
Cross a small stream and pass Buyuk Soura to l.
Pass Kuchuk Soura to 1.
Recross Kirkuk Chai, and continue in same direction as
before (NE. by E.), leaving the stream, which above this
point Hows from about N. by E. Proceed over undu-
lating country.
Cross small stream flowing southward.
Cross another stream flowing southward. Ascend gradually.
Alt. 2,651 ft. Descend.
Track turns to E.
Grouma, on bank of stream. Alt. 2,382 ft. Cross stream
and proceed over rise.
Cross another stream. Ascend slope on farther side and
then turn about SE.
Track turns about SSE. and descends into depression.
| Cross small stream.


246
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Kirkuk
224
233
29
Cross small stream. Ascend out of depression, and skirt
hills to SW.
Bina. Track turns ESE.
T.L. from Suleimāniyeh to Chemchemal crosses road from
W. Track now runs S. of T.L.
Pass ruined fort to l.
Chemchemal.
31
32
Authority :-E. B. Soane, To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise. (The journey
from Kirkuk to Suleimāniyeh was made in the spring of 1909.)
In order to avoid the Baziyan Pass, where the Hamawand Kurds
were plundering caravans, and also to obtain the protection of the
Shuan Kurds who were friendly with the Hamawands, the caravan
with which Mr. Soane travelled (a large one including 70 soldiers)
struck off the ordinary Kirkuk-Suleimāniyeh route a few miles out
of Kirkuk, and marched almost due N. into the Shuan country,
open grassy downs with excellent pastures. The caravan suffered
at first from lack of water. Long stops were made, the days being
divided into morning and evening marches with a rest for some
hours at noon. Apparently on the second day a point was reached
from which the Lesser Zab could be seen. On the third day the
caravan turned southwards, and leaving the Shuan country entered
that of the Hamawands. Towards sunset; after passing through
well-watered, well-wooded country with fine pastures, the Baziyan
Valley, 2 m. wide, was reached. On the fourth day the caravan
crossed a neck in the Tāsluji Hills and descended to the plain of
Suleimāniyeh.
ROUTE 38
SULEIMĀNIYEH_RANIYEH (752 m.)
Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, 113 (a report of May 1888).
This route is passable for wheels in the Suleimaniyeh Plain, but
becomes a mule-track as the Zāb is approached. In 1903 Sykes
went to Surdash (10 hrs.) by Dartut (5 hrs.): and from Surdash
to Dukhan in 4 hrs. : “a good mule-track impassable for carriages '.
A mule-track goes to Surdash E. of Pir 'Omar Gudrun by the
Qara Cholan valley and Malouma. (An alternative and shorter








ROUTES 37, 38
247
route to Marga (m. 57x) apparently branches off from this mule-
track, and fords the Qara Cholan).
There is no adequate local means of transport either at the Dukhan
ferry over the Lesser Zāb (m. 471) or at the crossing of the Khudrān
River (m. 623). Besides these there are various small streams and
occasional irrigation cuts which should present no difficulty.
Water is found all along the route, but that from the springs at
Raniyeh is unpleasant in taste. Fuel and fodder are generally
good, and some wheat, rice, and fruit could be obtained. The nomad
Kurds have large numbers of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and mules.
The details concerning villages are unreliable, as the country has
been unsettled. The sedentary Kurds often spend the summer in
booths on the hill-sides.
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
Suleimāniyeh. The track is broad and gravelly, running
W. over a rich loamy plain.
Āi Bū Lāq village 13 m. to l.
The track crosses three small streams and undulates over low
mounds. Springs along the foot of the hill to r.
Ser Chinār. Large spring of good water which becomes
a stream 30 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep, running into the
Khanjiru Chai.
Ford across the Khanjiru Chai (or Bakhān). River 200
yds. wide, in a shallow pebbly bed. Alt. 2,245 ft.
Low hills 1 m. to r., outliers of the Pir 'Omar Gudrun
range.
Track broad, ascending a valley, over undulating country.
Hamawand camps may be seen in this neighbourhood.
Plain gradually narrows and is now 4 m. broad.
Some low rocky mounds cross the plain and form the
watershed between the Diyāleh and the Lesser Zāb. Track
broad and gravelly, crossing several small streams.
Ruins of tomb and village; track undulates over spurs of
the range on the r.
Alt. 2,735 ft.
Narchu, 30 flat-roofed huts of mud and stone in a valley
m. to the r. Gardens and orchards.
Hiskaneh, 40 huts, on a stream 12 m. up a valley to the r.
Soil stony ; good grazing.
Darbarberu, wretched village of a dozen huts 1 m. to
the r. Some cultivation and fruit.
131
14
141
151
164


248
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sulei-
māniyeh
18
4.
231 | Ruins
Easy undulating track. Some wheat-fields.
Yerankos, village of 30 houses. A stream in an open
valley at the foot of Pir 'Omar Gudrun i m. to r. of
the track. Some cultivation and fruit. Altitude of
village 2,745 ft. Track stony.
Pīr 'Omar Gudrun peak (9,700 ft.) to NW., a rugged conical
mass scored by ravines ; good landmark. Rounded,
easy hills opposite. Zāwiyeh village with large orchards
up a gorge with stream.
Steep ascent by short zigzags for 200 yds. across a spur;
might be avoided by keeping S. Several ravines from
the lower slopes of Pīr 'Omar Gudrun.
Alt. 2,800 ft. The plain here is 4-5 m. wide. Small
villages high up the mountain to the SW.
Track descends into stony valley, crossing water-course at
the foot. Descent and ascent easy. Good going.
Qara Chatan, 150 houses at the foot of a rocky spur from
the r. Fig-orchards irrigated by springs. Track 5 ft.
wide through orchards and village.
Ruined village.
Some huts : m. to the r. under the hill-side.
Su Sai, 60 huts on a large stream 1 m. to 1. Orchards
along the stream
Khān-i-Mīrān, 50 houses 1 m. to l. Alt. 2,420 ft. Con.
siderable cultivation. Track here divides, one branch
following the centre of the valley, and rejoining the
present track at Dukhan ferry (m. 471).
End of plain. Track follows a broad valley running NW.
The main valley runs W. to the Lesser Zāb. Between
these valleys is a rugged group of hills covered with low
trees and brushwood.
Rocky ridge 300-400 ft. high in plain 1 m. to r.
Track follows a narrow winding ledge for a short distance,
undulating over clay spurs.
Tabin River, swift stream over gravel, 30 yds. wide, 2 ft.
deep, lined with willows, poplars, and orchards. Spring.
Track now follows a narrow ledge on the far side of the
valley.
Track skirts range to r. and ascends small valley along
a water-course. Breadth of track 12 ft.
Steep zigzags in the hill-side and then a gradual ascent.
254
274
281
31
324
321








ROUTE 38
249
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
34.
352
363
37
381
Surdash, 100 houses divided by a rocky spur, at the foot
of Askut Dāgh. This mountain rises 2,000 ft. above the
village in a steep wall of rock with a jagged summit.
It is quite impassable.
Two large springs irrigating orchards. Abundant grazing
on the hill-sides. Many oaks and poplars.
The track is now stony and winding, and runs parallel to
the Askut Dagh.
Track crosses small stream lined with mulberry and fig-
trees. Vine cultivation. Then follows descent over
stony spurs.
Small V-shaped valley on r. with orchards and vineyards.
Track stony and rugged.
Cross a broad spur. Alt. 2,750 ft. Track easier.
Steep, narrow descent, with short zigzags among boulders.
Gaichina village, 50 houses on a plateau. A small stream
lined with orchards of pomegranates, figs, and vines runs
through the village. Alt. 2,555 ft. Fertile ravines near.
Sarka Kailkusma Dāgh, ridge to SW. Wheat cultivation
on the lower slopes. Oaks and brushwood in the ravines.
Villages high up.
Track for 4 m. descends steeply along a 10-ft. ledge in the
hill-side.
Easier slope through wheat-fields; along a lane with low
stone walls. Alt. 2,125 ft.
Some huts 1 m. to r. high up on the hill-side.
Cross narrow stream from a gorge in the Askut Dāgh.
Oaks, poplars, and orchards on a large stream to r. flowing
to the Lesser Zāb. Khāni Khān village, 40 huts, in this
neighbourhood.
Good 12-ft. field-track, following general line of valley
towards the Lesser Zāb. Alt. 1,900 ft.
Cross stream lined with terraced vineyards and orchards.
Valley fertile and well wooded. Track easy.
Pass ziyāret in a grove of oaks. These surround the shrine.
The trees in such cases are never cut. Track undulates
over stony spurs from the r. Alt. 1,700 ft.
Pass village of 30 houses high up to r, at base of cliff. The
Askut Dāgh now ends in low rounded hills.
Steep zigzag descent for 200 yds. over bare shale spurs.
Soil is a soft grey shale.
391
40
423
42


250
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sulei-
māniyeh
44
48
49
Reach the Lesser Zāb, 150-200 yds. wide, with a swift
current over a gravelly bottom.
The track ascends the river valley. Good grass on the
slopes.
Qal'ah Dukhan, dismantled fort 60 yds. square, with
round flanking towers, on a knoll overlooking the stream.
The heights above command it.
Dukhan (or Du Kani, 'two springs '), small khan with a
few houses.
Dukhan ferry, one kelek. Horses and mules have to be
swum. A backwater on each bank helps the crossing.
The valley is 400 yds. wide. On the r. bank spurs come
close to the water's edge. River 150 yds. wide ; fordable
in l.w. Deep and rapid in h.w. The Tang-i-Dukhan,
through which it emerges, is 1 m. up-stream.
Track now leaves the river and skirts the low hills bordering
the valley. Abundant grazing on the hill-sides.
Track turns to the l. shortly before the Tang-i-Dukhan over
a rounded spur with small ravines. Soil shale, with
some gypsum.
Summit. Alt. 1,750 ft. Diagonal descent by a steep
gradient.
Gradient 1 in 3 to 4, following 3 ft. ledge in the clay for
300 yds. A road fit for wheels could be improvised. Alt.
1,360 ft.
Ford a tributary of the Zāb, 15 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep (l.w.).
Gulnāri, 60 houses of Kurds, on the opposite bank. Pome-
granate, fig, and vine cultivation. Large flocks of sheep
and goats on the hills. Some cattle. Good grass.
Track good, following the river, here 50 yds. wide, but
becoming broader farther on.
Undulating easy track. Some wheat cultivation. Track
inclines to l. and ascends a small side-valley, leaving the
river.
The Kutsrut Dāgh, high range, to the N. Lower slopes
rounded and grassy : higher, rugged and sparsely wooded.
Track divides, the lower branch being the easier. The other
ascends to the l. through two small villages up the
Kutsrut Dāgh and reaches the plain farther N.
Skirt a shale hill to the l. by a well-worn ledge 2 ft. wide.
Then ascend a broad spur from the Kutsrut Dāgh.
502
51
521
541
543








ROUTES 38, 39
251
573
Miles from
Sulei.
māniyeh
544 Summit of spur (alt. 1,760 ft.). Fine view of plain of
· Raniyeh and Marga.
564 Turbeh, 100 well-built houses. Water from a large spring.
Rich gravelly soil ; wheat cultivation and orchards.
Pai Kūh, large village in orchards and vineyards, on
opposite bank of the Zāb where it enters the Tang-i-
Sheikh Ismail.
Easy broad track with gradual descent.
Marga, 200 houses on the lower spurs of Kurkur Dāgh
is 10 m. to the E. It is the seat of a Mudir under
Qal'ah Dizeh. Large mound and ruins in plain below it.
Route to Banah (48 m.), difficult up to Banah Sū.
581 Reach plain, the river 1 m. to r. Good grass ; soil a rich
loam. No trees.
593 Cross small stream from l.
Chailasura, 30 huts, 1 m. distant on 1. bank of the
Lesser Zāb, here 150-200 yds. wide with rapid current.
Track skirts the river.
61
Broad track, trending away from the river. Orchards and
cultivation on the upper slopes of the Kutsrut Dāgh.
Low oak scrub.
623 Ford the Khudrān River, 60 yds. wide, 3 ft. deep. Swift
current. Probably unfordable in h.w.
641 Some huts; irrigation channel 6 ft. wide.
Numerous mounds in this neigbourhood.
Quru Shina on the r., 40 poor Kurdish huts.
The Lesser Zāb is now 1 m. to the r.
Some rice cultivation. Track swampy in places.
Pass Bazmusian, 40 huts, near a mound.
Some irrigation cuts.
692
20 huts to r., by a mound.
Pass Gulek, 60 huts, to l.
751 | Raniyeh, 300 houses.
65
71“
ROUTE 39
KÖI SANJAQ-SULEIMĀNIYEH (631 m.)
Authority :-Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iv, Route 112 (report of 1886).
The main track to Suleimāniyeh keeps SE. over open country
along the foot of the Heib es-Sultān Dāgh, which lies to the E., and


252
LAND ROUTES
divides this open district from Raniyeh Plain. It crosses several
ravines trending towards the Lesser Zāb. These ravines are about
50 ft. deep, with more or less difficult descents and ascents, and only
the larger of them carry water in the low. season. Another track
ascends the Heib es-Sultān Dāgh, and goes by Kāni 'Othmān to
Dukhan ferry.
In 1903 Sykes travelled from Dukhan to Köi Sanjaq in 7 hrs.;
good mule-track; water plentiful.
Miles from
Köl San-
Köi Sanjaq.
Cross a stream. Track keeps 2 m. from ridge on l. Soil
stony clay with occasional ledges of sandstone.
Cross a stream. Some wheat cultivation. Track good and
broad in places, but often merely a ledge or mule-track,
2 ft. wide, over clay or soft sandstone.
Dundur, a few huts. A direct track leads from here to
Dukhan ferry, and so to Suleimāniyeh (see Route 38).
It follows a steep mule-track past some Kurd villages
over a wooded ridge. The descent is steep to Dukhan
(20 m. from Köi Sanjaq).
Cross a stream in a ravine.
13 Chewashun, Kāsbegi, and Kānikur, villages at the foot of
ridge 2 m. to l. Nomad encampments may be seen here
in spring.
Kharābeh village 11 m. to r.
161 Descend to valley of Lesser Zāb. Keep down a valley with
reddish clay hills to r., and sandstone ridge to l.
Khānābi, on r. bank of Lesser Zāb. Raft ferry.
A track runs up the river valley from Khānābi to Dukhan. At 24 m.
pass Bogut, a Kurdish village, with a small masonry fort on the
height above the village. At 53 m. a steep, stony ascent over a
prolongation of the Heib es-Sultán Dāgh. At 8 m. pass Kirkusmuk.
Descend steeply by a zigzag with a gradient of 1 in 6 to 1 in 10,
and at 12 m. from Khānābi reach Dukhan.
Track now leads over a low wooded ridge.
36
Khān i-Mīrān. (For the rest of the track, see Route
38, m. 271-0).
631 | Suleimāniyeh.
16
19





ROUTES 39, 40
253
ROUTE 40
ALTUN KÖPRÜ–RANIYEH (661 m.)
Via VALLEY OF THE LESSER ZĀB
Authority:— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 108 (report of October 1892).
To Taktak, 32 m., this is a good route, passable for wheels,
although difficult at some places. To Köi Sanjaq the route appears
to have been passable for artillery except in a few places where
levelling and widening were needed. The soil is clay or gravel.
From Köi Sanjaq to Raniyeh the track in 1892 was rough, stony,
and steep in places, but was apparently considered passable for guns.
The chief obstacle is the Khudrān River (m. 55), but this seems
easily fordable.
At Taktak, Köi Sanjaq, and Raniyeh there are supplies to be had.
Open space suitable for camping is found near Taktak and Köi
Sanjaq, and in the valley of the Khudrān (m. 54). The plain
should be avoided as a camping-ground owing to malaria : the border
hills are healthy. Good water from Khudrān River and springs. Fuel
from hills. Wheat and rice are grown round Raniyeh. Fine grass
in May and June.
Miles from
Altun
Köprü
32
Altan Köprü. A good route, passable for wheels, although
difficult at some places, follows the r. bank of the Zāb to
Taktak (32 m.).
There is no information as to details of the route as far as
Taktak. For villages on the Zāb see Route III F.
Taktak, Kurd village of 30 houses, on the r. bank of the
Lesser Zāb, the channel of which in October is here
110 yds. wide, 4 to 5 ft. deep. The river bed is here
shingle, and 300 to 400 yds. wide. The river is fordable
at several points. Taktak is the head of raft navigation
at ordinary l.w. season. For steamer navigation on the
Lesser Zāb see Route III F. A trade in tobacco is
carried on with Baghdad, large rafts being used for trans-
port. Wheat, wool, and pomegranate skins for dyeing
are also among the cargoes. On the r. bank there is an
open place suitable for camping. On the l. bank the


254
LAND ROLTES
Miles from
Altun
Xoprӣ
32
373
ground rises rather steeply to the Kherenao Dāgh, with
a village of that name about 11 m. off.
A route from Kirkuk is reported to reach the I, bank of
the Lesser Zāb near Hamdun (Route III F, m. 103).
This route passes through the hills of the Shuan country,
which in spring are grassy downs. The Shuan Kurds
i are a strong semi-nomadic tribe (mostly shepherds), who
have a reputation for law-abiding conduct.
From Taktak route follows r. bank of river for about #m.
· Route diverges from river, over rising ground.
The Zāb disappears from view. Easy broad track. Farther
on route follows broad summit of a spur between two
ravines, and then apparently descends, and runs about
1 m. l. of a sandstone ridge, rising between it and the Zāb.
Baghajder village, 1 m. to r., almost hidden among ravines.
In places the road, otherwise passable for artillery, requires
levelling.
Cross a stream, from the Heib es-Sultan Dagh, with little
water in October, in a shingle bed 30 yds. wide. Ascend
the r. bank for a short distance. Track rather narrow in
places where washed away.
Enter an open plain extending to the foot of the hills to
the E.
Shileh, 40 houses, 1 m. to l., in a ravine among gardens.
Well-defined clay track.
Köi Sanjaq, alt. 1,800 ft. (2,500 ft. in map, 1912). Abun-
dant open space round Köi Sanjaq for a camp. Fire.
wood from the ridges to the N. and E. Good water.
Distances from Baghajder very uncertain ; total estimated
in Mil. Report as 10 m., time in reverse direction 24 hrs.
From Köi Sanjaq route follows a well-used track, dipping
into a small ravine.
Cross stream-bed 40 yds. wide, of boulders and stone, with
little water in October, except in canals. Sandstone
formation, nearly horizontal strata.
The route proceeds along an easy track covered with loose
stones.
40 min. from Taktak reach foot of the Heib es-Sultān Dāgh,
a limestone ridge, running SE., and the first outlier of
the Kurdish hills. Several small ravines, which contain
streams in the spring, drain south.
48








256
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Altun
Köprá
59?
Pass Buraish, 20 houses, on the other bank of the Khudrān,
m. to r. Near it is a ziyaret and grove of oaks.
Boraka, 20 Kurd houses, on a marshy stream flowing
towards the Khudrān. Small patches of cotton are sown.
Wheat and rice round Raniyeh, but the soil is not utilized
to its fullest extent. Fine grass in May and June.
Pass Gora Khān, 20 houses, near a spring.
Doghur Khān, 20 wretched huts, on a mound 1 m. to r.
Cross stream from several small springs.
Easy level track; muddy in rainy weather.
Galek (Route 38 at m. 71), 1 m. distant. Thence direct to
Raniyeh.
602
661
66
ALTERNATIVE ROUTE FROM M. 62 via DERBEND
Cross canal, 4 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep.
Ford a winding, sluggish stream, 10 to 12 ft. wide and 4 to
6 ft. deep, with marshy tracts flowing to the Záb. At
the ford it spreads over a gravelly bottom 50 yds. wide
and 18 in. deep. It is difficult to cross except at this
point. Rich loamy soil about here.
Cross a large stream from the Raniyeh direction flowing in
a gravelly ravine.
Reach some gravelly cliffs lining the shingly and stony
bed of the Lesser Zāb, here į m. wide.
Pass some springs, and skirt the bend of the river.
Tamarisk shrubs on the shingle. This is the Pishghelli
district.
Sirsyān, Kurd village of 60 houses, on the opposite bank.
Pass a Kurdish masonry fort with bastions at the corners,
in ruins.
Derbend village at the mouth of defile called Bābā
Derbend, where the Lesser Zāb issues into Raniyeh
Plain. Thence to Raniyeh (6 m.), see Route 41, m. 6-0.
ALTERNATIVE ROUTES FROM Kör SANJAQ TO RANIYEH.
In 1903 Sykes followed a route from Köi Sanjaq to Raniyeh which he
describes as a good mule-track. This also goes by the Ziyāret Heib es-Sultān;
after traversing the Heib es-Sultān Dāgh it crosses the Kelek Khān Valley,
leaves Nahrawan to l., turns northward near Khudrān village, and then crosses
the route described above, passing over the Dahli Bisman, a small range of five








ROUTES 40, 41
257
peaks about 4 m. from Raniyeh, while the main route skirts round the SE. end
of this line of hills. Sykes took 3 hrs. to Khudrān village, and 3 hrs. again
from that point to Raniyeh. There seems to be very little difference in the
length between the two routes.
Sykes's map shows a third route to Raniyeh which diverges to the l. a short
distance beyond the Ziyāret Heib es-Sultān and passes through Kusrilan near
the NW. end of the Dahli Bisman.
ROUTE 41
RANIYEH-BANAH (70 m.)
Authorities :-Routes in Persia, vol. ii, Route 106 (reports of 1888, 1902, and 1905).
Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 108, pp. 269-70. The distances
given in Routes in Persia for the stage from Raniyeh to Shlamatte (Shalmatti)
are confused, probably owing to misreading of the account in the Military
R.port on E.T.A.
The nature of the road varies greatly, and, from the information
given, it is doubtful whether it would be passable, except here and
there, for guns or carts and transport. It is very hilly and stony
with steep inclines in some parts, in others the track crosses muddy
rice-fields and marshy valleys. From Ser Desht to Banah the route
goes over a good open road and would probably be passable for all
arms at all times.
There are two intricate fords at 73 m. and 131 m. from Raniyeh
which are difficult to cross without guides. Many of the streams in
the valleys are liable to flood, and would then have to be crossed
higher up, necessitating considerable détours.
No exact data can be given regarding supplies, but a limited amount
could probably be got from the villages. Forage, fuel, and water are
fairly plentiful in parts, especially near Raniyeh. Water is chiefly
from streams or springs and is plentiful everywhere except in hills.
No details can be given about transport.
The climate is good in general, cultivation of most kinds flourishing.
Between Raniyeh and Ser Desht, however, the roads are blocked by
snow from the middle of December to the middle of March. Whether
this is due merely to the small amount of traffic, or whether the
route is rendered quite impassable, is not stated, but the former
seems possible.
MES. III


258
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Raniyeh
51
Raniyeh. Route starts in general direction ESE., crosses
stream from a spring and makes across the plain for the
Derbend gap. There is no road but several tracks across
fields of rice and barley : very muddy in wet weather,
Pass Boksin, small village of Raya Kurds, á m. to r.
Kuragu village, similar to above, close by on r.
In about ten minutes T.L. (single wire) from Köi Sanjaq to
Qal'ah Dizeh crosses the road. Spring about 1 m. away
to SW.
Cross a small stream : path very stony.
Route here rounds a spur and enters Bābā Derbend, defile
by which the Lesser Zāb issues from Pishder into Raniyeh
Plain. A narrow rocky ridge extends NW. to the Qandil
Dāgh, and a similar ridge to the Kerkur Dāgh. The
gap is 300 yds. broad ; the river being 80 yds, wide, 6 to
8 ft. deep, and unfordable. There is no track on l. bank
of Lesser Zāb into Pishder. On the r. bank is a track,
18 ft. wide, well revetted, but loose stones and boulders
require to be removed to make it passable for guns.
Derbend, Kurdish (Mangür) village of 40 houses.
Track rough and stony among boulders through rocky
defile, close along r. bank of the river.
Ford the Shirushi Chai from the Qāndil Dāgh, 25 yds.
wide, 2 ft. deep, in a shingly bed 150 yds. wide.
In about 10 minutes pass Kõmallāh, village of Mangūr
Kurds 1 m. to l. Turn SE, and follow river, which has
steep cliffs along its far bank. On this side is a shingly
bed about & m. wide, and then a stretch of marsh of about
a quarter mile. In spring the river fills this wide
bed. On the l. is a succession of low spurs, terminating
in the banks under which the road runs. Between these
are gullies down which streams flow to join the Zab.
The valleys are marshy, which makes the streams difficult
to ford although they are not deep, but in spring it would
be necessary to ford higher up.
Kharaju, small Mangūr village under the bank.
Cross a small stream in a wide bed of stone and shingle.
Kinjari, another small Mangūr village under the bank.
Turn l.
Ford the Sharvat Su, a network of streams and marsh
overgrown with willows, reeds, and brambles. Difficult
and intricate ford for which a guide is advisable,
73 ?
101
12
131








ROUTE 41
259
Miles from
Raniyeh
14.
.....-
-
18
183
Route to Urumiyeh via Wazneh Pass branches 1. (see
vol. iv, Route 68 a).
Emerge on an open down, one of the flat parallel spurs
running down from the mountains towards the Zāb, which
constitute the plain of Pishder.
Ford, similar to the last, over the Wazneh River or
Charāwa Su. Ruined and deserted village on its 1.
bank. Easy going over a flat plain gradually rising.
Cross spur 2,300 ft. high. Steep descent into a gully and
over a stream.
Qal'ah Dīzeh (Hamidiyeh), small village under a mound on
the opposite bank, on a spur which runs out as a sort
of peninsula, having gullies with steep banks on three
sides. Qal'ah Dīzeh is the seat of a Kaimmakam and
the centre of the Kaza of Hamidiyeh. No government
buildings (1905). T.L. connecting Qal'ah Dizeh with Köi
Sanjaq but not crossing the frontier. On the mound
above the village is a fort and at its foot barracks.
Leaving Qal'ah Dizeh, descend the bank by a muddy path
to the mound. Cross the stream S. of the fort; start SE.
across a muddy plain and rice-fields.
Serenel, small village with one good house belonging (1905)
to Baiz Agha, chief of the Nūr-ud-Din Kurds.
Leave Serenel in a NE. direction, crossing a stream. Track:
gradually rises over open country.
Nūr-ud-Din, large village on the 1. Pīr Mālik at eleva-
tion of 2,300 ft., Ustināwa im. to the 1. in the valley
on the other side of the stream
Turn r. and cross a succession of spurs, the road gradually
trending more S. About 600 yds. to the r. Kurd village
of Khār Ābdār in a valley.
Cross a spur, 2,700 ft., and turn I., going NE. for 2 m.
Cross a stream, down which is Shlamatte (Shalmatti) about
1 m. away.
General direction E. to Ser Desht; turn r. (SE.) again
over more spurs and valley, the road steadily rising into
the hills. Pass through oak grove with ziyāret.
Pass Gira, village of about a dozen scattered houses on
slope above to I. among trees and cultivation. To r. is a
mound on which are the remains of an old castle.
The road here bends r. Good going on a flat plateau for
about 2 m.; then begin ascent of spur, from which a
301
R 2


260
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Raniyeh
331
363
403
424
fertile valley opens to view below to the r. In this
valley is Beshir, a large village through which the road
from Suleimāniyeh to the Pishder Plain passes.
Route winds by a narrow rocky path round the hill-side.
The Beshir Su is 700-800 ft. below in a narrow gorge.
Rounding the spur, the path goes NE., ascending the ravine
of Beshir Su and still keeping above its r. bank.
Bakhlu, 30 houses, alt. 3,900 ft. Continue winding up
the ravine, general direction NE. Turn up valley to l.
and commence a sharp ascent.
Reach plateau at 5,200 ft., cross it, and commence another
long and steep ascent. The sides of the mountains are
covered with oak. A little plateau is immediately below
the pass. On the r. is a spring.
Reach top of pass, 6,950 ft. In heavy snow a détour to the
r. is necessary from here. Even and gradual descent,
following a stream on the r. by difficult and winding path.
Kanamashka, village of Malkari Kurds, on l.
The valley opens out, and there are small fields on both
sides.
Bevrān, village of Malkari Kurds, 40 houses. Cross an
open valley, the slopes covered with terraced fields.
Hamlet of Beiraji Kurds, 40 houses. Ford stream. Bev-
rān-i-Zirū (Lower Bevrān) about & m. to r, on the other
side of the stream.
Leave the valley of the Bevrān Su, which flows down a
ravine to the SE. Cross a couple of spurs and rise to
a flat plateau. This plateau is covered with ploughed
fields and crossed by a lane 8 ft. wide, almost impassable
in very wet weather owing to deep mud.
Track to Maraghān branches off to the r. over the hills.
Short rocky ascent to 5,700 ft., from which Ser Desht is to
be seen 11 m. distant, surrounded on all sides except one
by hills, which slope down NE. towards the valley of the
Lesser Zāb, a succession of fields and well-cultivated
terraces. Ser Desht is on the highest of these, separated
from the mountains on the NW. by a deep ravine.
Ser Desht, 350 houses, said to contain 2,000 inhabitants,
mostly Kurds, and a few Jewish and Armenian shopkeepers.
Two springs in the village give good and plentiful water.
There is some traffic between this place and Suj Bulaq,
the seat of the Persian governor (Hakim). Persian soldiers
461
481








ROUTES 41, 42
261
Miles from 1
Raniyeh
501
54"
are quartered here during the summer months, but are
withdrawn to Suj Bulaq during the winter.
General direction of route ESE. From Ser Desht to Banah
is about seven hours' journey along an open road with
the Zāb to cross en route.
The following villages are passed on the way, the distances
noted being approximate.
Kānibard (Qalabird ?).
Khanihalujeh. About 1 m. to r. and between these two
last villages is Banejaj.
Sianmeh, where a track joins in from Alūt.
Nojgak, with Malmal about 1 m. to l.
Yaknabād.
Zervav Sufia.
Ganzaleh.
Sueru, to the l.: Duman less than 1 m. to r.
Kaupich.
Banah (see Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii, under Bāneh). .
622
631
641
661
70
ROUTE 42
ERBIL-KÖI SANJAQ (46. m.)
Authorities : _Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 110 (report of 1902). Sykes,
Dar-ul-Islam (journey of 1903).
According to native information given in 1903 this route was then
passable for carriages in summer as far as Ashqaf Saqqā, but beyond
that point impassable for wheels, though a good mule-track. Other
information represents it as passable for wheels throughout. Water
is said to be scarce; most of the stream-beds are apparently dry or
nearly so in the low-water season. See further under camping.
grounds mentioned at m. 9, m. 21, and m. 332.
Miles from
Brbil
Erbil. Leaving the khan follow a track E. over the
plain. Pass an open brick duct which brings water
for the town from karez. Follow a well-beaten track
over gravelly clay soil.
Follow a stream about 1 m. to r. Skirt a shallow ravine
1 and stream-bed (dry in October).
4?


262
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Erbil
124
13
Pass Hasan Khān, im. to r., with a few houses near a
marshy pool from a karez.
Pass Sekeleka, 10 houses, 1 m. to r., partly in ruins.
Water from karez. A long, gradual ascent, nearing some
gravelly hills; beyond are the sharp ridges of the
Sefin Dāgh.
Pass Qiz Nizan, a dozen huts, 1 m. to l. on a stream.
Good firm track 30 ft. broad to .
Pirush, 40 houses of Dizeih Kurds 2 m, to l. at the foot
of outlying hills. Pass mouth of a karez with stream
3 ft. wide and 8 in. deep (October 1902). Enter gravelly
hills and follow a shingly stream-bed (dry October
1902). Near the karez is a suitable site for camping
troops. Supplies from Erbil and surrounding district.
Firewood from the Sefîn Dāgh.
Spring at the base of a low cliff. Easy broad track gradually
ascending.
Small stream in ravine which becomes lost in the shingle
1 m. lower down.
Cross to l. bank of stream. Several ravines on either hand.
Good grass in spring on these hills.
Reach watershed. Open out view of Sefin Dāgh and hills
NE. To the SE. gravelly undulations with no prominent
features. Keep along the broad ridge forming the water-
shed SE. towards the Lesser Zāb and NW. to the Bas-
toreh Chai. Sandstone ledges at intervals, but soil is
mostly conglomerate and gravel.
Road winds among low hills but remains broad and easy.
The Sefîn Dāgh lies nearly due N. ; a rocky ridge runs
NW. through which the Bastoreh Chai emerges by a wide
gap. At the mouth of the gap is Derbend, 20 houses,
2 m. distant in a fertile basin. Road bifurcates. A well-
beaten track goes through the gap to valleys on the
Sefin Dāgh. Turn SE., rounding several narrow ravines.
Pass a ziyāret with group of oaks. Track more stony as the
main ridge is approached. Soil rich with a little cultiva-
tion ; good grass in spring and summer.
Cross a stream.
Cross another stream ; nearly dry in October 1902.
Reach larger ravine in which is Ashqaf Saqqā, 40 houses
of Gardi Kurds. Just above the village are half a dozen
good springs, which are used to irrigate gardens below
18
1921
باشد به حد
21*








ROUTE 42
263
Miles from
Erbil
the village. 2 m. NE. is a well-marked rocky ridge,
rising 400 to 500 ft., covered with low oak shrubs, and
extending towards Köi Sanjaq. Kermanji or Kurdish
only spoken here in 1902. No one knew Turkish.
Zaptiehs usually can act as interpreters. Plenty of
open space suitable for camping troops. Water from
the springs. Firewood from ridge to N. Supplies in
small quantities. Sheep and cattle from nomad tribes.
Time from Erbil, 5-5. hrs. The times given in brackets
from this point to Degāreh are from Mil. Report ; the
distances cannot be exactly estimated.
Keep parallel to the ridge, avoiding deep ravines to the r.
Cross ravine with stream from a spring (20 min.). Baqli
village, 20 huts, 1 m. down this ravine.
Cross several shallow ravines (30 min.). Aghlia, 10 huts,
1 m. to r., down a ravine with stream, which is crossed.
Ridge 14 m. to the l. covered with oak scrub.
Cross broad stony bed of ravine, dry October 1902 (47
min.). Cross a stream. Good level track.
Cross a larger ravine with short steep descent (1 hr. 5 min.).
Descend steeply by short zigzags among rocks into a large
ravine with the Zāzir Su flowing SW. from a gap in the
ridge to the I. (1 hr. 25 min.). Another ridge is visible
through the gap, parallel to the first. Stream-bed 30 yds.
broad and nearly dry (October 1902), the water being
diverted into irrigation canals. Cotton cultivation.
Degāreh (1 hr. 50 min.), 40 houses on the slope of the l.
bank, up which the track steeply winds. Level track
when the ravine is passed. Gradient would require
improving here for wheels.
Track rough and stony, but level.
Cross a stream in a broad ravine, going SW.
A cluster of houses at the foot of the ridge, 1 m. to the l.,
near a spring. Cross several shallow ravines, dry in
October 1902, but containing water in spring. Good
soil, but little cultivated. Near here would be a good
site for camping troops. Water from spring near
Tatawwul and streams. Firewood from ridge to the N.
Supplies scarce. Track rough, but passable for guns.
Rocky mound to r., 30 min. farther on. Then cross dry
ravine (35 min.); a rough stony track continues to three
dry ravines (1 hr.), and later another (12 hr. ; 10 min.
30
31
311
332


264
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Erbil
393
before Tatawwul) with broad stony channel and some
rocks.
Tatawwul, a few houses in a ravine 1 m. to l., with a few
trees and gardens watered by a spring. Cross two
shallow ravines with stony channels.
The times given in brackets below are reckoned from
Tatawwul.
Cross a stream (25 min.). Very rough country, full of
ravines, to r.
Round a flat-topped spur from the l. (35 min.). In October
1902 some Gardi Kurds who had left their summer
quarters in the Qandil Dāgh had arrived here with their
flocks for the winter.
Cross small ravines ; track still rough and stony, gradually
descending (45 min.).
Cross a stream (1 hr. 10 min.). Topzawa, 20 houses, m.
to l., near a spring.
| A strong stream, with Shīleh and gardens and orchards
about 1 m. to r. Ridge ends here. Köi Sanjaq visible
in a well-cultivated basin.
Skirt base of a mound overlooking the town. On it is a
square masonry fort, 200 yds. side, with round bastions
at the corners. It is half ruined, but was used as an
infantry barracks in 1902.
Köi Sanjaq. The total mileage of the route (taken from
Mil. Report) may be 6 or 7 miles too long.
6?
462
ROUTE 43 a
ERBIL-ROWANDUZ (? 60 m.)
Via SHAKHLAWA AND BĀTĀS
Authority :-Lorimer, Report of a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan, April-May
1910. Distances estimated from Lorimer's times : see m. 26 and m. 391.
This road does not seem to be passable for wheels. There are,
however, no serious obstacles, and baggage animals have not much
difficulty except in the stage from Batās to Rowanduz.
Supplies are fairly plentiful, especially at Shakhlawa, and the
Kurds met with appeared to be hospitable. Water is good and
plentiful everywhere, and as soon as the hills are entered there is
abundance of fuel and timber.








ROUTE 42, 43 a
265
Miles from
Erbil
O
22
Ž
Erbil. The track at first runs NE. across open plains.
Bairkod village, 10 houses of Gardi Kurds, to W. Cross
a small hollow.
‘Ankowa slightly N. of W. It consists of 300 houses of
Oriental Christians and is about å hr. from Erbil.
Qarachok Hills visible W. of S. To ENE., main peak
of long dark range (Sefīn). A nearer and lower range
is Dulopā.
Pirzin, 50 houses of Gardi Kurds about 2 m. NNW.
Pirush, 40 houses of Dizeih Kurds, ESE.
Nomad encampments may be seen near.
Two ravines.
Cross a small clear stream. Knoll on stony but more or
less cultivated ground.
Shawāq, 25 houses of Gardi Kurds, 1 m. E.
Mulla Omar, 25 houses of Gardi Kurds. Timber be-
comes more plentiful. Track rises gradually.
Summit of the outer hills bounding the Erbil Plain.
Sudden descent into the valley of the Bastoreh stream,
which is the boundary between the Kazas of Erbil and
Köi Sanjaq. The range on the other side of the valley
is crossed, within view from this point, by three passes :
(1) The Galiyāweh to NNE. leading to Shakhlawa
and Rowanduz.
(2) The Shakhlawa to NE. also leading to Shakhlawa
and Rowanduz (crossed by route).
(3) The Saiwakeh, to NE. by E.
Cross the Bastoreh stream. Stony bed, about 80 yds.
wide.
Track rises for some miles.
Saiwakeh village 1 m. N. by E. Good spring in a hollow.
Donguzāweh village į m. Š. by E. Rough track; fairly
easy ascent.
Saiwakeh fort, a square stone building with bastions.
Top of the pass. Descend into a valley.
Reach the bottom of the valley and cross a stream. Track
stony and rough.
Koreh, 30 houses of Hoshnau Kurds, 600 yds. to E. Tall
poplars and willows near.
Hasan Māwilāwi, 30 houses, 1 m. NW.
Track runs up through a gorge, Derbend Sefīn, with a
stream flowing through it.
12?
141
20"
211


266
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Erbil
221
23
26 ?
Hujarān, 15 houses of Hoshnau Kurds immediately on
the r. of the track. Valley running up into the hill on
the r. At its head on N. is principal peak of Sefīn Dāgh.
Grove of trees.
Top of a small pass. Road bends E. Going heavy in wet
weather.
Shakhlawa village, at the foot of the northern precipices
of a mountain with the same name. There are 230
houses of Kurds, 130 of Christians, and 5 of Jews. The
Jews are weavers, the Kurds and Christians cultivators
and muleteers, and also weavers. Poplars are grown for
timber, and planes and mulberries grow to a great size.
Wheat, barley, māsh, and arzān are grown, and some
cotton, sesame, and a little tobacco. Fruits include
grapes, apples, pears, and mulberries. There are some
magnificent clear springs on the hill-side which drive
five flour-mills and water the orchards, vineyards, and
woods that extend down into a valley below the village.
The place is sometimes used as a summer resort by
Europeans from Mosul.
In spite of all its resources, however, it is said to have
a poverty-stricken appearance.
Lorimer's times from Erbil to the principal points thus
far are:-
hrs. min.
Erbil
. 0 0
Pirzīn . . . 1 25
Mulla 'Omar . . 246
Pass (m. 173) . . . 5 16
Shakhlawa . . 8 20
27
Track descends a stony lane to a valley. Near the foot
of the descent it crosses a stream coming down from
Shakhlawa.
Derbend Soraq, gap in a red ridge parallel to the hills
behind Shakhlawa. All the drainage of Shakhlawa and
its valley appears to escape through this gap. The
highest peak of Sefin Dāgh is about 3 m. S.
Cross to r. bank of the Rū Soraq, the stream which issues
from Derbend Soraq. It is of varying depth, flows
rapidly westward, probably to join the Great Zāb, and
has a breadth of 5-10 yds.
29








ROUTE 43 a
267
Miles from
Erbil
304
313
332
Track rises by an easy ascent.
Pass over the Mīrāweh ridge, which runs parallel to that
of Soraq. It is composed of a whitish rock.
Māwarāneh village, 60 houses of Rowanduz Kurds,
2–3 m. W.
Tilgareh village, 10 houses of Hoshnau Kurds, 3-4 m. S.
Mamazailkeh, 120 houses of Hoshnau Kurds, 1 m. NE.
Track now runs in a general N. by E. direction.
311 Cultivation begins, reaching as far as the steep, barren
Harir Hills in front.
Track to Rowanduz breaks off to r.
Cross a small stream with a good flow of water.
Mīr Rustam village, destroyed by fire in 1909.
Shuweisīyeh, 10 houses of Mír Mahmali Kurds, 300 yds.
to r.
Shināweh, eight or nine houses, 1,000 yds. to r.
Both villages are under the Emir of Shakhlawa.
Track crosses another ridge. Kõikeh, deserted village.
Sīsāweh, 10 houses of Mír Mahmali Kurds, 500-600 yds. E.
Motrāweh, 30 houses of Mir Yusufi Kurds, 11 m. NNW.
Sursureh, 30 houses of Mır Mahmali Kurds, 27 m. NW.
by W.
Sheikh Mahmūdiyeh, 60 houses of Mir Mahmali Kurds,
21 m. distant, slightly E. of Shināweh.
Good fruit orchards in the neighbourhood. Two streams
from valley on r. Track leads N.
341 Ari Sirak, 10 houses of Mīr Mahmali Kurds.
Cross an irrigation channel.
Bāwiyeh, 100 houses of Rowanduz Kurds, . m. NE. by
E. on some foot-hills.
Karwātāneh, 40 houses of Rowanduz Kurds, beside the
track.
Path rises gradually and obliquely up to the top of a ridge
parallel to Harīr.
Water-mill.
House and ruin of square blocks of stone set in good
mortar.
Harīr village, about 100 houses of Rowanduz Kurds, about
1 m. NNE.
Track runs along the SW. side of the ridge, just below the
crest.
392 | Bātās village, 100 houses of Surchi Kurds.
352


268
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Brbil
Lorimer's times from Shakhlawa are:-
hrs. min.
Shakhlawa . . 0 0
Derbend Soraq.
0 30
Mīrāweh ridge . . 1 16
Ridge (m. 33).
2 16
Bātās . . . 4 3
For the next few miles there is no evidence available.
The last 16 m. are the same as the last stage of the
route from Mosul to Rowanduz via 'Aqreh and Qandil
ferry (see Route 45 a, m. 731).
The track between Bātās and Rowanduz is difficult.
Baggage animals take a full day to cover it.
60? | Rowanduz.
ROUTE 43 b
ERBIL—ROWANDUZ (? 52 m.)
Via BAHIRKA AND THE BĀBĀ CHICHEK DĀGH
Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 116 (a report of 1881).
This route appears to be a fair to difficult mule-track. No
information as to supplies, &c.
Miles from
Erbil
10
Erbil. Route runs NE. over an undulating plain, ap-
proaching a rocky ridge to E.
Ankowa, 300 houses of Oriental Christians, 2 m. to l.
Bahirka village, 150 houses of Gardi Kurds; the residence
(in 1910) of Kakil Agha, head of the Gardi Kurds.
Cross the Bastoreh Chai, dry in January. This stream
rises in the long black range called the Sefin Dāgh
to E.
Pass Dumwakh, and enter a valley among gravelly hills.
Cross a watershed, 1,950 ft. Many rough, broken earth
scarps, with numerous streams.
Descend rather steeply for 300 ft., and then follow a fair
track through some small glens, with clear streams and
grass.








ROUTES 43 a, b, 44 a
269
Miles from
Zrbil
16
Dera village. Oak copse begins to show on the hill-sides.
From here perpetual ascents and descents over wild,
stony country, with some deep ravines and numerous
streams. Oak scrub plentiful on the hills.
Cross bed of a large stream. Turn through a gorge in a
razor-backed range in front. Track difficult, among
boulders in the ravines along the foot of this range.
Keep NE., skirting a stream; the slopes become easier,
dotted with oaks.
Cross a col in the Bābā Chichek Dāgh (2,000 ft. ? or more),
which runs SE. for some distance, and descend through
oak copse and scrub.
Herāsh village, alt. 2,400 ft. ? Bābā Chichek village is
4 m. W. over some hills.
Descend over easy downs, cross a stream from the Narib
Desht, a long open valley to SE.
Begin gradual ascent, which becomes much steeper.
Zigzag ascent to 2,650 ft. Reach comparatively level
country, with a little cultivation.
Sparse oak woods. Winding ascent along a valley, up a
steep hill-side for m.
Kurruk village, alt. 3,200 ft. This appears to be identical
with Qarakhin in Route 45 a (m. 741), which is joined
in this neighbourhood (the exact point cannot be deter-
mined).
(For the rest of the route to Rowanduz, see Route 45 a,
m. 742-892.)
Rowanduz.
36
37
52?
ROUTE 44 a
ROWANDUZ-RANIYEH (532 m.)
Via THE BEJĀN PASS AND BALASSAN
Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 111 (report of 1902).
This route is not passable for wheels, except for the last 27 m.
into Raniyeh. It is very difficult for pack-animals at the ascent to
and descent from the Bejān Pass (m. 8) and in the narrows of Keshān
Dereh (m. 30% and following).


270
LAND ROUTES
There are good camping-grounds, with wood and water plentiful,
along the Alaneh Dereh, especially about Balassān (m. 281).
A mobile force, such as mounted infantry unhampered by pack.
animals or guns, could do it comfortably in two days, halting in the
Alaneh Dereh.
Miles from
Rowan-
duz
Rowanduz. Direction SW. Track rough, paved with
cobble stones.
Serderiyeh Pass? If correctly placed, this cannot be
identical with the pass mentioned under the same name
in Route 45 a, m. 834.
| Kānikhur, 60 houses of Rowanduz Kurds on r.
The Kalant Su in a deep gorge on 1.
The track descends into a valley where two streams meet
and follows that on the r., the Nergir Chai, up a narrow
rocky gorge, well wooded. Ascent steep and difficult.
Enter an amphitheatre of perpendicular cliffs and ascend
a shaly spur covered with oak scrub.
Bejān Pass, 5,325 ft. Long descent begins. Oak forest
on the hill-sides. The pass is very difficult in places
and hardly passable for pack-animals.
Bejān Qal'ah, ruins of a large mud fort, on l.
Cross a valley and descend along flat stony spur among
oak trees.
Reach the Alaneh Dereh and turn 1. round a spur.
Mill and shrine. Cross a swift stream in a rocky bed,
the Bila Su (unfordable November 1902), by a wooden
bridge on three stone piers 15 ft. by 2 ft., 10 ft. above
the stream
Track now runs roughly S. parallel to the general direction
of the Alaneh Dereh. Cross a succession of sparsely
wooded spurs running from the Kurek Dāgh.
Pass through a ziyāret and burial-ground.
Benāwi, about 20 houses of Haruti Kurds (alt. 3,900 ft.).
Descend towards the centre of the valley across spurs.
Oaks give place to stony fields.
Tarawa, small Haruti village 1 m. to l.
Track from Khān-i-Batman joins the present track here.
Skirt the steep, bare hills which enclose the Alaneh Dereh
on the W. A track to Shakhlawa (about 7 hrs.) leads
across a depression in these hills.
Sartikan, village of Haruti Kurds, 1 m. to 1.
17
171
22


270
LAND ROUTES
There are good camping-grounds, with wood and water plentiful,
along the Alaneh Dereh, especially about Balassān (m. 287).
A mobile force, such as mounted infantry unhampered by pack-
animals or guns, could do it comfortably in two days, halting in the
Alaneh Dereh.
Miles from
Rowan-
duz
3?
8
NE
14
15
Rowanduz. Direction SW. Track rough, paved with
cobble stones.
Serderiyeh Pass? If correctly placed, this cannot be
identical with the pass mentioned under the same name
in Route 45 a, m. 831.
Kānikhur, 60 houses of Rowanduz Kurds on r.
The Kalant Su in a deep gorge on l.
The track descends into a valley where two streams meet
and follows that on the r., the Nergir Chai, up a narrow
rocky gorge, well wooded. Ascent steep and difficult.
Enter an amphitheatre of perpendicular cliffs and ascend
a shaly spur covered with oak scrub.
Bejān Pass, 5,325 ft. Long descent begins. Oak forest
on the hill-sides. The pass is very difficult in places
and hardly passable for pack-animals.
Bejān Qal'ah, ruins of a large mud fort, on l.
Cross a valley and descend along flat stony spur among
oak trees.
Reach the Alaneh Dereh and turn 1. round a spur.
Mill and shrine. Cross a swift stream in a rocky bed,
the Bila Su (unfordable November 1902), by a wooden
bridge on three stone piers 15 ft. by 2 ft., 10 ft. above
the stream.
Track now runs roughly S. parallel to the general direction
of the Alaneh Dereh. Cross a succession of sparsely
wooded spurs running from the Kurek Dāgh.
Pass through a ziyaret and burial-ground.
Benāwi, about 20 houses of Haruti Kurds (alt. 3,900 ft.).
Descend towards the centre of the valley across spurs.
Oaks give place to stony fields.
Tarawa, small Haruti village 1 m. to l.
Track from Khān-i-Batman joins the present track here.
Skirt the steep, bare hills which enclose the Alaneh Dereh
on the W. A track to Shakhlawa (about 7 hrs.) leads
across a depression in these hills.
| Sartikan, village of Haruti Kurds, 1 m. to l.
172
22








ROUTE 44 a
271
Miles from
Rowan-
duz
223
281
Ashkafka, village of Haruti Kurds, 1 m. to l. In this
neighbourhood is the boundary between the Kazas of
Rowanduz and Köi Sanjaq.
Khata, village of Mir Makhmali Kurds, à m. to l.
Tutma, village of Mır Makhmali Kurds, m. to l.
Track leaves the Alaneh Dereh and begins ascent of an
outlier from the Kurek Dāgh.
Cross spur overlooking a fertile valley called Desht-i-
Balassāni.
Balassān (Badissān?), straggling village of 200 houses. The
eastern portion belongs to Mir Yusufi Kurds, the western
to Mir Makhmali (1902). A stream, the Khudrān, passes
through the village and down the valley. Surrounding
area well wooded, with orchards and vineyards to E.
The village of Berawa (Mír Yusufi Kurds) lies E. or SE.,
and the villages of Daraj (Mır Makhmali Kurds) and
Chiwa (Pishghelli Kurds) lie to SW. or S. Authorities
of 1902 and 1912 differ as to their exact positions. The
position of villages in this neighbourhood is known to be
liable to change.
Track now crosses the Desht-i-Balassāni.
Cross a spur and enter the Keshān Dereh, an eastern
bifurcation of the Alaneh Dereh. It is a narrow gorge,
some 7 m. long, finally opening into the Raniyeh Plain.
It soon narrows to about å m., and continues about that
breadth.
Cross a stream from a gorge to the l. A track leads up
this gorge over the hills to Betwata (see below).
Malok, 20 houses of Pishghelli Kurds.
Follow rocky path along hill-side.
Warra, 40 houses of Pishghelli Kurds.
Nuwāweh, 30 houses of Pishghelli Kurds.
Valley here 500 yds. wide. Track continues down the
Keshān Dereh by a stony path winding among rocky
spurs sparsely covered with trees.
Reach Raniyeh Plain. Leave the Khudrān and keep more
to the E.
Cross a stream in a ravine full of boulders. In high water
this stream would be difficult to ford.
Sari Kāni and Angos, Pishghelli villages at the foot of
the hills about 14 m. to 1.
302
337
371


272
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Rowan-
duz
421
451
463
Betwata appears in sight, up a gorge due N. Residence
of Ahmed Bey, chief of the Pishghelli Kurds (1902).
Continue across the plain. Going easy, but stony.
Sari Chāwi, a Bilbass village. Residence of Mohammed
Agha of the Pirān section (1902). Large spring just
before entering the village and from it a river flows SW.
across the plain to join the Khudrān.
Road turns nearly S. to avoid outlying spurs.
Tilleh, village of Pirān Kurds at foot of a mound on r.
Turn to 1. round spur.
Pass mouth of narrow valley running into the hills. In
it are a few hamlets of Ako Kurds.
Cross a bed of shingle and boulders 1 m. wide.
Stream 4 yds. wide, not everywhere fordable (November
1902), flowing down the middle of the bed.
Follow direction of a low range on 1. which juts out into
the Raniyeh Plain.
Turn to l. and ascend slope towards a gap (alt. 2,125 ft.)
in the range. Here join the road across the plain from
Köi Sanjaq to Raniyeh. Rough undulating road,
upfenced and crossing fields, but fit for wheels.
Direction NE. by E.
Raniyeh.
482
531
ROUTE 44 b
ROWANDUZ-RANIYEH (53 m.)
Via KHATA, WITH BRANCH TO Kör SANJAQ
Authorities :- Lorimer, Report on a Tour in Persian Arabia and Kurdistan, April-May
1910, from native information; Hony, map of route, 1912.
This is said to be the easiest route between Rowanduz and
Raniyeh, and is apparently not liable to be blocked by snow like the
'more direct'(?) routes. The distances are very uncertain. It is not
clear how far this route differs from Route 44 a ; thus Sarwisāweh
may be identical with Sari Chāwi (m. 45% above).
Miles from
Rowan-
dus
Rowanduz (alt. 2,200 ft.). Cross Derbend 'Ali Bey (alt.
5,800 ft. ?).
1 17 hrs.) Benāwi.
14





ROUTES 44 a, b, c
273
Miles from
Rowan-
duz
16?
(8 hrs.) Khata. The track bifurcates here, the right-hand
branch going to Siktan (15 hrs.) and Köi Sanjaq
(20 hrs. ; 44 m. ?). Track now easy along a valley.
(15 hrs.) Chiwa. Track still easy. Apparently another
route to Köi Sanjaq diverges here to r.
(21 hrs.) Sarwisāweh. Track now over a plain.
|(243 hrs.) Raniyeh.
ROUTE 44 c
RANIYEH-ROWANDUZ (53 m.)
Via THE NALKEWAN VALLEY
Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 114 (report of 1888); Sykes,
Dar-ul-Islam (journey of 1903).
This route is simply a mule-track for most of its length, and is
very rough going at many points. It is closed by snow at the
Gurmanjan Pass for three months in the year. Water is plentiful,
but supplies scarce, except in the first and last few miles. Fuel is
plentiful except between m. 20 and m. 30.
Miles from
Raniyeh
Raniyeh (alt. 1,245 ft.). Ascend a wide grassy valley by
a broad track.
21 Skirt some rocky spurs from the r. The valley narrows
to about å m.
Rocky spur to r.
The ridge, of vertical sheets of rock, rises 1,000 ft. 1 m. to
r. To l. the hills are also rugged, but more rounded.
Valley narrower and more stony as ascent is made.
Dalaran, Zebān, and Hājireh, small villages along the
ridge to r.
41 Pass gap in the ridge to l., 300 yds. wide and į m. long,
through which flows the Serkupkan Su, 50 ft. wide and
18 in. deep (May 1888), over a stony bed 200-300 yds.
wide. It enters the upper part of the Raniyeh Plain,
and joins the Khudrān there. A large irrigation channel
takes water in the direction of Raniyeh. Neraban is a
small village at the mouth of the gap.
MES. III


274
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Raniyeh
Follow stony track 10-12 ft. wide up the Serkupkan Su.
Rocky spurs from either side. The river becomes a torrent
among boulders.
Berkhoused, 50 houses, on the river.
Groves of mulberry and a few sycamore and ash trees by
the stream. Alt. 1,653 ft. The hills to the r. are
covered with low oaks and brushwood.
Follow a narrow mule-track among large stones and
boulders.
Wheat and tobacco cultivation on terraces in the hill-side.
Valley 50-80 yds. wide ; rough stony track in the stream-
bed for a short way.
Ford to r. bank of stream, 20 yds. wide and 1-11 ft. deep
(May) over gravel.
The track is generally a good 8 ft. ledge 50-60 ft. above the
stream, narrow in places.
Craggy wooded ravine with small stream from high rugged
hills to N.
111 Broad easy track; cultivation in terraces dotted with oak
and mulberry trees.
Kāni Benao, large spring, and village of same name
to r.
The razor-edged ridge which skirts the E. side of the valley
of Raniyeh ends abruptly here, and gives place to rounded
spurs from Qandīl Dāgh. These are thickly covered
with fine oaks.
Narrow ravines in the rocky ridge to W.
Along stream-bed, winding among boulders.
121 Stream divides, the larger branch going N. Track follows
the smaller NW. Another track, 2 hrs. longer, leads up
the larger branch, also to the Gurmanjan Pass (see
below, m. 254).
131 Burzungen, straggling village, mostly on the r. bank of
the stream (4 hrs. 25 min. from Raniyeh).
Rich soil, cultivated in terraces. Vines, walnuts, figs,
mulberries, pomegranates.
Path narrow and obstructed with trailing vines.
Several small springs. The ridge to W. is steep and rocky,
of conglomerate and boulders, while the summit is a
perpendicular wall of rock 200-300 ft. high. Dera and
Burt Khra are other villages in the valley.
141 | Rough steep track in and out of a ravine from the W.
12








• ROUTE 44 c
275
Miles from
Raniyeh
151
161
173
192
203
Ruined fort 50 yds. to l. with solid masonry walls and
round flanking towers at the corners.
Cross another ravine, along a rough ledge.
Through oaks and across a narrow craggy valley from the
1. Some walnut trees by the stream.
Golan, scattered village on small terraces on the hill-side.
(About 6 hrs. from Raniyeh.)
Figs, mulberries, walnuts, and vines. Tobacco grown in
large quantities. Coarse silk is produced. Large herds
of cattle, sheep, and goats. Good grass in spring.
Above the village the slopes are bare and craggy, culmi-
nating in a wall of rock over which no path can be traced.
Ascend a narrow track on the hill-side.
Cross a small ravine with stream from W., and through
a large grove of walnuts.
Cross bed of a torrent (dry in May) among boulders.
Gradient steeper.
Follow a narrow 3-4 ft. ledge, ascending a small V-shaped
valley.
Easy track in clay slope, through low oak wood.
Gurmanjan Dāgh, a rocky ridge to l. Lower slopes are
steep clay, the summit a perpendicular face of rock
400-500 ft. high.
Trees gradually disappear (alt. 4,656 ft.). Only stunted
pear and fig trees and gum tragacanth above this height.
Head of valley. Good broad track, nearly level.
Gurmanjan Dāgh 1 m. to l..
Large spring. Wide basin, 6-8 m. in diameter to r. It is
shut in by snowy spurs from the Nuchewan and Qandil
Dāgh, and cut up by several deep valleys, with well-
wooded slopes, drawing towards the head of the Shaur
Valley and Serkupkan Su.
Round the head of a wooded valley following a ledge
4-6 ft. wide. Steep wall of rock 300 ft. high to l.
Rough narrow track for 100 yds. among boulders crossing
the bed of a ravine.
Turn sharp up hill-side to l. by a steep rough track heading
for a gap in the ridge of the Gurmanjan Dāgh. Several
small springs in the hill-side. Kurdish encampments may
be seen.
Gradient steeper to the summit, ascending by short zigzags
among boulders and stones, along a 2-3 ft. ledge.
213
252
s 2


276
LAND ROUTES
271
NA
33
Miles from
Raniyeh
Summit, 5,940 ft. This pass is closed for three months in
the year, from the middle of December to the middle of
March, by 3-4 ft. of snow. Steep range to E., a long
spur from the Qandil Dāgh called the Nuchewan or
Nalkewan Dāgh.
Good grass in the uplands in summer.
271 Large spring. Descend a bare stony valley, 300-400 yds.
wide, bordered by rocky ridges.
Track follows a stream formed by the overflow of the
spring.
311 | Cross stream from a narrow gorge on 1. which rises in
a high ridge ž m. distant. Very rough going. Alt.
5,380 ft.
Cross another ravine from 1.
Follow a narrow 2-3 ft. ledge form. The stream is below
to r. A few low shrubs and trees.
327 Descend by short steep zigzags into the stream-bed.
Rough going.
Bend to l., crossing a valley from the SW. with a stream.
Valley now 600 yds. wide, bordered by crags. It is now
called Nalkewan Valley.
Distances very doubtful.
Follow a path through a thicket. Grass more plentiful,
and trees larger as descent is made.
Cross mouth of ravine from 1.
Valley now 400-500 yds. wide.
Ascend a neck, leaving the stream, which enters a narrow
wooded gorge. Easy gradient, but rough track.
371 Summit of small col, 5,210 ft. Enter another valley
300-400 yds. wide.
Descend through thick forest with much underwood. Track
obstructed by boulders. Valley 100 yds. broad. Track
follows a stream-bed.
Alt. 4,620 ft. Better going.
Round a spur from the r.
Traverse a forest of fine oaks. Some pears, hawthorns, and
low shrub. Good grass. Valley 200 yds. wide. The
range to r. is more sloping than that to I., which
consists of vertical sheets of limestone cut up by craggy
glens.
411
Round craggy spurs from 1. Valley gradually opens out.
| Cross rocky spur. Alt. 3,770 ft. Valley á m. wide.
343
361
363
381
383
402








ROUTE 44 c
277
Miles from
Raniyeh
422
43
Track broad and well defined over clay and shale, on W.
side of the valley, undulating over low spurs. Follow
stream in rocky bed 400-500 yds. to r.
| Valley now 2-1 m. wide. Wheat and vine cultivation.
Broad 20 ft. track.
Round a low mound.
Gurrawān, 50 houses, at the mouth of a rocky gorge
through which a large stream emerges. This runs up
3 m., and opens out laterally 3 m. each way, forming
the upper valley of Gurrawān, in which some villages
are seen high up the mountain, with cultivation and
vineyards.
Terraced cornfields and vineyards along the stream. Fruit
trees include pears, apricots, apples, plums, and mul-
berries.
Opposite is the valley of Guillau. Through a narrow gorge
can be seen a huge basin, 3 m. in diameter, shut in by
a perpendicular wall of rock at the top.
Large stream through the gorge.
Broad track, 12-15 ft. wide, between low stone walls.
Remaining distances uncertain.
Cross a stream from craggy ravines to W. Alt. 3,180 ft.
Descend by a narrow 2-3 ft. ledge in the soft shale for 1 m.
Through vineyards and cultivation. Track now 12-15 ft.
wide. Alt. 2,805 ft.
Bend 500 yds. to W., and cross a gorge from the SW.
similar to Gurrawān.
Stream cuts through a gorge m. long, bordered by cliffs
60 ft. high. Ascend spur to l. through thinly wooded
country.
Stream emerges from gorge and enters a flat grassy valley
500-600 yds. wide.
Skirt foot of flat-topped spur forming a sort of barrier across
the valley: masonry watch-tower on the end of it, now
in ruins.
Bend 400 yds. to l., crossing a large stream from a gorge
to W., up which an elevated plateau is visible. At the
mouth of the gorge is Firkeari, 100 houses (alt. 2,500 ft.).
This point is given in the Mil. Report as 13 m. beyond
Gurrawān, but the time is only 1 hr. 19 min. from
reaching that point.
Along stream-bank are terraces of orchards and vineyards.
451
452
462
462


278
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Raniyeh
48
Skirt stony spur, and cross ravine with stream from W.
One track fords the river (here 30 ft. wide. 2 ft. deep in
May) to avoid this stony part.
Down the flat, grassy border of the river, here 400 yds.
481
broad.
512
Valley opens out to about 1 m. Cultivation, but bare of
trees, except a few stunted oaks.
Valley sloping up to the Kurek Dāgh to SW., culminating
in craggy ravines : a large stream comes down it.
Ascend a rounded ridge by a zigzag stony track. The
river pierces this ridge in a gorge 80-100 yds. wide,
bordered by cliffs 500-600 ft. high. This is the Kalūnd
Gorge, and skirts the S. side of Rowanduz.
Follow a track 15 ft. broad, crossing a ravine with a water
fall. Kānikhur, 60 houses, among orchards, is up this
valley to l. The ascent was once paved, and the stones
are now slippery.
Skirt the l. side of the gardens of Qal'ah Teluk on the height
above Rowanduz, a few yards from the edge of the gorge.
River 400 ft. below. Track may here coincide with that
followed in Route 44 a (beginning).
Descend slippery paved road into
Rowanduz. Mil. Report places Rowanduz 20 m. beyond
Firkeari, but the time is only 2 hrs. 3 min.)
527
53
ROUTE 45 a
MOSUL-ROWANDUZ (892 m.)
Via 'AQREH AND QANDİL FERRY
Authorities :- Lorimer, Report of a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan, April-May,
1910; Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 118, m. 1-197 (report of 1888).
This route may have been passable for wheels in 1910 as far as
Barda Resh, but was apparently a mule-track for most of its length.
The last 7 m. before reaching Rowanduz in the gorge of the
Rowanduz Chai were very bad. But it is reported (1916) that the
route from Harir, near m. 723, to Rowanduz has been made passable
for wheels. See also under m. 227.








ROUTES 44 c, 45 a
279
8
The chief obstacle is the passage of the Zāb, and difficulty might
be experienced at the ford over the Ghāzir (m. 18) and the bridge
over the Khālifān.
No definite information as to supplies, &c. Water seems plentiful.
The distances given below are calculated mainly from Lorimer's
times, and are doubtful.
Summary of Lorimer's times on the way from Rowanduz
to Mosul.
Travellers.
Baggage.
Rowanduz to Ashkhar About 7 hrs.
91 hrs.
Ashkhar to Qandil Ferry 1 hr. 53 min.
Qandil Ferry to 'Aqreh About 7 hrs.
'Agreh to Barda Resh 5 hrs. 31 min.
Barda Resh to Mosul
Uncertain. (Some con- A led horse took
fusion in the text.)
11 hrs.
Miles from
Mosul
Mosul. Cross boat-bridge and pass.
Gogjali village, 80 houses of Bazwān Turkomans, on the r.
Ba Zawāyeh village, 60 houses of Turkomans, about å m.
to r. N. by E. is the beginning of the Naorān ridge,
and N. by W., 12 m. off, Upper Tahrawa, 40 Turkoman
houses. NNW. about 1 m, away is Lower Tahrawa,
15 Turkoman houses.
91 Small, light-coloured mound 300 yds. to l. Naorān Hills
5-6 m. away. Terjilleh village, 30 Turkoman houses,
about 1 m. to N. (Another village of the same name
appears to lie some miles SE.) Derwishi, 50 houses,
about 2 m. NNW.
101 Topezaweh, 50 houses, 600 yds. to r. General direction
now NE. by E.
Mound on l. Behind the mound is Tiz Kharābeh, 60 houses
of Shabak Turkomans.
Imām 'Ali Riza, shrine built of round stones and mortar,
with a dome, on the r.
Bir Hellān, village of 15 houses of Kurds and Arabs, on l.
Top of the high land joining the Maqlüb Hills to NNW.,
and the Zardak ('Ain es-Safrā) Hills to SSW. The Jebel
Naorān, divided by a valley from Jebel Maqlūb, lie
between NNW. and WNW. Several villages on the
slope of Maqlūb. General direction E. by N.
164 Track touches a bend of the Ghāzir on the r.
Seikāni village, 40 houses of Bot Kurds, 13 m. to l. in the
direction of Jebel Maqlüb.
112
12


280
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Mosul
18
214
224
23
242
Cross the Ghāzir by a ford a little above the village of
Qadisiyeh, 20 houses of Bot Kurds. The river is 50 yds.
broad and in places 3 ft. deep, with a fairly strong
current (May 1910). Below the village it circles round
to SW. 1 m. S. on the l. bank of the Ghāzir is Dusera
village. 50 houses of Bot Kurds. Wheat and barley
cultivation.
Track crosses ravine with a small stream.
Top of Zirg Barda Resh. This ridge runs to the Great
Zāb. Kāni Zerdek, reddish hill to SW. Deep V-shaped
gorge called Bāzai in the hills to N.
Barda Resh Walad, 60 houses of Achair Saba, &c. A
Mudir is stationed here. Å m. to l. is Barda Resh
Yūnus, 50 houses, and 1 m. to r. Khailāki, 50 houses.
All these villages are on the same low hills which join on
to the Jebel Maqlüb. (W.0. Map 33 (1916) shows carriage-
road from Barda Resh Yunus direct to Qandil.
Track crosses a stream, and, shortly after, a second.
General direction N. by E.
Mound on r. Pond on l. This place is called Qara Bey.
Track follows a marshy stream on r. Direction NE. by E.
This district is notoriously unhealthy, and hot and steamy
even in May. Going difficult owing to luxuriant vege-
tation.
Mamõzin, mound 30 ft. high on r. Strong clear spring
with a few willows close to the marshy stream. Just
beyond the mound is another smaller spring which feeds
the stream.
General direction changes from NE. by E. to NE.
Clear pond formed by springs and containing fish. It is
surrounded by grassy slopes and its overflow goes S. or E.
to the plain as a small stream.
Jūjar Tepeh, mound, å m. to l.
Dostak, 20 houses 2 m. SSE.
Track now lies over high country with barley cultivation.
Jūjar Kebīr, 50 houses i m. to N. Jūjar Saghir, 20
houses 500 yds. SE., inhabited by Achair Saba Kurds.
Rawiyeh fort on a mound { m. to l. It belonged to Ismā'il
Agha, a chief of the Gaiz Kurds (1910). Rice cultivation.
There is also a village of 60 houses inhabited by mixed
Kurds. To NW. and WNW. is a great open plain with
mounds and villages.
252
263
271
273
282
292








ROUTE 45 a
281
Miles from
Mosul
293
31
311
331
Track approaches the Kāni Karwān River. The valley is
also called by this name.
Cross the Serderiyeh, a tributary of the Kāni Karwān.
Shingle bed 60 yds. wide. Water in May 1910 only
3 yds. wide and 6 in. deep. On the opposite side of the
Kāni Karwān are two mills driven by an artificial stream.
Valley bends from E. or ESE. to NE. The hills on either
side become higher. Some cultivation.
Encampments of Hakki Kurds seen in 1910 in this neigh-
bourhood. These Kurds are said to number about 700
tents and have scores of mares and young stock.
Green mound in the middle of the valley.
Track passes out of the Kāni Karwān Valley, between a hill
called Jebel Surchi and a detached portion of it.
Shakhlawa Hills to SE. by E. Rough and stony path,
mostly up-hill.
'Aqreh. 52 hrs. from Barda Resh.
According to native information an alternative route from 'Aqreh to
Rowanduz goes by Rizān ferry. This track crosses broken country
with two bad hills to Bireh Kafra, about 7 hrs. from 'Aqreh. From
there about 3 hrs. easy going takes one to a raft ferry across the
Zāb at Rizān. The next 3 hrs, are steep and stony and mostly
up-hill to Baibarān, from which the road is difficult for about
8 hrs. to Sheitāneh, a place which grows good tobacco. From
Sheitāneh the road is fairly easy, through hills, to Rowanduz about
5 hrs, farther on. These times appear to be at the rate of 2-23
m.p.h.
44
453
462
493
The track now descends a long stony gully and crosses
a swift stream.
Jodah, village consisting partly of caves, on the l.: about
15 houses of Surchi Kurds.
Track crosses a clear stream, 10 yds. wide, 1 ft. deep (May
1910). This stream emerges from a tremendous cleft in
the hills on the 1.
Zinteh village, 15 houses of Surchi Kurds.
Begil village, 80 houses of Surchi Kurds piled up one above
another on the hill-side. The place is divided into two
parts by a great ravine in which is a waterfall. On the
E. side of the village is a smaller ravine with a water-mill
in a cave.
There is not much cultivation, but fruit, especially the fig,
is luxuriant.








ROUTE 45 a
283
Miles from
Mosul
724
NN
through a green but almost treeless valley which forms
a trough between an outer range of hills and the Harir
range.
Stony ascent begins. Cross a ravine which comes down
from the l.
Near Harīr, from which a cart-road now runs (1916) to
Rowanduz, route joins Route 45 b (m. 72).
A track from Bātās joins (see Route 43 a).
Cross a pass called Spīlik. From here the Kurek Dāgh is
about E. 'Ali Bey gorge (see below) is E. by N.
Kurek Dāgh is now E. by S. The track winds among and
over hills well wooded with oaks, crossing several small
streams. General direction ESE.
Qarakhin village, 12 houses of Surchi Kurds, 1 m. to l.
above the track on the farther side of a brook running
down to join a stream at the bottom of the valley on
the r. Route 43 b apparently joins near here.
Leave the valley and cross the watershed. General direction
still ESE.
Kurek Dāgh now bears E.
Khān-i-Batman, 20 houses of mixed Kurds, 1 m. to N.
Possibly identical with Kāni 'Othmān mentioned in
a report of 1888. Track descends a valley through
which a stream flows to join the Khalıfān (see below).
Pass a Kurdish graveyard and a fine grove of oaks.
'Ali Bey gorge 1 m. ENE. Track emerges from the hills.
Cham-i-Khalifān, open camping-ground.
Khalīfān village, seven houses, on the opposite side of the
Khalifan stream.
The track now runs for over 2 m. down the gorge of the
Khalifān, here called the Gali 'Ali Bey.
A report of 1888 describes the upper end of the gorge as
30 yds. wide, but it broadens to 50 yds. a short distance
on. River a rapid torrent. Road close to water's edge.
Height of cliffs increases.
About 13 min. from Khalifān village, cross wooden bridge
of three spans with masonry piers. Bridge (in 1888)
35 yds. long, with 10-ft. roadway. In 1910 its upper
structure consisted of strong timbers overlaid with earth
and brushwood. It had no parapets.
Round rocky spur by good 12-ft. road (1888) among .
enormous boulders.
802


284
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Mosul
812
821
831
Border cliffs 250–300 ft. high ; valley 200-250 yds. wide.
In 1888 the track passed along river bed for 50 yds. through
2 ft. of water round spur. This is not mentioned in the
report of 1910.
Lablai waterfall. It is not possible to get a satisfactory
view of it from the track. The fall is very high, and the
water pours over undivided.
Towards the end of the gorge the valley is 300 yds. wide,
with cliffs 400-500 ft. high on either side. The river
is 10 yds. wide, 3-6 ft. deep, with a rapid current over
boulders. The road, in 1888, was an easy track 12-15
ft. broad following the r. bank, generally 50 ft. above
the water. It sometimes wound round boulders fallen
from cliff above. Portions of it are paved. The banks
of the river are wooded with oaks, sycamores, and shrubs.
The Khalīfān River joins the Rowanduz Chai near this
point. The gorge at the Rowanduz Chai is generally
30-40 yds. wide at the bottom, though sometimes it
narrows to as many feet. The hill-sides are covered
with low oak and brushwood. Precipices 1,500 ft. high
on either side of the valley. The track now winds
steeply up-hill, often over very bad surface. The rock
is hard and slippery where worn smooth. Parts of
the road (which in 1888 was 6-10 ft. wide) were de-
scribed in 1910 as cobbled and ridged across at intervals
of 2-3 yds., the packing between consisting of large
unshaped stones of 1-1 cubic foot in size. It was
reported in 1888 that this made ascent was 33 m. in
length, and was called the Serderiyeh Pass. In 1910
the made ascent seems to have been less long (it took
between 40 min. and 1 hr. to walk down it); and it
crossed the shoulder of the Kurek Dāgh by a pass called
Darakasab. Apparently the road described in 1888
crossed the Kurek Dāgh higher up its slope. See note
at end of route. As regards the name Serderiyeb, see
Route 44 a, m. 12. There is no information as to the line
of the new cart-road (1916).
Pass called Darakasab, a shoulder of Kurek Dāgh. Bala-
kyān Hill 2 m. to N. The track descends by a bad path
about 400 ft. into the bed of the Kānijuz ravine or valley
which opens through a gap on the l. of the track into the
gorge of the Rowanduz Chai.
853








ROUTES 45 a, b
285
Miles from
Mosul
Cross a stream and ascend steeply about 300 ft. up the
other side of the ravine.
888 Gardagard Pass. Balakyan Hill is now 1 m. to NW., just
above the gorge of the Rowanduz Chai and just beyond it.
Peak of Kurek Dāgh 11 m. WSW.
The track now descends to Rowanduz.
892 | Rowanduz.
In 1888 the following track led from Rowanduz to the summit of the Serde-
riyeh Pass (m. 831). Its relation to the track described above between
Darakasab and Rowanduz cannot be exactly determined. The time is 64 min.
longer than Lorimer's time from Rowanduz to Darakasab.
Hrs. min.
0 0 Rowanduz (alt. 1,500 ft.). Ascend.
0 19 Summit of ridge over town. Alt. 2,260 ft. Skirt gardens and
orchards well fenced ; follow a good metalled road 15 ft. wide
for a short distance. T. L. to Mosul here near road, but diverges
later.
0 23 Qal'ah Teluk, 50 scattered houses. 30-ft. track between ridges.
Spring on summit, but the water is not so good as that of the
river. Along broad stone track, ascending a rounded ridge.
0 33 Khanikhur, 60 huts, 1 m. to l. in orchards and vineyards.
Cross ridge over shaly rock. Alt. 2,880 ft.
Short stony zigzag, 6 ft. wide, descending a shale slope for 200 yds.
Alt. 2,580 ft. Foot of steep slope, followed by gentler gradient.
Descend into valley with a stream which breaks through a
narrow rift barely 30 yds. across into the gorge of the Rowanduz
Chai to r. (This seems to be the Kānijuz ravine mentioned
above.) Track follows a 3-6 ft. ledge along a small stream, but
could be widened. Sharp limestone ridge 500 yds. to r.
35 Good track in bottom of valley. Then ascend steep slope.
Alt. 2,945 ft. (Summit of ?) Kurek Dāgh, 3 m. to i. : low trees and
brushwood near summit.
28 Reach end of ascent after a long pull up steep stony track. Alt. 3,215 ft.
Top of Serderiyeh Pass (see under m. 831).
51
ROUTE 45 b
MOSUL-ROWANDUZ (89 m.)
Via GIRDAMAMIK
Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 117 (report of 1886).
AMAMIK
This route apparently crosses the col between the Maqlub and
'Ain es-Safrā Hills some distance N. of Route 45 a, and then passes
to the S. of that route near Dusera. Thence it runs to the


286
LAND ROUTES
Girdamamik ferry, and beyond the Zāb, after running to Rishwān,
turns NE. and joins Route 45 a not far from Harir. The route
may be passable for wheels as far as the Zāb. Beyond that
river to Harır it may continue passable, but there is no definite
information on this point. For the rest of the route, see Route 45 a.
Miles from
Mosul
0
.
41
Mosul. Cross to r. bank of Tigris by the boat-bridge and
enter the mounds of Nineveh. Pass Qoyunjiq on I.,
and Nebi Yûnus on r. Cross the Khizir, 12 ft. broad,
6 in. deep in October 1886.
Emerge on open undulating plain with light gravelly soil
growing good wheat crops. Follow a well-defined broad
track.
Pass Arpajiyeh, small Moslem village, with good water
from wells 20 ft. below surface.
Pass Kolan Tepeh, Ba Zuwāyeh (?), and Gurigharībān,
and through Qara Tepeh, a Shabbakh village.
Pass Derāwish and Ba Jerboa.
Basheikha at the foot of some bare outliers from Jebel
Maqlub to NE.
Ba Hazeinen, 200 houses, 1 m. to W. The inhabitants were
mostly Yezidis in 1886, with some Christians. Several
Yezidi shrines on the hill near. A large stream runs
through the place, irrigating gardens lower down.
Track now keeps E. through a wide gap between the Jebel
Maqlāb on the N. and the Jebel 'Ain es-Safrā (Sari
Bulāq Dāgh) on the S.
Cross a col by the ruined khan of Dubardan. (Distance
from Basheikha 154 m. according to Mil. Report ; appar-
ently exaggerated.)
Sheikh Mutti monastery to N. up the slope of Jebel
Maqlub. A few Shabbakh villages near the top of the
col. Country passable for wheels.
Descend over easy country, ford the Ghāzir Su, and pass
through Dusera on the l. bank.
In this neighbourhood route crosses to S. of Route 45 a.
Cross low ridge and reach Girda pan in a basin draining
into the Ghāzir Su.
Cross another ridge and descend to the Great Zāb.
Cross the Great Zāb by a ferry.
Girdamamik village on the l. bank, above the junction
with the Bastoreh Chai.





ROUTE 45 b
287
Miles from
Mosul
49
Track ascends the Bastoreh Valley eastwards.
Rishwān. Turn NE. over open country, undulating but
cut up by ravines.
Cross a broad ridge and reach Deir Borusa in a narrow
valley draining towards the Zāb.
Ascend by a rocky gorge to the Bābā Chichek Dāgh.
Cross by a rough ascent and pass Bābā Chichek on l.
Cross stream from the Narib Desht flowing towards the
Zab.
Harīr (Deireh Harīr) to N., 200 houses, with the residence
of a Kaimmakam. Apparently a short distance beyond
this point Route 45 a is joined (at m. 723), and followed to
| Rowanduz.
89


288
THE EUPHRATES VALLEY
ROUTE 46
BAGHDAD—ALEPPO (524 m.)
Via the EUPHRATES VALLEY
Authorities :-Dobbs's Report of 1903; Military Report on Arabia (a report of April
1896); Bury, Baghdad-Aleppo Road, March-April 1907; Route reports of
May-June 1905, Nov. 1905, and March 1908 and 1909; J. P. Peters, Nippur,
1897 ; Sarre & Herzfeld, Archäologische Reise (journey of 1907-8); E. von Hoff-
meister, Kairo-Baghdad-Konstantinopel (journey of 1908); oral information.
This is a regular caravan route. Caravans take from 20 to 25
days; a carriage about 15 days. It is on the whole suitable for
wheeled traffic, although some stretches are so sandy and others so
stony as to necessitate slow going; the going is good over other
stretches where the ground is level and hard. A 40-h.p. Argyll
motor-car went over the stretch from Ānah to Aleppo in 31 hrs.
It experienced little difficulty up to Deir Hafir, except where the
road was being remade near Tibni. There was one bad wadi, but
once over the Tibni Hills the running to Sabkhah was excellent.
From Deir Hafir the road was greasy after rain, and considerable
difficulty was experienced. From Raqqah to Aleppo a motor journey
has been done in 84 hrs. See note at m. 410.
As far as Fellūjeh there is a good, although unmetalled, driving
road. At Fellūjeh the route crosses the Euphrates and goes along
its r. bank to Meskeneh via Hit and Anah. There are some
troublesome wadis between Hit and Anah, which might require
improvement for heavy wheeled traffic. There are also numerous
gullies between Deir and Qishlāq Ma'dan, some of which are now
bridged. At Meskeneh the route leaves the Euphrates, and stretches
W. across a great unirrigated but not uncultivated plain to Aleppo.
The road is at its worst in May when the river is in flood and the
wadis are full of water, but even then it is passable for wheels. There
are very few gradients, and those that do occur are short. Between





ROUTE 46
289
Meskeneh and Aleppo the track by Tel Aghul (see left branch under
m. 482, below) is said to be the better for military purposes, though
it is not the usual caravan route.
A good road could be made over this route ; for which purpose an
ample supply of metal is obtainable at certain points on the route,
as between Feheimeh and Anah and at Deir ez-Zor and Qishlāq Ma'dan;
while there are no serious engineering difficulties : only a few stone
bridges and culverts—no iron girders—would be required.
In May and June it is said to be better to march by night, or
evening and morning. Sandstorms are common below Anah. The
mosquitoes are not intolerable, but a virulent sandfly is found in cer-
tain places, when neither man nor beast can sleep unless a strong
breeze is blowing. During floods the difficulties and discomforts of
this route are increased. Violent storms may also occur, including
storms of very large hailstones. Within a few minutes after sunset
a blast of cold air comes from the E. which may tear down a tent
that is not properly fixed.
Over many parts of the route there are probably alternative tracks
besides those indicated in the itinerary.
For Arab tribes on the route see Introduction to Euphrates River
Routes (pp. 94, 95). Compare Routes IV E-H throughout.
The T.L. follows the line of the route to Fellūjeh and is carried
across the Euphrates up-stream of Fellūjeh ; thence it accompanies
the route. The poles for carrying the two wires are of wood
near Fellūjeh and Ramādiyeh, but elsewhere iron standards are
used. Pits are dug round these poles to prevent caravan animals
from pushing them out of position, but they have frequently to be
set straight. Arabs occasionally damage the wires, and, from one
cause or another, telegraphic communication may be altogether
suspended for days together.
The route passes, to a large extent, by irrigated or non-irrigated
cultivation, through jungles of tamarisk, thorn, and liquorice, or over
land which has rich pastures in spring. The irrigated cultivation
is only on a narrow strip of the river bank, and is rather poor. No
supplies can be relied on except for small parties. The best part of
the route, as regards supplies, is from Meskeneh onwards. Water
is generally plentiful. Some pools are brackish, but the river water,
although thick, is good. Watering-places would have to be prepared
and ramps made in the banks. All along the route fuel is very
scarce, especially in spring, when the sap is in the thorn or tamarisk
scrub; there is a little wood in the large villages, and camel dung.
Transport and live stock may be got from the nomad tribes, and
this source of supply is naturally most abundant when the nomads
MES. III


290
LAND ROUTES
are using the pastures. After the second hour from Baghdad flocks
of 80 to 100 sheep are met with. On leaving Fellūjeh the track
passes through corn land, and there are only occasional flocks.
After 2 m, of cultivation the track from Ramādiyeh to Hīt strikes
across the desert. From Hīt to Anah the track leads for the most
part across the desert, touching the river at long intervals. There
are narrow strips of cultivation on the river bank. About Anah
cultivation improves, but beyond Anah, between Nāhiyeh and Abu'l
Kemal, the river-valley is almost uncultivated. From Abu'l Kemal
to Deir ez-Zor there is almost continuous but poor cultivation. Round
Deir ez-Zor there is a belt of cultivation and good grazing. From Deir
ez-Zor the cultivation becomes only occasional instead of continuous,
but the route traverses a plain on which there is rich grazing. Continu-
ous cultivation begins again at Abu Hureireh. At Meskeneh the route
leaves the Euphrates and runs through cultivated country. Of this
stretch a traveller in 1906 says: “On the way from Haleb (Aleppo)
to Meskeneh, as far as the eye can see, there stretches a glorious
tract of corn-bearing land, spotted with mud villages, containing a
mixed race of people who reply equally readily in Turkish, Kurdish,
or Arabic to the questions put by the passing traveller. Many of
the villages are the property of wealthy citizens of Haleb, whose
influence is sufficient to obtain protection for their tenants from the
Government. The cultivation is not elaborate, but the ground is
fairly tilled, and the continual influx of industrious people is steadily
regenerating the land. ... At present the reclamation only extends
within an hour of Meskeneh, but as the most easterly villages
were only built last year, there is every hope that within a short
time the river banks themselves will be populated.'
Miles from
Baghdad
O Baghdad. For details of the route as far as Fellūjeh, see
vol. ii, Route 22. For Decauville Railway to Ridhwāniyeh
see p. 396.
431 Fellūjeh. Here the route, meets the Euphrates Valley
and crosses by a bridge of boats from 1. to r. bank.
Except in flood-time there is very little current; but in
flood-time the crossing is difficult.
At the bridge of boats the river is 200 to 250 yds. broad.
Khan at each end of the bridge. The track starts at
first S. by W. round a bend of the river, then generally
W. by N. for 5 m. through corn-fields irrigated by
cherrads (water-lifts). A few mud huts of settled Arabs.
| Many irrigation cuts. Ground rather heavy and liable to flood.








ROUTE 46
291
611
661
74
Miles from
Baghdad
45 Track touches river and enters a plain. It is spoilt by sand
drifts for 1 m. Sinthabaneh Hills to l., behind which
are said to be quarries of white stone.
541 | T.L. crosses from 1. bank.
511
Low foot-hills (120 ft. high) dominate the track.
Country becomes dead flat; good soil but no grass.
Two shallow water-courses, sometimes dry, but having
2 to 3 ft, of water at flood.
Ramādiyeh. Heavy going beyond this in the high-water
season.
732 Road crosses tributary with banks 6 ft. high crossed by
a single-arched stone bridge. Away from the river the
ground is barren, and beyond is a waste of broken hills,
but a continuous strip of cultivation follows the river
banks.
Cross Et-Tāsh (Azeziyeh) Canal, 18 ft. broad, by an old
single-arched brick bridge. This canal connects with
the W. side of Lake Habbāniyeh, but is sometimes dry.
Numerous neglected irrigation cuts with or without water
are mentioned as occurring in this part of the route,
some of which form obstacles even to light wagons.
The road, which for 2 m. from Ramādiyeh has gone
through cultivation, strikes off across level desert through
the country of the Beni Hasan tribe and some of the
Dilaim. The former are here the more numerous.
841 The ground becomes covered with tamarisk scrub, about
the height of gorse ; soil sandy.
Road reaches the river at the S. extremity of a great horse-
shoe bend. The river is here t m. broad. The road
again leaves the river.
Abu Rayāt (Khān or Sheriyet Abu Rayāt).
Road rejoins river and rises 100 ft. over marble-like rock
at the foot of which the river flows. The road is very
rough here for carriages (1907). There are low hills on
1. bank, and the smoke of Hīt bitumen pits can be seen.
903 Cross a ford over a wadi (Wādi Mohammadi ?) with
water up to the hocks (end of March).
From here for 2 m. track winds through a succession of
knolls, numerous side gullies running back from the
track and suitable for ambuscades. As one approaches
Hit the smell of sulphur becomes noticeable, and a dirty
deposit of sulphur and bitumen forms on the ground.
85
973
T 2


292
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
1031 Hīt.
Furnaces in which bitumen is melted and which emit
dense clouds of smoke are passed close by. Brooks
discoloured by minerals flow near the town. The track
skirts a succession of walled date gardens 1 m. wide,
extending W. of the town along the bank of the river
for nearly 1 m. Piles of limestone fragments are now
passed, their yellow colour denoting the presence of
sulphur.
Track then crosses stony undulating desert.
1102
Salāhiyeh. Track touches the river. Track now cuts off
a bend of the river, crossing desert and three wadis.
1241 The road, which has lately been rocky and difficult in
places, now descends from the high land into the valley
and continues between the foot of the cliffs and cultivated
land to
1282
Khān Baghdādiyeh. A khan was being built here in
1908. An authority (March 1908) reports that the
Wādi Baghdādi is in this neighbourhood, and that it
has steep banks and a mud bottom ; this is probably
the wadi over which a substantial bridge has lately been
built.
1327 Jibbeh fort, small zaptich post, near the river. The village
is on an island á m. above Jibbeh fort. There is plenty
of grass in April, and supplies may be got in small
quantities from the neighbouring villages.
Note.—Authority of 1909 gives the distances as follows:-
Hit-Salāhiyeh 5 m.
Salāhiyeh-Baghdādiyeh 19 m.
Baghdādiyeh-Jibbeh 4 m.
Between Jibbeh and Hadīseh a number of wadis are
crossed : see under m. 1461 and 1507. The route at first
strikes up on to high stony plain.
1371
Cross bed of Wādi Haurān, which is usually dry, but
subject to periodic floods of great violence. The bed is
conglomerate slabs. One authority says that there is
a possible route to Damascus in six days by following up
this wadi and then proceeding W., but the lawlessness
of the Anazeh has made it unsafe. Wādi er-Rajadan
lies apparently beteen Wādi Haurān and Wādi Fadiyeh.
Pass Alūs village.
1452 | Cross Wădi Fadiyeh.








ROUTE 46
293
Miles from
Baghdad
1462
1501
Wādi Hajlān. All these wadis give grazing in spring; but
they were found to be somewhat serious obstacles by a
traveller (1908) passing over the route with two light
wagons. Before reaching Hadiseh there is a cave in a cliff
beside the road which will shelter a caravan of 100 animals.
Hadīseh. A good place to camp on r. bank opposite the
village. Supplies and grazing to be had. There is a
bad khan.
NOTE.-Authority, 1909, gives the following times between Jibbeh
and Hadiseh (some of the intermediate points cannot be
identified):
Jibbeh-W. Hammām hr.
W. Hammām-W. Abu'l Hasan 11 hr.
W. Abu'l Hasan—Alūs įhr.
Alūs—W. Zughdān} hr.
W. Zughdān-W. Fadiyeh 1 hr.
W. Fadiyeh-W. Hajlān | hr.
W. Hajlān-Hadīseh 12 hr.
From Hadiseh to Feheimeh is said to be better going than
the previous stage. The track keeps on the plateau
parallel with the river and about 1 m. from it for the
first 8 m. There is said to be good camping-ground
between Hadıseh and Feheimeh.
Cross the Wādi Ausāyiyeh.
Feheimeh village and zaptieh post. Swamp at mouth of
wadi near post.
A good deal of work is required on the stretch to Anah to
make the road easy for wheeled traffic. There is abundance
of stone, and labour in plenty can be obtained from
Anah and the neighbouring villages. Road and T.L.
leave river for high ground. The road is described by
one authority as bad until it returns to the river.
Hereabouts road and T.L. rejoin river and continue close
to its bank as far as Anah.
Anah becomes visible about this point; it extends some
6 m. along the river.
Track descends to cross a water-course with a pebbled bed.
There is a bridge here, in disrepair before the war. The
Anah end was in 1907 much dilapidated, leaving a step 4 ft.
high. Owing to this wheeled traffic had to cross 24 m. up
the torrent bed by another bridge. Before reaching Anah
two new bridges over shallow but rocky gullies are
crossed (1907).
1591
1697
175
1803
1841


294
LAND ROUTES
Mlies from
Baghdad
1867
After leaving
fields, thevidi Rawas Cam
2051
212
2162
2312
After leaving N. gate of Anah and passing for 1 m. through
gardens and fields, the road ascends to high ground
apparently by the Wādi Rawā (authority 1889),
leaving the river, which here makes an acute bend N.
Road keeps mostly along the plateau, occasionally
descending to the river bank. It has been reported
that in April 1896 a large grassy plain was reached
at 1 m. from Nāhiyeh, with good grazing, but no supplies
or village. Another authority (early April 1907) speaks
of a lack of grazing round Nāhiyeh. Country is not so
thickly populated as below Anah.
āhiyeh khan and zaptieh post.
Qāsim el-'Assā‘iyeh.
The road continues due W., leaving the river, which it
again approaches at El-Qa'im.
El-Qa'im, police post with two or three zaptiehs normally.
The post lies near the water's edge on a grassy plain
which usually affords good grazing. There is neither
village nor supplies. There is a very dirty khan. The
country here is sparsely populated and villages are rare.
The road now runs over low-lying ground through-
out, marshy in places and with brushwood near the
river. The road keeps over the grass, avoiding the
marshes (in flood time the river overflows its banks), and
affords bad going to vehicles, the soil being soft sand
and clay (1908). About half-way to Abu Kemāl one
passes from the Vilayet of Baghdad to the Vilayet of
Aleppo. Several wadis are passed.
Ruins of Anqah (also called El-Jabriyeh from neighbouring
shrine of Sheikh Jabir), and large mound covered with
shapeless masses of stone.
Cross large wadi called El-Jābir. Among the other
wadis crossed between this point and Abu Kemāl are
several of large size, the most considerable being the
Wādi 'Ali,
Abu Kemāl.
Road (hard sand) reported good for wheeled vehicles in
March 1908. It runs through ploughland succeeded by
sparse tamarisk jungle.
Cross Wādi Sawāb N. of Abu Kemal and strike NW.
across a broad plain between river and desert plateau.
2351
2471








ROUTE 46
295
Miles from
Baghdad
2531 Ruin-mound called Tel Madquq (60 ft. high), graves on
the summit. A smaller Tel Madquq is a short distance
nearer Abu Kemāl. Tamarisk growth covers the plain
to Salāhiyeh.
2671 Salāhiyeh khan and zaptieh post.
In about į m. the road reaches foot of cliffs and continues
to run beneath them.
2703
At the extremity of a promontory of these cliffs, or about
1 hr. distant from Salāhiyeh khan (one authority gives
the distance as 53 m.), are the remains of the Roman
fortress of Salāhiyeh, through which the road runs,
having zigzagged up the otherwise inaccessible cliffs.
The ascent begins with a masonry culvert forming a
steep ramp constructed in 1906. The ruins comprise
a gypsum wall some 15 ft. in height, running from one
side of the promontory to the other (about 2 m.) with
gate towers in the centre, 30-40 ft. in height. An inner
wall at the NE. corner of the promontory marks the site
of the citadel. Road keeps across high, stony ground
for 9 m.
280 Road now descends to and crosses a large plain. Ruins of
Qal'ah Rahbeh on high ground can be seen for 12 m.
This is a well-preserved castle on an abrupt rocky knoll
245 ft. above river-level. The knoll is scarped away in
places and faced with stone and brick. Ascent is very
difficult. In the castle is a blocked well 60 ft. deep.
2952 Meyyādīn.
The road proceeds skirting what was till lately the river
bed, now dry. It then lies mostly across a level plain,
at first grassy. As Deir ez-Zor is approached the ground
rises and is covered with wormwood. Large spring and
summer camps of the Anazeh with flocks and herds, and
many mares come for grazing on the Meyyādīn Plain
which extends W. some 25 m., terminating as the edge of
the desert plateau sweeps round to the river again shortly
before Deir ez-Zor. The plain is very fertile, and once was
thickly peopled. It is still the most populated region
between Birijik and Hilla. T.L. appears to run generally
1-11 m. W. of road.
3191 Difficult crossing of a ravine with bed of gravel and
sand.
3202 | Cultivation, edge of desert plateau near river.


296
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
3222
323
3271
Deir ez-Zor. (For bridge over Euphrates, see p.128.)
Two branches of the route leave Deir; one keeps up
on the plateau and is waterless, and the other in the valley.
· They are never more than 3 m. apart. The T.L. is
between them. They rejoin just before reaching 'Ain
Abu Jum'a spring. From Deir to where they rejoin is
11 m. by the valley road and 12 m. by the upper road.
The valley road is about 20 ft. broad and ditched and
metalled for some 10 m. A traveller (1909) in a 40-h.p.
Argyll car found no difficulty on this stretch of the
route.
Gully; bridge washed away (1907) by a torrent. I m.
farther on is another gully with a bridge of three
arches, central arch 12 ft. high.
Ravine spanned by a single-arched bridge (26 ft. span).
It is 20 ft. from the keystone to the torrent bed. The
stone is brought from Ma'dan (two stages up-stream), and
is durable against water and harder than the local stone.
The road keeps to the valley, mostly over plains, grassy
in spring, where numbers of bullocks and camels
graze.
Single-arched stone bridge hereabouts (1909). Track then
proceeded across a muddy plain for 11 m., in the middle
of which were 3 m. of earthwork raised 12 ft., for a
chaussée, also two single-arched stone bridges.
Ain Abu Jum'a, small bituminous spring.
Shajarat Miriam spring.
Tureif, small zaptieh post. Here the river banks are 25 ft.
sheer. No supplies, but grass in spring and fuel plenti.
ful. Two deep gullies; bridges washed away in 1907.
Three-arched stone bridge about here (1909).
Track passes close to Tibni village on the bank. Khan by
a wadi crossed by single-arched stone bridge. Zaptieh
post on high ground. (One account gives 6 m. as distance
from Tureif.) Shortly after passing Tibni village road
keeps to high ground till it descends to the plain of
Ma'dan.
Road in 1907 made a digression W., skirting uneven
ground, approaching and following T.L. .
Qishlāq Ma'dan.
The road on this stage is good, across a perfectly level plain.
Tamarisk shrubs appear and increase to trees.
3331
334
3411
3502
351
3531
356
3724





ROUTE 46
297
Miles from
Baghdad
3891
3902
3952
397
401
4061
410
Tamarisk copses.
In spring 1907 Abu Rashid Arabs were seen here. Camels
in the tamarisk thickets belonged to the Anazeh Arabs.
Shawi Arabs with flocks and herds seen here in spring 1907.
A short distance farther, after crossing a low pass, a narrow
flood basin is seen, left isolated (in spring 1907) by the
river.
Qishlāq Sabkhah, small village, seat of a Mudir. Barracks
and fair-sized khan with T.O. Watering-place on river
below barracks.
Track enters a forest of tamarisk, 10-13 ft. high, and con.
tinues through it for 4 m.
Track skirts a tract fenced with bundles of camel thorn,
which is the pasture of the head-quarters of the rich Suan
tribe.
Track descends sharply to a grassy or cultivated plain,
across which it runs.
Raqqah on opposite (1.) bank of river (18 m. from Sabkhah
according to one account).
NOTE.-A 40-h.p. Argyll car left Aleppo, May 31, 1910, and going
ria Nahr Dahab, Deir Hafir (41 hrs.), Meskeneh (54 hrs.), and
A-bu Hureireh, reached Raqqah in 9 hrs. The return journey took
8 hrs. From Raqqah to Abu Hureireh the road was smooth, but
the last part was uneven and stony. From Raqqah to Aleppo can
be ridden in three days.
Route passes among low hills continuing for 11 m.
El-Hammām.
Bad khan (1908), a few huts and captieh post. T.O. Not
much grazing. Tamarisk thickets in neighbourhood.
Track now good, over undulating ground. The conspicuous
tower of Qal'ah Jābir on 1. bank of the Euphrates below
Abu Hureireh forms a landmark. An alternative track
appears to lead to S.
Tel eth-Thedeyein. Branch track S.to Hama (see Route 55).
Abu Hureireh watch-tower and zaptieh post.
Poor grazing.
Track rises and passes through corn-fields (not irrigated)
belonging to Weldeh Arabs.
Yellowish soil ; there is a larger tract of plough land on a
plateau.
Ruins of Eski Meskeneh are seen on hills to W. Here
are two shrines.
414
425
426
448
457
4591
468


298
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Baghdad
470
482
Meskeneh; the river is here 11 m. distant.
The road here leaves the river and proceeds W. by N.
Sulphur pool and ruins of a khan (Abu Karmess ?). Near
here the road divides.
486
502
524
(i) LEFT BRANCH.
This is said to be better supplied with water than the
other. It crosses a rolling plain growing scanty, stunted
barley, harvested in May. Villages of beehive-shaped huts,
tents, and flocks are seen, and water is got from wells in
the limestone, 2-3 ft. below the surface. Some of these
wells are brackish.
Tel Aghul, a beehive hut village of Haddidin Arabs.
There are good water and grass here (May-June). The
road now continues over stony soil, well cultivated.
Jebbul, large village and zaptieh post, with streams on both
sides and good grass camping-ground to N. The salt in
the neighbourhood is worked by the Government. Road
still through cultivated country, but rough with loose
stones.
Aleppo. (For description of town, see vol. iv, Gazetteer.)
(ii) Right BRANCH.
The usual caravan route. Heavy going in wet weather.
Pass a village, and shortly after cross a stream flowing
from Ala.
Pass Ala village.
Deir Hafir, village with khan and a few shops. Spring
and stream of good water. Country covered with grass
in spring ; numerous Arab camps.
Pass a small marsh.
Pass an isolated mound. Spring of good water.
Safireh. Mounds at long intervals. From this point the
route perhaps coincides with that detailed from an older
account in Route 57, m. 1232-139.
Terekiah. Many old dry welīs, vaults in the rock. The
mouths are open and they are therefore dangerous in the
dark. One, with a well-head over it, held water in
1907, at an estimated depth of 40 ft.
Long lake at the foot of a chain of hills.
Aleppo.
486
4871
489
4891
496
505
515
518
5241





ROUTES 46, 47
299
ROUTE 47
ĀNAH_MESKENEH (296 m.)
Via THE LEFT BANK OF THE EUPHRATES
Authorities :Miss G. Bell, journey of 1908; E. Sachau, 1879; Hinrichs, 1911.
This route has been little used, the caravan route by the r. bank
being that regularly followed. There is no traffic whatever as far as
Buseireh, and very little from Buseireh to Raqqah; but no serious
difficulties for pack-animals are encountered, and as a rule it is
possible either to follow the river or to strike across the river-bends,
sometimes over the desert plateau. The neighbourhood of the
mouth of the Belikh is marshy. The Khabūr River is unfordable
and there is at present no adequate ferry.
Beyond Raqqah there is a caravan-road, apparently little used, to
the ferry at Meskeneh, but no evidence is available as to its
condition.
Water is always to be had from the river. On the first part of
the journey, where there is irrigated cultivation, it is possible to
water animals at the water-wheels. Beyond Raqqah there appears
to be very little cultivation, and watering-places would have to be
constructed.
The country is thinly populated, and no supplies are to be obtained
except at Deir and Raqqah, and even there only for small parties.
Pasture is good along the river in summer, and various tribes of
nomads are to be met with at that season. (See Introduction to
Routes IV E-H.) Transport animals might be procured from them.
There are large areas at different parts of the route covered with
tamarisk and thorn, which may be used for firewood except in spring,
A good many of the distances given below must be regarded as
uncertain.
Compare Euphrates, Routes IV G, H, throughout.
Miles from
Anah
Anah. Cross the Euphrates by ferry to the l. bank. Pass
through Rawā. Palm-groves and fruit-gardens.
11 | Kerableh Island to l.
91. En-Nutāreh, naur where animals can be watered.


300
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Anah
20
35
362
El-'Ajmīyeh, naur and watering-place. Track now over
rocky ground. The track for pack-animals apparently
keeps on cutting off river-bends, but it is possible to
descend to the river and follow its course.
Qal'at Rāfideh, to l. on the r. bank of the Euphrates.
Mazar of Sultān 'Abdallah, a small modern shrine. Some.
where near are the ruins of Jabariyeh.
Balijeh mound. Arab graves.
Nammāleh Island to l. Track now across high stony ground
cutting off a river-bend.
At about this point El-Qa'im is to l. on the r. bank. After
some miles the track approaches the river, running
through tamarisk jungle, with traces of former cultiva.
474
491
564
tion.
733
873
Rabāt village, to l. near the river, is passed. Some corn
cultivation.
Track then leaves the plain by a steep rocky path. Pass
the ruins of Ardhi or Irzī on a bluff overlooking the
river. Descend from bluff into plain. On the W. side
of the bluff is the lower end of the ancient Dawwarin
Canal, which apparently runs under the hills to r.
Werdi village, in the district of the same name. Irrigation
from canals by cherrads.
Abu Kemal lies on the opposite bank of the river.
Track now through tamarisk jungle full of ducks, pigeons,
and jays.
Tel Abu Hasan, prominent mound rising 50 ft. above
the river. Arab graves on the summit.
Other mounds are passed farther on.
Before m. 1019 track goes through some miles of loose
sand with occasional patches of tamarisk.
Corn cultivation along the low ground begins.
Track keeps to r. to avoid water-channels.
Numerous villages during the next few miles.
Bustān village.
Jemmah mounds some distance from the river.
Tel Buseiyih, mound forming three sides of a hollow
square, the side towards the river being open. Tiyana
village about 1 m. distant, in a long tract of cultivation.
| Tel el-Krah, low mound covered with tiles and coloured
pottery.
Pass some ancient foundations.
101:
108
1121
1184
1191








ROUTE 47
301
Miles from
Anah
124
144
1473
149
153
1551
160
1641
Reach the l. bank of the Khabūr close to its junction with
the Euphrates. Cross by a ferry to the r. bank. The ferry-
boat in 1910 would not carry loaded animals.
Buseireh village on the r. bank, at the SW. corner of the
ruins of the ancient city of Circesium.
The track now is through thinly populated country, partly
irrigated by water-wheels. Between the road and the
river there lies generally a stretch of low ground, a former
bed of the river, which now flows more to the W.
Occasional mounds marking the sites of former villages.
Deir ez-Zor on the r. bank. For the bridge over the
Euphrates see p. 128.
Es-Senujeh village. Continuous cultivation ends. Track
now monotonous, through country inhabited only by
semi-nomads, chiefly Baggarah.
El-Maisheh, tent-village on an arm of the Euphrates (1880).
Some rice and durra cultivation.
Abu Sfir, tent-village 1 m. to l.
Upper end of a western bend of the Euphrates.
Upper end of a western bend of the river.
Reach the foot of a ridge which the track crosses.
Summit.
Reach the foot of the ridge.
Umm Rejeibeh, ruins on a hill under the N. side of which
is an old channel of the river which has carried away
part of the hill. The modern qishlaq El-Munqareh lies
under the slope. It was partly ruined in 1909, though
it had been built only ten years before.
El-Kubra, ziyāret i m. from the river. The banks are
sandy and fall steeply to the river, which is very broad
at this point.
Track now runs across the plain.
Reach the foot of the El-Hammār Hills (see Route IV H,
m. 46). Ascend.
Summit on which are the ruins of the ancient fortress of
Zalubiyeh (see Route IV H, m. 46). Descend.
Reach the foot of the ridge on which Zalubiyeh stands.
Track lies under cliffs along river.
Ruins of the fortress of Halebiyeh opposite on r. bank of the
Euphrates. The valley narrows (see Route IV H, m. 47).
Cross the Wādi el-Melih, a broad stream.
Ascend a ridge.
166
1661
170
172
176
1767
177
178
1821


302
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Anah
1833
1841
1883
1951
1971
201
2092
210“
2111
2121
2123
2163
2203
Qabr el-Abu Atiq, ruins, 150-200 ft. above the Euphrates,
the ground falling steeply to an old bed of the river,
Descend and cross a dry stream-bed.
Emerge from the defile on to the plain.
Tel el-Khumeidah, isolated hill about 2 m. to l.
Reach the Euphrates at the upper end of a western bend.
El-'Aleh. Afadleh tent-village in tamarisk jungle 14-2 m.
to l.
El-Khās, tent-village in a clearing.
Track now passes through tamarisk thicket.
Pass Imām Abu Sa'ideh, Moslem shrine and cemetery.
Jedīdeh, tent-village.
Khirbet ed-Dukhujeh.
Khirbet Hadawi.
Meida. Grassy mounds near the river. Some distance
beyond this point an area surrounded with a deep ditch
is crossed.
Kubur el-Jebel. Encampments in the neighbourhood.
Pass the Jebel Munkhir, a volcanic ridge 1 m. to r.
which rises several hundred feet above the plain. From
the summit the Jebel Munkhir esh-Sharqi can be seen
lying about 3 m. E., and almost due N. on the horizon
rising ground called Jebel 'Ukala (Tulaba).
Limestone tel with traces of masonry on the top.
Reach the Belikh and cross by a ford or a light wooden
bridge. In the early spring of 1908 the Belikh was a
muddy brook. In Dec. 1879 the ford was girth high,
and the river seemed likely to be unfordable after heavy
rain. Cross marshy ground as far as Raqqah.
Tel Zedan, hill running N. and S. about 2 m. to r.
Raqqah.
Track now WNW., partly in the plain, partly along the
edge of the desert plateau.
Ruin of Hiraklia, a rectangular fortress, almost square,
with a series of vaulted chambers forming the outer parts
of the block and apparently larger vaulted chambers filling
up the centre. At the angles are four round towers. The
masonry is mostly of unsquared stones laid in a bed of
very coarse mortar mixed with small stones, but the
vaults are of brick tiles. The fortress is ringed round
by an outer wall now completely ruined. Beyond it to
the S. runs a dyke, and beyond the dyke, about 550 yds.
2223
2281
2321
2363
243








ROUTE 47
303
Miles from
Anah
250
2571
260
266
2683
SE. of the .central fort, is another mound. Still farther
to the S. is a third mound, Tel Meraīsh, with a second
dyke to the S. of it. The two dykes appear to have been
loop-canals from the Euphrates,
Pass Tel 'Abd 'Ali, about 1 m. from the river. Track now
through thickets of tamarisk, thorn, and blackberry. No
trace of settlements.
The cliffs approach the river.
Tel Bellani, a prominent landmark by reason of a number
of bare tree-trunks set to mark an Arab cemetery.
Track now approaches the river under low cliffs with caves.
This neighbourhood is called Kudiran, and is a favourite
camping-ground of the Anazeh in summer.
Mahariz, district with ruins. Track proceeds along the
river.
Kahf ez-Zakk, traces of houses on a bluff. Weldeh camp
here in 1909.
Pass Qal'ah Jābir, ancient fortress with a minaret. Ruins
of a tower called Neshā'ib to NW. on an isolated hill.
Tel el-Afrai some distance farther on. The landward
side of the mound is protected by a dyke forming a loop
from the Euphrates.
Country now desert. Line of hills 11-2 m. to r. Swarms
of locusts seen here in 1911.
Reach a bend of the river. Dibsi tower opposite. A short
distance above this point it is said to be possible for
camels to cross in summer.
Track now NW.
Ferry opposite Meskeneh.
2711
273
285
296


304
CONNEXIONS BETWEEN TIGRIS AND
EUPHRATES VALLEYS
ROUTE 48
ĀNAH-BAGHDAD
ACROSS THE DESERT
*** and (C) coincide. It was reported in 1908 that same
The desert between Baghdad and Anah was traversed (from Anah
to Baghdad) in the autumn of 1908 by officials of the MacAndrew
and Forbes Liquorice Co., who made the journey on horseback.
Their object was to inspect the route with a view to a proposed
motor-car service. The details given in (C) below are based on their
information. In September 1909 the desert from Ānah to Baghdad
was crossed by a motor-car (see (A) below), and in November the
return journey was made (see (B) below). Both (A) and (C) journeys
were made via Helwat wells, but it is impossible to say exactly how
far (A), (B), and (C) coincide. It was reported in 1908 that Salih
er-Rashid of the Süq Abu Leban on the r. bank of the Tigris at
Baghdad knew this route, and had several men always passing over
it. He used to run the camel overland post, and owned riding
camels. He was to be found at the coffee shop of 'Ugeil.
The route lies across level plain on slightly undulating ground,
which would seem generally to afford good hard going, though in
places tyres may be cut or punctured. Apparently in the region
E. of Hit the desert is broken by wadis, which would give some
trouble to vehicles. In the neighbourhood of Baghdad and near
Lake 'Aqarqūf the ground is liable to inundation in spring, and
near Baghdad the going would be heavy after much rain.
There are no permanent habitations in the desert, and no supplies
can be counted on. Water very scarce, from a few wells (see (A)
and (B) below).








ROUTE 48
305
(A)
Account of a journey by motor-car from Anah to Baghdad in
September 1909. Water for the journey was carried from the
Euphrates. About 11 days.
First day. Cross river at Anah. This was a matter of considerable
difficulty, as piers had to be improvised. Leaving river proceed over
stony ridges, which continue for an hour or more (but see (C),
hrs. 0-1}). Then traverse level plain of hard soil, and after 1 hr.
of excellent going reach a well of bad water. Soon afterwards reach
a strip of crystallized gypsum, which took 3 hrs. to cross : bad going.
Then pebbly ground, generally good going, though soft in places.
Reach Helwat wells, better water (compare (C), hr. 433). Here halt
was made for night.
Second day. For about 80 m. from Helwat the ground is hard
and level, with only occasional stretches of soft sand. Numerous
herds of gazelle.
Then reach nomad encampments, then dried marshland ('Aqarqūf?),
which could only be taken slowly (compare (C), hr. 664). Thence to
Kazimain.
(B)
Baghdad- Ānah by motor-car, November 28-29, 1909. Total
running time, 22 hrs.
First day. Very little difficulty: a good day's running. One
puncture.
Second day. In the first part of the day's run, many difficulties
with wadis. Then excellent running till 3 p.m. The Wādi Tartar,
which flows into a salt lake about 30 m, from Hit, was found to
be in flood, and could not be crossed at the point where it was struck,
owing to the bottom being of soft mud. An Arab showed the way
to a crossing where the bottom was hard. The water was about
21 ft. deep, and stones and branches of shrubs were placed in the
river to assist the passage of the car. There was some difficulty in
getting the car through, but in the end it was pulled out with the
help of some Arabs. On the other side of the Tartar the going was
good for most of the way to Anah, but it was necessary to go slowly
in some places lest the tyres should be cut by the small sharp
stones projecting through the ground. No difficulty in crossing the
river opposite Anah, as shakhtūrs and landing-piers had been prepared
beforehand.
MES. INI


306
LAND ROUTES
. (C)
Account of a ride from Anah to Baghdad, autumn 1908. See
above. Total travelling time, 814 hrs. The times given below
are said to be for travelling on horseback at moderate speed.
Apparently this would make the total distance about 240 m.
On the map the distance in a straight line from Baghdad to Hīt is
160 m. The difference is perhaps accounted for by the necessity
of going by wells, and by the Arab habit of marching not by
compass but from landmark to landmark. But in view of the
uncertainty as to rate of progress, &c., po attempt has been made to
give an estimate of the miles from point to point. Times are given
in the margin. The places mentioned between the point opposite
Anah and Kazimain are not villages, as these do not exist in this
region. They are merely localities in the desert known to native
guides.
Hours
0
Ānah. Cross the river (shakhtür ferry) to the l. bank.
Land on 1. bank near minaret called El-Khedimeh.
Hence a road over a level plain of small pebbles and
gravel (but see (A) above) leads to
Ras Abu Tor. Level plain of small pebbles crossed to
Mutaridat. Level plain of pebbles stretches as far as
Mufrak el-Dorūb.
Murkub el-Faris.
Garaa Umm el-Kubar.
Mufrak ed-Dorūb. Level plain. Hard borax ground
with pebbles.
Toqqāqeh. Level plain with small pebbles.
Rās Annab.
Habīb en-Najjār. There is a ditch here along which a
carriage could travel with ease, the ground being hard.
Between Habīb en-Najjār and Nokheileh are two ravines,
one of which can be easily crossed. At the other is
broken ground extending for a distance of about 1 hr. :
this can only be crossed at low speed.
Nokheileh. There is a spring here, the water of which is
brackish and rather stagnant. Route now crosses a
level plain of borax ground.
Ghobeini. Level plain of hard borax ground.
Mustafej. Route crosses level plain on which is a well of
brackish stagnant water.
Dellayeh. Level plain : hard dry ground.
103
12%
151
17








ROUTE 48
307
Hours
183
20$
233
261
273
314
351
38
391
411
مطاحن اندام
431
461
491
523
Goreineh. Level ground, pebbly.
Abu Rumaneh. Route now crosses level ground on which
is a well of good drinkable water.
Abu Jumaa. Part of the way between this point and
Oneizeh lies over undulating ground, which would not
hinder a carriage from travelling quickly.
Oneizeh. Track runs over a level pebbly plain extending
as far as Tahali (631 hrs. below).
Qasr el-Jarin.
Et-Tawīl. Between this point and Rukheimi is a well of
good water.
Rukheimi.
Ras Wādi el-Idi.
Ras Wādi Tawareh.
Athmed.
Helwat. According to the account (A) of a motor-journey
from Anah to Baghdad there are wells with fair water here.
El-Had. Well, good water.
El-Joreishi.
Kebir Faraj.
Umm er-Rus.
Mughaireh.
Gulayeb Zaid.
Anazi,
Tahali. Between this point and El-Mugayer, hard red
ground.
El-Mugayer or Ras 'Aqarqūf. The route now crosses
undulations, over which carriages must travel at a slow
pace. The country is liable to floods from the lakes
at El-Mugayer. Several wells containing good water are
found on this part of the route.
Ruweis. Route now traverses level plain of pebbles mixed
with hard red earth.
Ed-Deir. Route crosses level pebbly plain to
Steih. From here undulating track : ground liable to be
flooded from the Tigris in the high-water season.
Sarrakheh. Nature of track and ground as above,
Kazimain. Made earth road along tramway to
Baghdad.
541
561
58
594
664
71%
753
U 2


308
LAND ROUTES
ROUTE 49 a
MOSUL-DEIR EZ-ZOR (191 m.)
Via 'AIN EL-GHAZAL
Authorities :- Routes in Arabia, Route 191, report of 1914; Military Report on Arabia,
Route 23, report of 1903; Sarre and Herzfeld, Archäol. Reise im Euphrat-
und Tigris-Gebiet, journey of 1907-8; E. Sachau, Syrien und Mesopotamien,
journey of 1880 ; Sykes, The Caliph's Last Heritage, journey of 1906 ; recent
unpublished information.
This route is fit for wheeled traffic the whole way. Going is heavy
after rain. Water is plentiful at each of the camping-grounds, but
none between stages during the dry season, which renders the route
impracticable for infantry. There are practically no supplies except
at Deir ez-Zor. The Yezidis of the Sinjar have made this route
unsafe in parts since the outbreak of the war.
Miles from
Mosul
Mosul.
From Mosul to Tel A'far there are two possible routes.
10
161
(i) NORTHERN ROUTE.
This is passable for wheeled traffic.
The track leads over flat or undulating country and then
rises over spurs of the low hills W. of Mosul, crossing
a number of small ravines.
Humeidat village about 12 m. N. of the road. The ridge
behind it runs close to the r. bank of the Tigris.
Route crosses Wādi Badosh, with some cultivation along
its banks.
Khān Lubgilleh ? (see note under m. 39). Route crosses
a small flat plain called Ed-Daulaieh.
Khirbet ed-Daulaieh (Khirbet el-Baghleh?), ruined village.
Northern end of a long ridge called Jebel Atshāneh,
running in a SE. direction, is passed. Undulating
country,
A group of tels is passed.
To the S. lie two hills called El-Mujelīnāt, about 11 m.
apart, one directly S. of the other.
A wadi is crossed. This wadi, or possibly another crossed
in the neighbourhood, is called Wādi Debuneh, which
was reported in 1880 as probably containing water at
most seasons. The depression in which the Wādi
182
20








ROUTE 49 a
309
Miles from 1
Mosul
261
282
291
Ao
Debuneh lies is thickly strewn with large blocks of
stone. In the plain to NE. of it is a hill called Tashtah,
near which there is said to be a spring. The plain is
bounded on N. and S. by low ridges running NW. and
SE.
Uch Tepeh, three tels about 1-1 m. S. of the track.
'Ain el-Beidhā, three springs near a small hill.
Abu Miriam, small village on a tel. Spring on W. side
of the tel, and cultivation in plain to W. There are
several other tels in the plain. A ridge bounds the
plain to N., 3-6 m. distant, running in a NW. direction.
A wadi is crossed. Track rises very gradually.
Route reaches the top of the gradual slope, here crossing
the line of the low hills called Jebel Mehleibiyeh. It
then gradually descends a valley (cultivated in 1880),
with low hills on either side.
Route passes a rain-water pool. A little farther on is
a cistern.
Tel Affar.
The following account has been based on the information of an
Arab officer in the Turkish service who in August 1914 traversed
the route from Tel A'far to Mosul in 13 hrs. by carriage :--
Miles
Mosul.
16 Cross Wādi Badosh.
Khān Lubgilleh,
Re-cross Wādi Badosh at Khān el-Baghleh.
Abu Miriam.
| Tel A'far.
372
39
0
18
(ii) SOUTHERN ROUTE.
This appears to be rather worse supplied with water than the
northern route.
Miles from
Mosul
Mosul. The route is said to run for about 6 m. over
a cultivated plain.
Route passes through low stony hills (Jebel Atshāneh ?).
Route emerges into open, undulating, cultivated country,
which is traversed as far as Muwali.
Muwali, village of Jebūr Arabs. Water supply from one
brackish well and in winter from rain-water. Between
Muwali and Tel A'far water is very scarce. Route leads


310
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Mosul
191
for some miles over open plain, with some cultivation
and good grazing. Two hills also called Muwali lie near
the village.
Mujelīnāt, small settlement of semi-nomads, with bad
water from springs.
Route runs over bare undulating ground at the foot of low
hills, as far as Tel A'far.
Dubulu, small village.
Tel A'far.
A recent authority gives the following times from Tel A'far to
Mosul :-
Hrs.
Tel Afar.
Dubulu.
Mujelīnāt.
Muwali.
Jebel Til Atshān (Jebel 'Atslāneh?).
Mosul.
Tel A'far, which is the residence of a Mudir, consists
of about 3,000 stone houses. In 1906, the population
had apparently been much depleted, the decline being
due partly to recent attacks of the Shammār, partly to
an epidemic of cholera some years previously. But a
traveller who passed through the place in the winter of
1907-1908 estimated the population at several thousands.
The inhabitants are mainly Turkish, with some Kurds.
The Turkish inhabitants are indistinguishable in dress
and appearance from the Arab fellahin, and many of
them understand Arabic. There is cultivation to N.
and S. of the town. Sufficient supplies for caravans are
obtainable. Tel A'far is unwalled and stands on both
sides of a stream, the water of which is slightly
sulphurous. On a plateau overlooking the town from
the E. is a building formerly used as a guard-house, and
on the W. side is a hill several hundred feet high, on
which are the ruins of a citadel called Qal'at Marwān.
Tel A'far. Mileage continued from Route (i), p. 309.]
From here, the track strikes SW. across the desert.
Ain el-Ghazal, small village with khan. 10-12 hours by
carriage from Tel A'far. No supplies available but
good water from spring. Route goes in a general SW.
direction.
39








ROUTES 49 a, b
311
Miles from
Mosul
96 El-Bid'ah. Eight hours by carriage from 'Ain el-Ghazal.
No village ; wells of brackish but drinkable water difficult
to find without a local guide.
From here Shedādi is 8 hrs. ride over flat sandy desert via Abu
Hamda.
General direction SW. across open desert with several hills
on the r. The going is good in the dry season, but very
heavy after rain.
128 Fadgham, small village on the Khabūr, with khan. Nine
and a half hours by carriage from El-Bid'ah. No supplies
are available, but there is an ample supply of good water
from a stream. Irrigation by water-lifts.
140 Authority of 1880 left the plain and went through a narrow
gorge: the cliffs receded, forming lines of hills between
which the track ran for about 9 m. But this may not be
the track followed by the carriage-road.
160
Cross Khabūr River, here 35 yds. broad, by a ferry.
Sawwār, small village with a khan, on the r. bank of the
Khabūr River. It is the head-quarters of a Mudir.
Zaptieh post. Mound and ruins.
Sawwār is 7-8 hrs. from Fadgham.
The track now strikes W. across the desert.
Cross an area intersected by many dry water-courses which
contain salt. The name of the district is El-Melha.
1661 Reach the end of this area.
181 About here is the watershed between the Khabūr and the
Euphrates.
189
Reach the edge of the Euphrates Valley.
Track now WSW. across the alluvial plain.
191 | Deir ez-Zor, bridge. 7-8 hrs. from Sawwār.
IS.
4
.
ROUTE 49 b
MOSUL-DEIR EZ-ZOR (2234 m.)
Via BELED SINJAR AND SHEDĀDI.
Authorities as for Route 49 a ; also E. Sachau, Am Euphrat und Tigris, journey in 1898.
Water is scarce and apparently usually brackish between Sekenik
and Shedādi, and between Tel Sawwār and Deir. Except in the


312
LAND ROUTES
Mosul
0
neighbourhood of Sekenik and parts of the Khabūr Valley there is
no cultivation, and nowhere can any appreciable quantity of supplies
be expected. There is good grazing in spring in the Khabūr
Valley. For Vezidi raids, see p. 308.
Miles from
Mosul. For routes as far as Tel A'far see Route 49 a.
(Mileage continued from route (i) under that heading.)
39 Tel A'far.
From Tel A'far to Beled Sinjar the route is generally
easy, running over open undulating ground or cultivated
plain ; but in January 1880 the going was soft, as the
result of melting snow. Up to the Solaq Chai (27 m.
from Beled) the water on the route, though plentiful, is
brackish, and only just drinkable.
For 111 m. beyond Tel A'far the route goes across an
undulating plain slightly depressed in the middle,
bounded by ridges to N. and open on the S. A number
of tels are scattered over the plain.
393 Streain flowing S. crossed (January 1880). Apparently
about this point, or a short distance farther on, a group
of tels are seen at about 1 hr, ride to S.
Tel Wardān, large eminence.
Cross wadi with water (December), some cultivation on its
banks.
Cross Wādi Ibreh with abundant water (December). On
the further side, cultivation extending to the Wādi
Mujeirat (m. 51).
Site of deserted village of Ibreh (1907).
Tel Ibreh (called by local Arabs in 1880 Khirbet Seyyid
Kleb). The tel contains some modern cave-dwellings.
Stream running SE. is crossed (this is apparently the
Wādi Sharai, and seems to be the small boggy stream'
described by a recent authority as a branch of the Wādi
Ibreh lying 22 m. from it).
501 Tel er-Rus, a few hundred yards to S. of track.
51 Stream flowing SE. is crossed. This is apparently the Wādi
Mujeirat : a recent authority mentions the Jibbareh Chai
as a small boggy stream 31 m. from the Wādi Ibreh.
Tel Abu Fuseikeh lies apparently about m. to the
N. on the l. bank of the Wādi Sharai. Cultivation and
small villages near it.
51Cultivation apparently ceases in this neighbourhood.








ROUTE 49 b
313
Miles from
Mosul
54
55
57
62
'Ain esh-Sharid, ruin-field, and spring near which is some
cultivation. Low ridge running W. begins on N. It is
1-2 m. from the track.
Between this point and m. 57 are several water-courses.
Apparently in this neighbourhood (24 hrs. ride from
Wādi el-Ibreh) lies the spring of 'Ain Tīneh, under the
ridge to the N., i hr. ride WSW. of it are said to
lie the four springs of 'Ain el-Ghassan, lukewarm and
sulphurous.
To SSW. from 'Ain el-Ghassan, about one day's march distant, is seen
a hill called Tel Tartar, in which a tepid sulphurous spring takes
its rise. This spring was believed by a traveller of 1880 to be
a head of the Tartar River. Other springs feeding the Tartar
seem to lie near Beled Sinjar.
Wadi containing water (December). This wadi is apparently
a short distance W. of 'Ain el-Ghassān.
El-Khān, ruins of a large khan beside the track. Springs
in the neighbourhood called El-Hararat, or 'Ain el.
Khān. In 1906 the Mendikan tribe was encamped here.
The bulk of the tribe are Yezidi by religion, but the
Sheikhs and some of the families are Moslem. Ground
from about here to Beled Sinjar was reported as very
soft in January 1880, owing to the melting of snow on
the hills.
Cross large wadi with steep banks. To N. (11-2 m. dis-
tant) are a number of hills, outliers of the chain called
Et-Toq. These hills run in a line parallel with the
water (about WSW.). Beyond them to NW. (not yet in
sight) lies the eastern end of the main Sinjar range.
Village about 1 m. to N. of track. Four tels in a line
running E. and W. lie in a plain to S.
Cross Wādi Dājis.
Cross Wādi en-Naml.
Cross Wādi Delukhān. About this point the first peak
of Jebel Sinjar comes in sight.
Deep wadi.
Cross wadi.
Cross stream. Large Yezidi village of Mihrkan to N. on
the slopes of a hill (1880).
Pass Qara Tepeh, or Tel Aswad, which lies to N. of
track.
Pass Esh-Keptah village, lying to N. of track.
623
647
722


314
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Mosul
73
741
76
Solaq Chai (sweet water). A number of small streams
occur between this point and Beled Sinjar.
Cultivation to S. of track.
Beled Sinjar.
Times given for the journey from Beled Sinjar to Tel ‘Afar by
a recent authority :--
Hrs.
0 Beled Sinjar.
A tepeh on left (N.)
Solaq Chai.
Esh-Keptah.
Gelu Khân Chai (?).
Gereh Sinoh, hill with ruined village (?).
Kherāleh Tepeh (?).
Iabrah Chai (Wādi I breh).
Tel A'far.
The modern town of Beled Sinjar, comprised about 400
houses in 1903. The land to N. and S. of the town is
cultivated, and probably a fair amount of supplies would
be available in normal years. The figs of the neigh-
bourhood are famous in the E. The modern town,
which is inhabited mainly by Yezidis, lies on the E.
slope of a valley running from N. to S. watered by a
stream. It is dominated to N. and W. by the Et-Toq
chain of hills. It contains a khan, Turkish barracks,
and Turkish Government buildings, all of which lie on
the top of the slope. The place is the residence of a
Kaimmakam, and lies in the Vilayet of Mosul. The
houses are solidly built in the Mosul style. The town
formerly covered a much larger area, including the
western slope of the valley, where now there is a ruin.
field. The remains of the ancient walls are to be seen.
Kebalish village.
Daqiqeh, Yezidi village, about 1 m. to r., and Kānisark,
to l.
Qizil Khān, about 2 m. to r.
Gabara, about 2 m. to r.
Cross wadi and pass Debusi village. Fairly level, stony
track running past cultivation.
Wurdi, alt. 1,500 ft., village of 90 Arab houses on the
plain, 1 m. from the hills. One large spring of good
water and one mill.
| Jeddaleh, Arab village, to r. Cross wadi.
773
78Ż
80
812
82"
831
86





ROUTE 49 b
315
Miles from
Mosul
89
92
104
111
Khubazi. Highest points of the Sinjar range, two peaks,
are now to N.
Mejlumi, 1 m. to r, at the foot of the hills. Tel Heyyāl.
1 m. to l. Track passes two (ruined ?) shrines called
'Abd el-Azīz and 'Abd el-Qădir.
Sekenik (or Ghiran), a Yezidi village lies in a ravine of
Et-Toq hills to N. of route. It comprises about 100
houses. From the ravine a stream runs into the plain ;
it is there crossed by the route. For alternative route
from Sekenik to Shedādi see Route 49c, and for route
from Sekenik to Nisibin see vol. iv, Route 88 b.
From Sekenik the route goes SW. over cultivated land
occupied by Yezidis.
Cultivated land ends in this neighbourhood. Route traverses
undulating steppe.
Es-Sihl, a watercourse. A Yezidi encampment was found
here in March 1899.
Between Es-Sihl and 'Ain el-Hawariyeh (m. 134), the
ground is a heavy red clay with numerous outcrops of
gypsum. Native information, given in 1880, mentions
two springs between Es-Sihl and El-Goneh. These are
named El-Qasabeh and El-Mu'allaqāt.
The route bears more westerly. Low line of heights
(El-Jereibeh) to N.
West end of El-Jereibeh hills lies to N. of route. Wide
view over the plain in the direction of the Khabūr. The
'Abd el-'Azīz hills, on the farther side of the Khabūr,
are seen to WNW.
Route takes a general SW. direction.
El-Gõneh, a spring near a tel. The water here was said in
1880 to be bad.
Beyond El-Goneh, cross a ridge.
'Ain el-Hawariyeh, a spring near a tel. The overflow of
the spring forms a small brook.
Wādi edh-Dhiāb (wolf's valley) is crossed. Jebür encamp-
ments in spring 1899.
Left bank of the Khabūr, opposite the tel of Shedādi. The
river is here crossed. There was a ferry before the war.
Shedādi, on r. bank, a long low hill overlooking the river.
Towards its northern end it rises in a conical eminence
about 100 ft. high. On its lower southern part is a mud
fort with accommodation for several dozen zaptiehs.
1151
130
134
139
153


316
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Mosul
There are a few ruins of sun-dried brick and some tombs
on the hill. Before the war there was a store at Shedādi
frequented by the nomads of the neighbourhood. The
place was the residence of a Mudir under the Mutessarif
of Deir.
The route now turns in southerly direction and runs over
open desert down the western side of the Khabūr
Valley.
154]
161
1641
1674
169
1732
Route comes close to river bank, crossing a large deep wadi.
Village on opposite bank in a crook of the river (1908).
Between this point and Marqadah (m. 176) the track is
usually 1-2 m. from the river.
A low northern prolongation of Hammeh plateau begins
to W. of route and runs about parallel with it for some
miles.
Fadgham to E., on the l. bank of the Khabûr.
Tel Shemsāniyeh, mound and ruins, to E. on the r. bank of
the Khabūr.
Beyond this point the route runs close to the foot of the
Hammeh plateau to W.
A part of the Hammeh plateau called Khiskhur. Here the
plateau edge recedes W. in a crescent. Three small round
summits, called Tulūl el-Ma'zah, rise from the top of
the plateau 8-9 m. to W. Route runs SSW. across the
plain.
Tel to r. of road about 1 m. distant, near the foot of the
plateau which is here converging on the route.
Track crosses a shallow wadi.
Tel Marqadah mound and ruins on the r. bank of the
Khabūr. The SE. corner of the Hammeh plateau close
to the tel on the W. Route now skirts the river bank.
Cross mouth of Wādi el-Hammeh, which runs in from the
NW. and forms the SE. boundary of the Hammeh
plateau. River now makes a bend to the E. and the
route leaves the river bank, continuing SSW.
Route touches river bank, and continues down the valley,
cutting off the easterly bends of the stream
Route passes a point on the river where there is a ford
called Esh-Sherī'āh. little way below the ford rocks
are visible in the stream (at least in August).
| Pass Tel el-Husein, mound and ruins' on 1. bank. The
river winds very considerably here.
176
1761
178
181
183








ROUTES 49 b, c
317
Miles from
Mosul
For the next 9 m. the route traverses a tract called
Umeilih.
187
Tel Umeilih.
1921 Sawwār. (For the route from here to Deir, see Route 49 a,
m. 160.)
2231 | Deir ez-Zor.
ROUTE 49c
Sekenik
SEKENIK—SHEDĀDI
Via SHILLO Pass, KHĀTŪNIYEH LAKE, AND TENENIR
Authorities as for Route 49 a except Sykes ; Layard, Nineveh and Babylon,
journey in 1850.
This route passes to the N. of the Jebel Sinjar, turns W., and
strikes the Khabūr at Tenenir, 40-45 m. above Shedādi. It is about
25-30 m. longer than the direct route from Sekenik to Shedādi
described above, but is apparently much better supplied with water.
Miles from
Sekenik. The route runs along the southern foot of the
Et-Toq hills.
Kolang Hafzah, Yezidi village with five good wells to 1.
Track enters hills. The Shillo or Bari Pass is described
as rough and stony, but not particularly difficult. A
valley through the Et-Tog hills is first followed in a N.
direction. At the N. end of the valley rises the main
Sinjār range.
5 N. end of valley through Et-Toq hills. Here two valleys
meet, one from ENE., the other from NW.: the former
runs between the Sinjār and Et-Toq ranges, the latter
between the Et-Toq and Jereibeh ranges to W. and the
Sinjār to E. The track follows this latter valley lead-
ing NW.
Shillo, Yezidi village, to r. near the mouth of the valley
which runs ENE. Cultivation near the village.
The track winds over rocky broken ground.
73 | Mamhuwed, 50-60 dwellings inhabited only in summer.


318
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Selenik
87
HY
Watershed about 2,250 ft. above sea level, and about 570 ft.
above the plain. Main Sinjār range to r., Jebel Jereibeh
to 1. Pass about 1 m. wide.
At some point on the descent, apparently not far beyond
the col, the route to the Khabūr here described diverges
in a NW. direction from the Nisibin route, which
proceeds N. down the valley of the Howeir Khalid
stream (see vol. iv, Route 92 a).
The route winds among the hills bearing gradually to the W.
121 'Ain Roman, a small spring. Here the track emerges from
the pass, and proceeds in a westerly direction over an
undulating plain parallel with the Jereibeh hills, which
lie to the S. To the N. the Kurdish mountains are
visible in the distance. Several small streams flowing
from the Jereibeh hills are crossed.
Pass Gyrgeh village.
Route bears now about WNW., rising over more sharply
undulating ground.
Reach a strip of cultivated land bordering the E. side of
the Khātāniyeh Lake. This piece of water is triangular,
with the apex to the N., apparently covering about 4 sq. m.
in the dry season. Its northern and western sides, and at
least the western part of its southern shore, are marshy.
Its water is brackish but drinkable. The route bears
to NW. to pass round the northern end of the lake.
(The southern end appears to be less marshy, but the
ground there is more undulating. No further details
appear to be available.)
251 Enter marshy ground N. of the lake. On a peninsula in
the lake is the wretched village of Khātüniyeh. The
track skirts the shore of the lake to its extreme northern
corner.
261 | Track emerges from marshes and runs about SW. over
undulating ground.
Track bears about WSW.
31ſ Track runs along a low ridge forming the northern side of
boggy area called El-Haul (El-Hol), which lies about
50-100 ft. below the summit of the ridge. El-Haul is
rather over 1 m. broad, runs E. and W. with a curve
towards the N., and is bordered on the S. by low spurs
of the Jereibeh hills.
351 | From this point the Wādi el-Frati, a deep water-course
293





ROUTE 49 C
319
Miles from 1
Sekenik
38
running into the Khabūr, about 1 m. above Tenenir, is
about 6 m. distant, and can be reached by striking about
WNW. across the plain. In the upper part of its course
its banks are marshy, and the sides of its valley are
apparently broken by small ravines. There are said to
be numerous springs in the valley (this is apparently
based on native information).
The direct route to Tenenir continues along the ridge
bordering El-Haul, which here trends in a WSW.
direction.
Mound and spring called Tuleil el-Mureir. The western
end of El-Haul apparently lies not far beyond this point.
After the end of El-Haul is passed the track crosses
a bare plain, the surface of which is gypsum. In a few
fissures which traverse this plain grass is to be found
in spring. Tenenir lies about W. by S. from here.
Reach the l. bank of the Khabūr at the mound of Tenenir.
No details showing whether or in what seasons the
Khabūr is here fordable seem to be available. Either
side of the Khabūr can be followed from here to
Shedādi.
As to the facilities or obstacles for wheeled traffic, no
information is available.
48
(i) Route continued by Left Bank.
Distances only roughly estimated. Details of wadis, &c.,
not available.
Tel Suheimīyeh, on l. bank of Khabūr.
Tel Ta'ban, on 1. bank of Khabūr, which is here cultivated.
Tel 'Arabān on opposite side of Khabūr. The l. bank is
here cultivated.
Tel Gharqanahon l. bank of Khabūr. The bank is
cultivated for some distance below this point and there
are two or three villages close to the river.
Sher'iāt Baʻājeh, a ford at a bend of the river a short
distance above a village on the r. bank. Cultivation on
1. bank.
Village and cultivation on 1. bank.
Shedādi, on opposite side of Khabūr.


320
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Sekenik
511
521
551
561
58
591
AW
(ii) Route continued by Right Bank.
Distances continued from Tenenir.
Tel Mehleibiyeh, on r. bank. Immediately beyond is
the mouth of the Wādi Mehleibiyeh, which flows from
the WNW. into the Khabūr.
Cross another wadi.
Tel Suheimiyeh on 1. bank of the river, 1-2 m. distant.
Sheikh Sleb, mound and spring on r. bank of river.
Cultivation along r. bank below this point between
track and the river.
Tel Ta'ban on 1, bank of the river.,
Between this point and Ed-Dugheirāt the track crosses two
or three deep wadis.
Ed-Dugheirāt (or El-Mugheirāt), ruins. The ground for
about 1 m. S. of this point is rocky.
Cross shallow wadi.
Old canal bed about 50 paces across.
Tel 'Arabān (or Ajījeh), large mound and ruin-field on r.
bank of the Khabūr. Marshy plain to W. of track, a
few hundred yards from the river.
Cross small stream flowing into the Khabür.
Cross small stream.
Cross small stream.
Cross Wādi Qubātheh.
Cross wadi. Ba'ājeh ford across Khabūr.
Cross stream.
Track now traverses rolling ground which continues as far
as Shedādi.
Shedādi.
83
ROUTE 49 d
SEKENIK —THE KHABŪR AT TEL 'ARABĀN
Via UMM EDH-DHIBAN
The following route was ridden by Layard in March 1850.
From Sekenik the plain S. of the hills is crossed to Umm
edh-Dhiban. The direction seems to be about SW., and the distance
about 13-15 m., but both are uncertain. Umm edh-Dhiban is a muddy








ROUTES 49 c, d, 50 (i)
321
pool, the. From Umm edp ravines wor
pool, the water in Layard's time being apparently drinkable only by
animals. From Umm edh-Dhiban cross an undulating country (some-
what N. of W.) with deep ravines worn by winter torrents. Grazing
in spring, except in some places, where outcrops of gypsum occur.
Skirt Jereibeh hills, which are well-wooded with ilex and dwarf oak,
and contain numerous springs. The springs in the region are said
to be all brackish and unpleasant to the taste, but drinkable, and
the Arabs declared the water to be wholesome. A beaten track was
found and followed by Layard near the hills, and 'four hours' ride'
(either from the point where the track was struck or possibly from
Umm edh-Dhiban) brought him to a spring with scanty water. Half
an hour farther on was another spring. 'In five and a half hours'
a small stream near the ruins of an ancient village was reached.
From here the dark line marking the wooded banks of the Khabūr
and the ‘Abd el-'Azīz range beyond were visible at sunset. Two
hours' ride from this point brought Layard to a Bedouin encamp-
ment, and after leaving it at length' (apparently not more than
a few miles farther on) he reached the Khabūr opposite Tel 'Arabān.
•The river was not at this time (end of March] fordable.'
ROUTES 50 (i-vi)
SOME MINOR DESERT ROUTES IN THE SOUTHERN
JEZĪREH
(i) BAGHDAD-El-Hadhr (HATRA)
The following account of places at which water is to be found on
a camel-route from Baghdad to El-Hadhr (Hatra) was given to Sachau
by the Shammār in 1880. The journey by camel is said to take
6 days at 6-8 hours a day.
Abu Tabag.
Abu Nheleh.
Lubbad.
Abu Khasheb.
Et-Tumēreh.
Fawāreh.
Ez-Zbedi.
Abu'l Gudar.
MES. IT


322
Maras.
Es-Sultāniyat (identical with, or near, Museltain ; see Route 25 b,
m. 145).
Umm et-Tus wat-twesan, two springs.
Hamrat Duboshi, hill and two springs.
El-Malha.
El-Beniyeh.
Eth-Theliyeh.
El-Hadhr. For the country between El-Hadhr and the Tigris see
Route 25 b, under m. 168.
(ii) EL-HADHR—THE KHABŪR RIVER AT TEL ES-SAWWĀR
The following account of places at which water can be obtained is
given by Sachau. For the greater part of the route from El-Hadhr to
El-'Oja the information was obtained by him from the Shammār in
1880. The journey is said to take 4 days by camel to El-'Oja, at
6-7 hours a day. El-'Oja is 1 day's march from Tel es-Sawwār.
Umm Midhyābeh near El-Hadhr.
Et-Tamahiyat, 4-5 springs.
Fāwārat, 3-4 springs.
Eth-Therey, 3 springs.
El-Asēleh, spring.
El-Ghlesiyeh, spring.
Et-Tījariyeh, spring: near el-Ghlesiyeh.
'Agelat el-Halib, spring.
Ardh el-Magrabbeh, wells reported.
El-Oja, rain-water.
Tel es-Sawwār (Sawwār) on the Khabūr. See Route 49 a, m. 160.
(iii) ANAH-Mosul.
In the Board of Trade's Report on British Trade in Syria (1911)
it is stated (p. 80) that there is a route used by camel-caravans from
Rawā (on the Euphrates opposite to Anah) to Mosul. The estimate,
however, for the time taken by camel-caravans from Rawā to Mosul-
4-5 days—is clearly much too low. It is said that there is some
difficulty in finding ready means of transport at Rawā during certain
periods of the year.
(iv) TEKRIT-Hīt
There is said to be some caravan-traffic between Tekrit and Hit,
but no details are obtainable.








ROUTES 50 (i-vi)
323
(v) SHEDĀDI—RAQQAH
The intervening desert is very little known. Sykes, when he
crossed it at the end of the dry season (November) 1906, found
five permanent wells, and a population of about 20,000 Bedouin.
Shammār are among the Arabs found here.
(vi) MESKENEH-RAQQAH via TEL ES-SEMEN
Across open rolling uncultivated ground traversed by numerous
wadis. For three months in spring there is pasture, the good grazing
land alternating with stony tracts. Anazeh were found here in 1906
(see Introduction to Routes IV E-H, p. 94).
The following notes are taken from Sykes's account of his journey
in 1906.
Meskeneh. Cross Euphrates.
Muraibet: camp of Weldeh Arabs about 4 m. to S. from the
Meskeneh ferry. From here a day's march to-
Wādi Dushan.
At 12 hours from the Wadi Dushan, an encampment of nomad
Arabs, at that time under Sheikh Saleh of Harran, a person of
considerable influence among the local Arabs, as his family keeps
also the fountain of Abraham at 'Ain el-'Arus (see vol. iv, Route 132 b,
m. 604).
3 hrs. farther on, Göl Bashi, or El-Guela, a large lake or swamp,
connected by a backwater with the Belikh. Much water-fowl.
Over level plain to Tel es-Semen. (Afadleh Arabs were found here
in 1906: some cultivation in neighbourhood.) Thence over land
covered with traces of old irrigation-canals (see vol. iv, Route 132 b)
to
Raqqah.
x 2


324
THE SYRIAN DESERT
ROUTE 51
HĪT-RAHALĪYEH (81 m.)
Mit
Authorities :-Miss G. Bell, Amurath to Amurath, journey in 1909; Routes in Arabia,
Route 194, native information, 1909.
This is a desert track. No supplies are obtainable, and drinking.
water is scanty, except at Rahālīyeh. Here supplies are normally
obtainable in small quantities, and some live stock is kept, Here also
is a plentiful supply of water from a spring. The water is warm and
slightly salt in taste, and may not be wholesome. The fuel-supply
at Rahālīyeh is good.
Miles from
0 Hīt. For the stage between Hit and Temāil the following
points have been mentioned, but it is possible that they
do not lie in the most direct line between these places.
The distances to Asibīyeh are estimated from the report of
the traveller who went over the ground in 1909. Native
information gives a total distance of 78 m. with distances
as follows-Temāil 33 m., Asīleh 52 m., Asibīyeh
63 m., Rahā-līyeh 78 m.
'Ain el-'Usfūriyeh, a tiny mound with a spring of water,
sulphurous but just drinkable. There is a pitch well
about 3 m. SE.
Jelīb esh-Sheikh, several pools in an outcrop of rock,
which are sufficiently sweet to drink.
Just beyond these pools the Wādi Mohammadi is crossed,
which stretches W. to the Ghārat el-Jemāl and E. to
the Euphrates. The wadi was dry and encrusted with
sulphur in 1909.
Tel, from the top of which the landmarks of Abu Qir,
I two high mounds of stones, are sighted.
27





326
LAND ROUTES
by Bedouin, and post-bags were dispatched by a safer, if longer,
route by Aleppo.
The journey over this route, always monotonous and sometimes
dangerous, is extremely trying physically. It may require to be
varied to avoid hostile Arabs, and it often happens that the usual
wells are thus missed and the traveller left for three or four days
without water.
The camels march from 16 to 19 hours a day, and the halts are so
arranged as never to allow a continuous rest of more than 2 or at the
most 4 hours. Sometimes tempests of cold wind hinder the advance
of the camels. In favourable circumstances and with good dromedaries
the distance may be accomplished in about 7 days, but, as in any
circumstances delay may occur, it is safer to calculate on the journey
lasting from 9 to 10 days. The journey is shortest in the dry weather ;
longer in winter and spring when the rains make the desert slippery
in places.
The route leads over sandy or gravelly plains, hills or valleys,
which are barren or produce only prickly shrubs and tall feathery
grass which the camels eat. Over this region wander numerous
tribes, the most important of which is the Anazeh. Sometimes
a ghazzu or plundering expedition of the Shammār or other wandering
tribes may be encountered. There is most danger of these in winter,
as water can then be found in unfrequented spots, so that the
marauders are not obliged to visit regular watering-places, always
dangerous for them. In the centre of the desert there is scarcely
any herbage for the greater part of the year, the plain being covered
with black basalt, very trying for the feet of camels. Across the
route a succession of wadis run NE. trending to E. Among these
the Wādi Haurān, about one-third of the way between Hit and
Damascus is important, as it is principally by means of it that this
part of northern Arabia is drained towards the Euphrates some miles
above Hīt. The distances are very uncertain.
Miles from
Hit
102
Hīt.
Kebeiseh village. Pop. 500 (1882). 50,000 palm trees
(1911). Some commerce with the Bedouin in dates and
other commodities. Gardens in a separate enclosure
to N. of the town. Spring on the border of these gardens;
water abundant, but bitter and salt. Sulphur spring.
Good drinking water found only in a single well, situated
about 1 m. outside the walls, half-way between the town
and the shrine of Sheikh Qudr, which has a conical spire.








ROUTE 52
327
Miles from
Hit
Kebeiseh is the seat of a Mudir. It is subjected to
continual depredations from the Anazeh, and is the last
inhabited centre on this route until Syria is reached.
The route goes WSW.
15 'Ain Za'zu. There is said to be water here, drinkable but
disagreeable. Clover is sown here, as at other springs,
for fodder in rainless years. Track follows a shallow
valley westwards, and then rises over the Jebel Muzahir,
50 ft. high, the first of a number of long bare ridges.
Before Qasr Khebas the land falls suddenly for about 130 ft.
311 Qasr Khebas. Ruin, walls still about 10 ft. high ; vault
of portal entire. To the N. is a wadi in which are traces
of a large masonry tank, now leaky, and half full of
soil. Good grass is found round it.
Leaving Khebas the route proceeds slightly S. of W. From
here to Damascus the route is sometimes called the
Darb Zobeidah.
431 | Rijm es-Sabun, small mound with ruined building of
large blocks is passed lying about 6 m. to S. A few miles
beyond this one enters the Qasr 'Amij district and the
desert of El-Dhai'ah or El-Dhuwai'ah.
621 Qasr 'Amij. No water. The qasr is a ruin built on the
steepest side of a plateau. The only remains are the
foundations and the gate with its arch. At a little
distance to the W. of the qasr there is a basin nearly
40 ft. square, now filled up with sand.
Mound or heap of stones, apparently called Rijm es-Sabun.
89 Remains of enclosure walls are found on both sides of the
route, and may be traced for about 11 m.
Cross Wādi el-Mu'aisir which rises about 5 m. SE. of the
route and after a course of about 12 m. in a NW. direction
runs into the Wādi Haurān.
1021 Cross the Wādi Haurān. Ruins of Qasr 'Aiwar (Muheiwir)
on the r. bank of the wadi. The arched gate is said to be
still standing. The wells of 'Aiwar number twelve, but
seven are filled up. They are in the bed of the wadi, and
have been dug in the gravel, their walls being made up
with large round blocks taken from the wadi. The
water, which is very good, is found 13 to 14 ft. down.
On the opposite bank, facing Qasr 'Aiwar, there is a
ruined tomb, and all around for a considerable area are
tombs, this being the burying-place of the Solubbeh, who
802
923


328
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Hit
1143
1521
1602
171
1731
1811
1867
190
202
own the wells. At Aiwar the banks of the wadi disappear,
and its bed is filled with pebbles and round blocks,
showing that the wadi is occasionally torrential. The
surroundings of 'Aiwar are hilly, of a compact calcareous
formation. Track now across undulating desert, with
no vegetation.
Arrive at W. extremity of district called El-Dhai'ah or El-
Dhuwaiʻah. See m. 431, above. The less sterile and more
hilly country of El-Ghārah is now entered. Good grazing.
El-Meluseh, a long chain of hills. Wells. The wells of
Meluseh are also called Er-Rāh or El-Gherāri.
Camping-place near the Su'eib Semhān which flows into
the Wādi Ratqah, an affluent of the Wādi Haurān.
Enter the region of El-Harrīyeh, a stony desert.
In the next 3 m. cross the three wadis of El-Harrīyeh. Enter
the Sawāb tract where the rocks are mostly flint and red
limestone.
Cross a small tributary of the Wādi Sawāb.
Cross a second tributary.
Cross a third tributary. These streams are about 20-26 ft.
broad, with low banks.
Cross the Wādi el-Wālij in the district of the same name.
Route now runs W. across difficult volcanic country. (This
may be avoided by a détour to N. through the barren
Khuweimāt region, where the ground is covered with
flints. This détour is about 12 m. longer than the direct
route, which it rejoins about m. 2331.)
Umm Uwel water-pan.
Depression of Khõr et-Tanj. Jebel Salan and Jebel el-
Ghurāb lie to N. Ground in this neighbourhood covered
with small fragments of rocks. More rarely large stones
are found resembling unhewn blocks. The plain gives
way to country broken by hills and valleys, in which
excellent grazing is to be found.
Zerqā Kebut district entered. It is covered with black
basaltic stones. .
Laqateh district is entered.
Enter Esh-Shāmi district.
About 21 m. S. of the route are three water-holes. These
belong to the Solubbeh, who resort to them in spring
when they contain water.
El-Merreh district is entered. Here the stony desert ends
222
2331
2491
2583
2651
272
2731





ROUTES 52, 53
329
Miles from
Hit
2882
2971
3102
3221
and the route begins to traverse a fertile country with
good grazing.
El-Hā'il district is entered, crossed by the Wādi Hā'il.
El-'Aitsah district is entered. It contains the Wādi Sabah
Bi'ār.
Large square building of hewn stones called Qasr Saigal,
which marks the beginning of the territory of the same
name.
Khān Abu esh-Shāmeh, in ruins, with only the lower
part standing. The walls are of unhewn stone, and
about 8 ft. thick.
i 'Ain er-Rāhib lies in the hills to r. It is said to hold
water only occasionally.
El-Maqsūreh, large rectangular building in ruins. This
is either near to, or the same as, the place called by
another traveller Birket Senbīn.
Dumeir, village of houses closely packed together.
Damascus.
328
330
336
360
ROUTE 53
ABU KEMĀL_TADMOR (228 m.)
Authority :-Routes in Arabia, Route 188, journey in March, 1910.
There is no direct track. The bearings given are only approximate,
and only indicate general directions. Water is very scarce, especially
after m. 51. The time given is 6 (dhalūl) days.
Miles from
Abu
Komāl
Abu Kemāl. (For track from Erek see Route 54, m. 103.)
Bear WNW. (295°) over stony grassy plain with gentle
slopes (say 1 in 80).
Reach a stretch of broken ground running NE. and SW.
The hillocks composing it are about 50 ft. high ; the soil
is stony. The slopes of the valleys between are about
1 in 30. This broken ground is about 4 m. wide, and is
succeeded by the plain with slopes slightly steeper than
before (say 1 in 60).


330
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Abu
Kemal
11
19
29
87
97
119
Turn (direction doubtful) over a perfectly flat stony plain.
Reach two wells, 5 ft. below surface gravel; plentiful
supply of water, brackish but drinkable. From here NW.
(3209) over rolling downs, stony but with abundance of
grass (March 1910), slopes about 1 in 30.
Four wells, 5 ft. below surface of ground; water good.
From here due W. over flat grassy plain.
Conspicuous red mound visible from a considerable distance
round. About 1 m. W. of this are five wells, 5 ft. below
surface, water brackish but drinkable. From here W. by N.
(280°) over a sandy stony plain, grass becoming appreciably
less, up to m. 87.
From here W. by S. (260) over similar ground.
From here W. (2709).
Reach the Wādi Hā'il. This is a valley about 1 m. broad,
which holds running water (according to native reports)
at times of excessive rain. Its bed is about 50 ft. below
surface of the plain; its sides slope at about 1 in 60.
Its course is from NE. to SW. According to native
reports it begins at hills to the NE. and runs for a day's
march (say 40 m.) to the SE. of the present track. Also
according to native reports (a) water can be obtained at
4 ft. below the surface but is very brackish, (b) there is
a well of bad water in the wadi about 4 m. SE. of the
point at which the track crosses.
From the wadi NW. by W. (300°) over rolling stony downs,
grazing improves.
Eight wells, 10 ft. below surface of plain, with good water,
slightly salt. From the wells W. (270) up a long broad
valley, running E. and W., bordered on S. by edge
of the downs, on N. by salt hills.
From here WSW. (2509) follow the course of the valley.
Turn SW. (2209) to S. border of valley.
The downs bend away to S., and valley ends. From here
SW. by W. (2409).
Track joins the Deir ez-Zor - Tadmor route. (See Route 54,
m. 103.)
Tadmor.
139
167
183
196
212
228








ROUTES 53, 54
331
ROUTE 54
DEIR EZ-ZOR-DAMASCUS
Authorities :- Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golfe, journey in 1893 ;
Lady Anne Blunt, The Bedouin of the Euphrates, journey in 1877 ; Military .
Report on Syria, part ii, sources of 1900-10; E. Sachau, Syrien und Meso-
potamien, journey in 1879; oral information.
This is a portion of the regular caravan route between Baghdad
and Damascus, both goods and passenger traffic between these two
places being fairly regular. Caravans cross each way every 40 or
60 days. The present route occupies about 100 hours. According
to a consular report of 1911 the Euphrates is left at Meyyādin,
whence one goes direct to Bir Qabāqib; others, however, make
Deir ez-Zor the point at which the river is left. The latter is
accepted here as the beginning of the route.
The caravan route across the desert consists of narrow footpaths
worn by the feet of camels, and of these there may be a dozen or
more at varying distances from one another. In the neighbourhood of
brooks or settlements these paths may become hundreds in number.
The route goes over the Hamād, the “hard stony desert' which
extends from the Euphrates Valley and the mountains of Haurān in
the N. to the oasis of El-Jauf in the S., crossing rather hilly country
with numerous more or less independent parallel chains running
from NE, to SW.
Generally speaking, the Hamād sinks from W. to E. towards the
Euphrates, and also occasionally inclines towards the S. as in
the NE. part. These are accordingly the directions taken by the
numerous wadis by which it is intersected. The water from these
numerous slopes and wadis is gathered partly in natural pockets
or depressions (radir), where it soon evaporates. Partly, how-
ever, it is collected in a few larger rain brooks, as in the Wādi
Gharreh and the Wādi Haurān, which flow into the Euphrates. In
winter and spring, during and after the rainy season, the steppe
which constitutes a considerable part of the route has numerous
Arab camps, and herds of gazelles may be seen. As the vegetation
withers the Arabs draw nearer the cultivated districts and are
followed by the gazelles, and the Hamād becomes a desert or desert-
steppe in which water is only to be found in a few springs or in
a few artificial cisterns or draw-wells. On account of the scarcity of
water and the likelihood that marauding parties of Arabs may have
been attracted to the few watering-places, the Hamād is seldom
traversed by caravans in summer.


332
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
12
17]
3
2
Deir ez-Zor. The stretch from Deir to Sukhneh takes
about 18 to 24 hrs. going. It is regarded as dangerous,
as the traces of the route to be followed may be oblite-
rated rather easily from the hard soil.
Route turns S. to ascend steeply to the edge of the desert-
plateau.
Reach the level of the plateau. Track runs through a
broad valley, El-Melha (“salt spring'), in which several
wadis unite and run thence to the Euphrates.
Track emerges from the valley.
Tel Dimmeh to l. Water has been found here in several
pools, but owing to evaporation it is salt and unsuitable
for drinking.
Cross the Wādi el-Kuseiyibeh, and shortly afterwards two
other wadis.
Cross two wadis which unite on the r. of the track.
Wādi el-Melha.
Wadi el-Ghir; ruins of a khan on the side of a hill of the
same name to 1.
Qabr en-Nasrāni. Route goes for about 21 hrs. at first
W. then WSW. over the gradually rising plateau.
Qishlaq of Bīr Qabāqib (about 72 hrs. from Deir). Draw-
well, a few paces from the qishlaq, over 65 ft. deep. The
water is bitter, but more agreeable than the sulphur-
tainted water found elsewhere, as at Sukhneh (see below,
m. 81). The qishlaq is a small building with a small
court, and shelters about twelve soldiers. The gypsum
formation which extends from the Tigris and Euphrates
ends here.
Route begins to descend from the plateau and crosses
a depression known as Fedat Qabāqib.
Cross the Shu'eib ed-Dufeini (Dufein). Cross the Wādi
Dufeini (?). To the r. of the route there is said to be
a well called Bīr el-Quteibeh in a cleft at the foot of the
Jebel el-Kutebat in which the wadi begins. Track now
runs almost SW.
Bir Qabāqib disappears from view. Route now lies across
a broad depression; Jebel el-Murabba' and Jebel el-
Heil a long way to l.
El-Muheifir. This place is about half-way between
Qabāqib and Sukhneh (see below). The Turkish Govern.
314
424
45
551








ROUTE 54
333
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
59
621
65
661
682
ment about 20 years ago made unsuccessful efforts to
sink a well near here, making borings to a depth of
200 ft. The borings lie about 3-4 m. behind a depres-
sion called Ghadīr et-Teir (alt. 1,650 ft.), which holds
much water in the rainy season. The brooks which
probably existed here earlier are now obliterated.
Hills to r.; the Jebel el-Beshri gradually approaches the
track, and comes to an end.
Jebel el-Baweib to 1.
Jebel en-Nejīb to l., said to contain water-holes.
First peak of a line of hills begins on the r. running WSW.
It is of a red colour and is part of the Jebel ed-Duweihik.
Second peak begins on the r.
End of the Jebel ed-Duweihik.
Tel el-Mayyāleh on the l. The track now runs across
country open to the S., and bounded on the N. by a
ridge, fairly steep in places, called the Jebel Dhahik.
Sukhneh (* the Warm'), alt. 1,640 ft. Wells and qishlaq.
About 100 houses, a number of which were empty in
1899. The place gets its name from the sulphur wells
close to it. The water acquires a very bad taste after
standing, but is still drinkable. Pools have formed in
the neighbourhood of the wells, and in these the inhabi.
tants bathe ; in some of these there may be leeches.
A town has existed here since ancient times but has
dwindled owing to migrations to Aleppo, Homs, Hama,
or Deir, and through the growing commercial importance
of Deir, where most of the desert trade is now concen-
trated. The present inhabitants live in a very poor
way, being scarcely able to raise enough grain for their
own consumption. The qishlaq is a large fortified post
with a strong garrison. 102 hrs. by carriage from
Bir Qabāqib.
Routes from Sukhneh (1) to Aleppo, which goes off NW.,
crossing the saddle 13 m. from Sukhneh between Jebel el.
Mukeibireh on the NE. and Jebel Dabbās on the SW.
(2) To Raqqah directly N. by Et-Tayyibeh and Resāfeh.
(3) The present route to Damascus.
Wādi el-Kebīr. Route now has Jebel Dhahīk on the
N. and the hills known as Tulūl el-Qubbeh on
the S.
823


334
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
864
871
902
973
991
1012
103
Pass a ruined Qubbeh or shrine, from which the Tulül
el-Qubbeh get their name.
Khān el-Khuleilāt on the l.
| Pass a rectangular water reservoir 20 to 30 ft. square.
Mound and ruins on r., remains of a Mohammedan
settlement.
Cross the Wādi er-Ramāmīl.
Cross the Wādi et-Tumeid; ruined khan of the same
name to r. of route.
Reach the edge of a basin in which Erek lies. Track
changes direction from SW. to SSW.
Erek. Village of 15 to 20 Fellahin families, lying in a
small basin surrounded by low hills. At a short
distance to the NE. there is a qishlaq on rising ground.
As the single well lying N. of the qishlaq has very little
water, the settlement can never be large. The water is
sulphurous, but not to the same extent as at Palmyra.
There are some small vineyards and patches of culti-
vated land. Erek is 51 hrs. by carriage from Sukhneh.
A track E. across the desert to Abu Kemal (see
Route 53) leaves the Deir-Damascus route near Erek.
Jebel el-'Amr is to N. of route, 5 m. distant.
Track now runs due W. Cross three wadis.
Pass ruins of khan called Qasr el-Ahmar, at the foot of
the Jebel et-Tuleituweh, which now changes its name
to Jebel el-Qatār.
A depression in the hills to r. Behind this depression
there are said to be springs called 'Ain el-Qatār, and
farther N. another well, called 'Ain el-Milah ( salt-
spring').
From here Tel Fira lies due S., a long distance away,
and further S. the Jebel el-Ghurāb, not far from the
Hit-Damascus route.
Tadmor (Palmyra). Pop. 1,500, sedentary Arabs of
various tribes. They have little part in the caravan
trade from Deir to Damascus, being practically confined
to a share in the transportation of salt and potash.
They also cultivate fields to the SE. of the city and
work at the exploitation of the salt lake or marsh called
Sabkhah or Mamlahah which lies about 2 m. out in
the desert and about 4 m. from the city. It is about
1097
1104
113
118








ROUTE 54
335
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
4 to 5 m. long and å of a m. broad, and lies in a flat
depression between the city and the desert plateau.
The salt, procured by evaporation, is very fine. There
are several small watch-houses on the shore of the lake.
The greater part of the inhabitants now dwell within
the protecting walls of the ancient Temple of the Sun.
To the NW. of this temple a barracks has been built
and, as a result of the security afforded, the town has
grown to the E. and N. There is a school. The Mudir
resident here is under the Mutessarif of Deir. Tadmor
had formerly, despite its small population, a thriving
market which provided the Arabs of the desert with
necessaries. This business has now gone to increase
the prosperity of Deir.
Water-supply from a single well. Time from Erek, 31 hrs.
Many of the pillars of the ancient city are standing and
some walls and towers are in very fair preservation.
From Tadmor there are two or more tracks to Damascus.
(i) By Qasr Hāzim and Bir Zobeideh, the most direct
but least known route.
(ii) By Qaryatein and Nabq. This is said to be the regular
caravan route. (For alternative to the stage as far as
Qaryatein see Route 58 a.)
133
161 ?
ROUTE (i).
Track runs apparently SW. or SSW.
Several deep wells called Bīr Sakr (1878).
Ruined tower called Qasr Hāzim.
Track runs SW. up a wadi between two well-marked
ridges, passing after some miles a ruined khan called
Halbeh.
Bīr el-Buseiri, well of good water, 60 ft. below the
surface.
Track now passes between two high hills, Kökleh to r.
and Rummākh to l.
On this stage some water-holes are passed.
Camping-ground in this neighbourhood. There is a spring
of good water called Bīr Zobeideh in the Jebel Rauk
which bound the plain to the N. (1898).
Track approaches the hills, which it skirts.
191 ?


336
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
212 ? Khān Abu esh-Shāmeh.
Route 52, m. 3221.)
2471?
| Damascus.
(For the rest of the route see
124
132
ROUTE (ii).
This route continues over the plain of Palmyra and then
enters a pass-like depression called the Wādi el-Qubūr
between the Jebel Hayyāl on the l. and the Jebel
Marbat 'Antar on the r. The pass has funeral towers
and monuments on each side. Hence its name, which
means “the valley of graves'.
Route now traverses a great sandy plain called Wijan er.
Raml.
Abu Fawāris, place where water may be found.
'Ain el-Beidhā, well and watch tower (qishlaq) accommo-
dating twelve men. The well is about 50 ft. deep and
has plenty of water, which is, however, strongly impreg.
nated with sulphur. A military report of 1911 makes
no mention of this well, and it is possible that only
animals can drink the water.
Time from Tadmor, 52 hrs. Route to Homs, Route 58 C,
diverges here to r. The present route turns SW.
Khān el-Libn, ruined khan with the Jebel Abyadh on
the l.
Cross the small Wādi el-Muteireh.
Qasr el-Heir, ruin, with square tower and part of portal
apparently of Roman times. Many architectural remains
in neighbourhood. To the N. are the remains of a
reservoir and aqueduct running from SSW.
Water may be found in the vicinity. If none is to be
had here a detour might be made to 'Ain el-Wu'al,
| 10-12 m. SE.
Cross the broad Wādi el-Kebir.
W. boundary of a district called Ardh er-Raudheh district,
Signs of cultivation. Track now runs W.
Qaryatein (i.e. the two villages, but no division into two
is visible). Alt. 2,460 ft. The houses are so close
together that their outer walls unite to form as it were
a town wall, which, on the E. side, towards Palmyra,
actually possesses a gate. The population numbers
151
157
170
174
188
1914








ROUTE 54
337
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
between 1,200, and 1,500 most of whom are Moslems.
There are, perhaps, 500 to 600 Jacobite Christians,
having their own priest and church. Christians and
Mohammedans live very peaceably together. There is
a mosque with minaret. There are 16 wells with abun-
dant water. Potash is manufactured here and sent to
Damascus. Time from 'Ain el-Beidhā, 94hrs.
From Qaryatein there are tracks :-
(1) The route detailed below to Damascus by Nabq.
(2) To Homs. See Route 58 a, m. 64.
(3) To Damascus by Quteifeh.
This track runs SW. through treeless, and uninhabited country in
which no water is to be found till 'Atneh is reached, 38 m. from
Qaryatein. 3 m. farther on is Jertid, a village of 2,000 inhab-
itants in a fertile and well-cultivated plain, with large salt
marshes near. After another 73 m. Ruheibeh village is passed,
where there are remains of substantial masonry aqueducts, and,
2 m. farther on, Quteifeh, on the Homs—Damascus road, which
is then followed.
(4) Cross track to join route (i) from Tadmor to Damascus.
This was followed by a traveller in 1898 in order to avoid robber-
bands of nomads and is not a regular track. It runs ESE., rising
fairly steeply on to a plateau, passing a ruin on the edge of the
plateau and reaching a chalk ridge called Jebel el-Hufeir, in
the neighbourhood of which, to E. of the track, there is said to be
water. The track then turns in a southerly direction over fairly
level ground between hills, gradually changing direction to SW.
and reaching Bir Abu 'l Hayāyeh, where there are several large
deep wells, at about m. 30 from Qaryatein. From there the
direction again changes to SE. to Bīr Zobeideh, about 10 m.
farther on. See route (i), m. 191 above.
A motor has been used hence to Damascus; exact route
not specified.
Track runs W. across the plain on leaving Qaryatein.
Pass a ruin said to have been formerly a military post.
Cross an ancient aqueduct.
Ascend from the plain of Qaryatein to a plateau.
Several peaks to the l., about 1,000 ft. above the plain,
the beginning of a range which gradually approaches
the track.
Mahīn village with spring and brook on the W. side.
The water tastes slightly of sulphur. About 31 m. N. of
Mahīn there is a wadi with a spring of good water.
1951
1953
1981
203
203
MES. III


338
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Deir ez-
Zor
213)
2172
2253
Isolated hill on r. In the neighbourhood of this hill there
is a spring called 'Ain Erkhebeh.
Cross a water-channel, about 30 paces long, in a depression
along which the track runs. The water in this channel
loses itself in the ground.
The direction of the track is now WSW.
Deir 'Atiyeh. Cultivated ground with vineyards and
gardens. An American Mission has for many years had
a school here.
Excellent water from a brook.
Track now runs SW. across undulating desert which rises
gradually towards a range of hills on the l.
Nabq, springs. . Village about į m. to E.
The track now follows the Homs-Damascus road.
| Damascus.
231
280
ROUTE 55
RAQQAH-HAMA (1662 m.)
Via RUSAFEH
Authorities :-J. Östrup, Hist.-topogr. Bidrag til Kendskabet til den syriske Örken,
journey in 1893; M. Hartmann in Zeitschr. des deutschen Palästina-Vereins,
vol. xxiii, journey in 1880 ; Sarre and Herzfeld, Archäol. Reise im Euphrat-
und Tigris-Gebiet, journey in 1907.
This route crosses to the r. bank of the Euphrates, and follows the
Baghdad-Aleppo caravan route for 16 m. It then turns S. towards
Rusafeh and from there in a general SW. direction to Seriyeh.
To Serīyeh, 83 m., the route goes over land that has always been
desert, the saltness of the soil preventing cultivation; the few
watering-places on this stretch yield water with a salt taste naturally
less noticeable after a heavy rainfall. Beyond Serīyeh the direction
is generally WNW. or W. to Anderîn, and the country through
which the track lies formerly supported a fairly dense population ;
but it has been out of cultivation for centuries. From Anderin the
general direction is SW. From Serīyeh to beyond Anderin there is
good grazing ground, and the pastures between these places are among
those most frequented by the Bedouin.











342
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Rusafeh
377
Et-Tayyibeh, an insignificant village of about 30 houses on
a small hill. The houses have their backs to an encircling
wall, leaving an open space in the middle, in the centre
of which rises a watch tower, about 17 ft. high, which has
preserved its old stone door. An early account speaks of
a spring, rather hot, with a slight mineral taste, near
the E. gate. Due W. of the village is a solitary and
steep hill with a monument to Sheikh Ibrāhīm, the
local saint. About 8 m. E. are the ruins called Qasr
el.Heir, consisting mainly of two large stone-walled
quadrangles, the larger 200 paces square, the smaller
90-100. The walls are about 40 ft. high and 12 ft.
thick, and are specially well preserved in the smaller
enclosure, which has lost only one of its original 12
towers. A well is spoken of, but no indication is given
as to whether it contains water or not, and an old
account speaks of an aqueduct from the hills on the r.
Tract now runs S. by W.
Sukhneh.
---
53
ROUTE 57
SUKHNEH-ALEPPO (139 m.)
Authorities :-E Sachau, Syrien und Mesopotamien, journey in 1879; Th. Bischoff's
map in Sachau (see App. to Oppenheim's Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golfe,
vol, ii).
This track appears to have been little used. Over most of the
route there are no supplies, and water is scanty and often bad, but
conditions improve as Aleppo is approached.
Miles from
Sukhneh
0
Sukhneh. The track runs in a general NW. direction,
curving at first round the base of the Jebel Dhahīk to
the l. For about 20 m. it crosses undulating country
with low hills to l., and many terebinth trees, which the
nomads in winter use for firewood. Farther on large
pistachio trees are met with.
Jubb Kedem, spring with bad, sulphur-tainted water.
Cross the Wādi Fasākeh.
'Ashīqah, ruins. Many dry wells and traces of gardens and
vineyards.
33
35
403








ROUTES 56, 57
343
Miles from
Sukhneh
421
Cross the Wādi Heibekeh, and reach three wells in the
plain. These wells were formerly covered up, but one
was reported in 1875 to have been cleared by the Arabs
and to afford excellent water.
Serīyeh. For description see Route 55, m. 83.
'Ain ez-Zarqā ('Blue Spring'), in a chalk and lime-
stone depression. Water rather bad.
'Ain ez-Zareqā, well. Rather better water.
'Ain el-Ghazal ( Gazelle Spring').
Ruins of a solitary building, perhaps a church or monastery.
Khunāsareh, ruins lying in a plain 6-9 m. broad bounded
by two parallel ranges of hills, the Jebel Shebet on the
E. running from SSE. to NNW., and the Jebel el-Hass,
which runs N. and S. on the W. The buildings gene-
rally are of basalt from the Jebel el-Hass, but white
marble columns are to be seen.
The place must formerly have been very well supplied
with wells, but only two or three are now in use. The
water is good, without any brackish or bitter taste.
A track here branches off to the l. crossing the Jebel el-Hass after
about 2 m., and about 7 m. farther on Er-Ramleh, a camping.
ground with wells. A salt-marsh is then passed, and the
camping-ground of El-Kharāyij reached about 20 m. from
Khunāsareh. The general direction of this track then changes
from SW. to SSW Various nomad encampments are then
passed, and Tel Halāweh reached about 32 m. from Khunāsareh.
For some miles before Tel Halaweh is reached there is abundant
water along the track, which still continues SSW. through
country well supplied with water, passing El-Hawāyis after
4 m. and striking Route 55 (m. 114) at about 42 m. from Khunāsareh.
The track now runs NW. across the plain. The most
direct route after about 7 m. passes Jubb el-Weshshāsh,
a well on the S. slope of the Jebel el-Amiri and so on
to Bīr el-Amiri, on the other side of that range. The
regular track, however, branches off, apparently before
Jubb el-Weshshäsh is reached, and leads round the Jebel
el-Amīri on its E. side.
Bīr el-Amīri, well, on the N. side of the Jebel el-Amīri.
Ruins on the slopes. This place stands about 400 ft.
higher than Aleppo.
The track now runs through the most easterly of the 5
valleys which run from S. to N. between the parallel
ridges of the Jebel el-Hass.
1061








ROUTES 57, 58 a
345
The more usual track as far as Qaryatein seems to be that
described in Route 54, under m. 118 (ii).
Miles from
Tadmor
Tadmor. Track crosses the ruin-field and goes over the
hills that bound it on the W., descending slightly till
the level desert is reached. General direction SW.
'Ain el-Wu'ūl. There are reported to be leeches in the
water of this well.
Track now runs along the foot of the Jebel el-Wu'ūl.
End of the Jebel el-Wu'ūl. In the narrow valley between
this range and the next, called Jebel el-Bardi, there is a
very well-preserved ancient dam, built of irregularly
hewn blocks and bound with mortar. It is 10-15 ft.
thick and in places 50-60 ft. high, stretching right
across the valley, which forms a water-basin, though
there was no water in it in October 1882.
Track now passes a low hill, broad on top, which forms
the N. end of a ridge which the route skirts for some
distance. Direction bends from SW. to about W., with
a gradual descent.
46 Track leads over a ridge.
Track leads over a second low ridge.
Qaryatein.
Track now apparently follows that of Route 54 (section ii,
m. 1911-2032), turning N. at Mahin.
78 Hawārīn, large Moslem village with ruin-field to E. and
SE. Gardens and fields and plenty of excellent water.
About 12 m. N. is the Wādi el-Karm ('wine valley '),
and 11 m. farther Mezra´at el-Karm ('wine field ') with
a spring of good water. 10–11 m. farther N. is 'Ain el-
Ghuntur, a village with a small spring of water which
remains good at all seasons.
Sadūd, head-quarters of the Jacobite Church in Syria.
Stream on the W. side of the town.
Track now runs over several ridges.
Cross a depression with a limestone quarry.
Spring beside the track.
Hāsiyeh (Iki-Qapulu), Moslem village of fifty well-built
stone houses on the Homs - Damascus road. Ruins of a
large khan to r. Water from a large karez from the E.
which flows into two masonry-lined ponds 30 yds. square
close to the road.
1211 | Homs.
64


346
LAND ROUTES
ROUTE 58 b
TADMOR-HOMS (1024 m.)
Via ALA HALĪYET
Authorities :-Vignes, Voyage à la Mer Morte (De Luynes), 1864 ; Černik (1873) in
Petermanns Mitteilungen, vol. X; Moritz in Abhandlungen der Akad. der Wissen-
schaften, 1889; Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golfe, journey in 1893.
This route was during last century a more regular caravan route
than that described in Route 58 C, being somewhat protected by the
nature of the ground from attack by Bedouins.
Miles from
Tadmor
Tadmor. The track follows that to Qaryatein (see
Route 54, m. 118, ii).
Strike off to the r. from the Qaryatein track. Direction
NW. by N. (322). Track now runs across a plain bounded
to N. by the Jebel Wassheh.
| Cross a range of hills. The beaten track now runs 40° W.
of N. towards the Jebel Abyadh. Present track runs
NW. by W. (2989).
Reach the foot of the hills and enter a large ravine.
Reach a small plain, in the middle of which is Jisel,
a large well of foul water. Present track rejoins the
beaten route, which now runs NW. by W. (3059), with the
Jebel Abyadh on the r, and the slopes inclining towards
the great plain between Tadmor and Qaryatein on the l.
231 Pass the remains of huge tombs attributed to the legendary
giants Beni Ghilal.
242 Reach the caves of Ala Halīyet in the side of the hill on
the r. These are chambers carefully hewn in the per-
pendicular face of the hill, which is here of white
calcareous rock. Part of the chambers may have been
tombs, but some seem to have been used as dwellings,
as there are two huge cisterns excavated in the rock and
cemented on the inside.
The plain now narrows to a ravine through which the
track runs W. by N. (2859).
24. Begin to ascend by a zigzag path, occasionally difficult.
26 Reach the summit. The Jebel Wassheh is now SW. by W.
(236).
Track now follows a valley with the Jebel Abyadh on the
r. and the slopes towards the great plain on the l.








ROUTE 58 b
347
Miles from
Tadmor
32
471
50°
End of the Jebel Abyadh. Track now very monotonous,
running across a plateau with light-coloured surface.
General direction W. by N. (2769).
White hill called El-Heimeh (“The Tent') on the r.
Tel called Ghur Buto Ala with tombs and ruins on the l.
Ground now becomes more broken. Track crosses several
hills. On the r., about 3 m, distant, a low range of hills
running from E. to W. On the l. the more considerable
range of Jebel Tofhah running SW., till after a short
distance it sinks into the plain.
Small plain surrounded by hills. No water. Track now
crosses undulating country. General direction W. by N.
(2809).
Jubb Hābīl, well with a little water on the r. Track runs
through the middle of a broad valley with the Jebel
Shumrīyeh ridge on the r.
General direction now SW. (2309).
Track emerges from the valley. Ruins of a village,
Khirbet Euboulia, on the r. Pools may be found
here.
Two wells in the middle of ruins called Jubb Hāmet en-
Nasīt near the track.
Track crosses a valley running SSE.
Pass through a ruined village called Shumrīyeh.
Track now enters a ravine, the Jebel Shumrīyeh forming
the r. slope.
Shekīyeh. Small pool infested with leeches.
Route 58 c here joins the present route.
Track now runs across a great plain, after which it crosses
a range of hills, then descending into a broad valley
with plenty of water.
Aifir, camping-ground in the valley, with wadi and water.
Alt. 1,640 ft. The water tastes abominably, being
merely a pool which has formed under an overhanging
cliff, and swarms with life. The neighbouring country
rises in hilly undulations, with saddles and wadis. A
broad level terrace rises towards the steep foot of the
Jebel Sovan on the S. Track now rises out of the
valley on to a plateau from which the citadel of Homs
may be seen.
General direction W. by N. (2809).
Descend into a broad valley running N.
2
891


348
LAND ROUTES
Miles from
Tadmor
91
941
Tel Batīyeh, ruins of a village at the foot of a mound.
Emerge from the valley.
Zukereh village. Alt. 1,450 ft. Cultivation now begins.
Soil chiefly clay or marl with layers of gypsum. Some
sugar plantations.
Tel Kuleif village on the l.
Zeideh village on the l.
Homs.
963
99
1021
ROUTE 58c
TADMOR-HOMS (784 m.)
Via KHIRBET EL-HANŪREH
Authorities as for Route 58 b.
The first part of this track lies across the difficult waterless plain
already spoken of in Route 58 a, and for about 182 m. follows that
route.
Miles from
Tadmor
Tadmor. Cross a saddle (alt. 1,575 ft.) between the Jebel
Senāyeh and Jebel ed-Dalaureh.
Track by the high ground (Route 58 b) branches off here.
Abu Fawāris (alt. 1,410 ft.), well in a basin surrounded
by hills of respectable size.
Cross a low saddle.
About here apparently the track leaves that to Qaryatein
(Route 54 ii).
Leave the plain and enter a defile near the ruins of
Khirbet ed-Dāhireh. Pass 6-8 summits to l.
Hajar ed-Duhūr ruins, alt. 1,870 ft.
Khirbet el-Hanūreh, about 2 m. to r. of route. Deep
ravines. To E. the slope of the Jebel et-Tiyas culmi.
nates in an abrupt crest of 2,560 ft.
Khirbet el-Qa'ah, alt. 1,870 ft. Ruins. Track goes along
a slope intersected with ravines and over a small saddle.
El-Perklus, spring. The water is reported to be very
unpleasant and full of infusoria and other creatures.
Remains of numerous walled terraces.
Es-Sebīl ruins, with fine hewn stones. The whole region
is said to show traces of former cultivation. One
1





ROUTES 58 C, 59
349
Miles from
Tadmor
traveller reports having seen oil-presses of basalt, but
this appears to be contradicted by another authority.
There are no olives to be seen now.
581 The track here joins Route 58 b.
787 | Homs.
ROUTE 59
Tadmor
TADMOR--SELEMĪYEH (78 M.)
Authority :-Sobernheim in Zeitschr. des deutsch. Palästina-Vereins, xxii.
A party of travellers in 1899 went from Tadmor to Selemīyeh by
a route that does not appear to have been used before by Europeans.
At about 6 m. from Tadmor they turned N., making a long détour
behind the Jebel 'Abyadh, which would not be followed under normal
circumstances.
About 28 m. from Tadmor the détour is ended, and from that
point the route followed is fairly direct to Selemīyeh.
Miles from
Tadmor. From the beginning of the direct track the
direction is NW. (The distances are measured from
Tadmor, allowing 28 m. up to the point where the
détour referred to ends.)
39 Cross the Wādi es-Surra, a water-course in a ridge of the
same name.
The track then curves round the Jebel es-Surra in a
northerly direction towards the Jebel Bil'as, which may
perhaps be a part of the Jebel es-Surra.
Jebel Bil'as. From this point the general direction is
W. by N. over alternating rolling and plain country.
Jebel es-Sued on the r.
Jebel es-Suha, a slight eminence in a district of the same
name.
Beyond this cultivated land is reached.
Mufaggareh village.
Taltut village to l.
| Selemīyeh.


GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
ALTUN KÖPRÜ (“Golden Bridge': called by Arabs El-Qantareh),
on the Lesser Zāb River. Houses variously estimated at from 350 to
600. T. (Baghdad-Mosul line.)
River Route - For the navigation of the Lesser Zāb see Route III F.
Land Routes—
(i) The main Baghdad-Mosul highway runs through the
town (see Route 25 a, p. 162). Besides this route
across the Great Zāb to Mosul via Erbil, there are
others direct to the Great Zāb, avoiding Erbil and
passing no considerable town. These appear to be
some miles shorter than the main route.
(ii) To Raniyeh via Taktak and Köi Sanjaq. (See Route 40.)
(iii) To Suleimāniyeh via Kājār and the Baziyan Pass, over
gravelly hills.
(iv) To Qal'ah Sherghat. (See Route 27.)
(v) Tracks lead down both banks of the Lesser Zāb to the
villages in that region. The track on the r. bank is
the better.
General Description.— The town stands on an island about į m.
long and 1 m. broad in the Lesser Zāb. The direction of the river
near here is from NE. by N. to SW. by S. The western channel is dry
most of the year. In the h.w, season the water in the eastern channel
may be 40 yds. broad and 10 or more ft. deep, but when the spring
floods are over this branch becomes fordable above and below, but not
at the town. It is crossed by a bridge of a single 60-ft. span, about
50 ft. above h. w. level, with some minor arches in the abutments.
Owing to its steepness this bridge is difficult of ascent from both sides.
The western channel is crossed by another bridge of 3 arches of about
20-ft. span each. It is less steep, but has a turn or elbow in the
middle. It has a toll-station.
The walls of the outer houses of the town are built in continuation
of a low cliff-face giving the appearance of fortifications. One long
street runs through the town from the bridge. The T.O. is near the
eastern end; then come the barracks, which are only occasionally
occupied, and towards the western end a small bazaar.





352
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
islands in the river opposite Ānah are cultivated and contain palm
trees. On the l. bank opposite the upper end of Anah is Rawā village
with fruit-gardens and date groves. On the hill above are modern
barracks (apparently defensible) called Qasr el-Zā'im.
Supplies and Commerce.—Before the present war all necessary
supplies for a caravan could be obtained here. In the region of
Anah wheat and barley are cultivated, but there does not seem to
have been in recent years any appreciable surplus for export. Dates,
apricots, plums, figs, pomegranates, &c., are produced in the gardens
of the towns. The live stock of the Kaza consists mainly of sheep.
Water is to be obtained from wells, and also from the river.
Wool, butter, and dates were exported to Aleppo. Grain, soap,
honey, and spices came down the Euphrates from Birijik. It was
reported in 1911 that merchandise from Aleppo for Mosul was
sometimes sent down the Euphrates by shakhtūr to Rawā opposite
Anah, and thence conveyed by camel to Mosul. Arab cloaks
are manufactured here. It was estimated in 1909 (with regard to
a projected railway) that 7,000 men and 8,000 women would be
available in the district for labour.
Inhabitants.—The people of Anah are mostly Sunni Arabs. A few
Jews live in the southern end of the town. The boatmen of Anah
are famous for their knowledge of the Euphrates.
Administration and Authorities.--Anah is the head-quarters of a
Kaza in the Vilayet of Baghdad. There was a small Turkish garrison
in the place.
'AQREH, about 40 m. ENE. of Mosul. Pop. 3,000 (1,000 houses).
Route's—
(i) To Mosul. (See Route 45 a.)
(ii) To Zebān and across the Great Zāb to Neri.
(iii) To Ashkān and Rowanduz via Qandīl ferry. (See Route
45 a.)
(iv) To Amadiyeh via Herin.
General Description.-.The village stands partly on a steep col,
connecting an outer and lower hill called Giri with a higher one on
which is a prehistoric fort, and partly in two valleys which come
down from the hills. These are called Gali Kānyarash and Gali
Sheikh 'Abdul Azīz, and lie respectively E. and W. of Giri and the
fort, uniting below Giri to form the Rūdbār Samileh, which is said to
reach the Zāb at Zairāo below Garmak.











DEIR EZ-ZOR-ERBIL
355
ERBIL, about 48 m. E. by S. of Mosul. Pop. about 39,000
(1,800 houses). Another estimate gives the population as 15,000
and the number of houses as 3,000. T. (Baghdad- Mosul line;
and branch lines to Rowanduz, to Qal'ah Dizeh via Köi Sanjaq, and
to the Sultan's estate at Makhmūr).
Routes-
(i) To Köi Sanjaq. (See Route 42.)
(ii) To Rowanduz
(a) via Shakhlawa. (See Route 43 a.)
(1) via Bahirka. (See Route 43 b.)
(iii) To Mosul. (See Route 25 a, m. 2451.)
General Description.—Erbil (Assyrian ’Aba-Ilu, 'Four Gods ') was
a great Assyrian city, being especially famous for its cult of the
goddess Ishtar, and under Persian rule it continued to be a considerable
place, and its temple of Ishtar was still famous. Alexander won the
decisive battle that made him master of the Persian Empire some-
where in the plain to the SW. of Erbil near the Great Zāb in
B. C. 331. Later Erbil was the burial-place of the Parthian kings.
Its sanctity disappeared with the rise of Christianity, and since the
Mohammedan conquest its history has not been of general importance,
though its position as a road centre in a fertile district has ensured
its continued existence. The battle which transferred the Caliphate
from the Omayyad to the Abbasid family was fought in the neighbour-
hood about the middle of the eighth century.
The modern town of Erbil stands partly on a large artificial mound
of Assyrian origin, which rises 200 ft. above the plain with a slope of 1
in 1. The mound is 600 yds. in diameter. It is surrounded by a ring
wall, against which houses have been built on the inside, with windows
pierced through to the outer face. Inside, on the summit of the hill,
there are many winding streets, some being only 4-6 ft. wide and
very intricate. There are only two gates, both on the SW., with
camps leading up to them. Below the mound a large quarter (said
to be growing) has sprung up to the W. and S. The khan, baths,
posting-station, and telegraph office are at the foot of the hill on the
W. side. On the NW. side is a one-storied block of mud barracks.
On the N. and E, sides of the citadel are the remains of a wall of mud
4 ft. thick which would still make a good parapet. The stony bed of
the Erbil River (usually dry) lies about 1 m. SE. of the town, and 14 m.
in the same direction is Badowa, a village of 50 houses of Dizeih Kurds.
WSW. from the mound, just outside the town, is an old minaret.
Supplies and Commerce.—The Raza of Erbil produces large
quantities of wheat and barley, with a considerable surplus for
export to Baghdad via the Tigris. There is much corn-land in
z 2


356
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
the plain and undulating country which surrounds the town and in the
district of Shemamlik to the SSW. Some rice is also grown in the
neighbourhood. In the hills to ENE., supplies of fruit, vegetables,
and firewood can be obtained among the Kurdish tribes, who bring
them into Erbil for sale. The capacities of Erbil as a supply centre
are increased by its position at the meeting-point of numerous
routes. In October most of the streams are dry, but abundant
water can be obtained from karez and wells. There is a large
karez, led first through an open brick duct 3 ft. above the ground
and 4 ft. broad, where animals are watered, and then into a large
masonry tank and other channels. It is excellent water if taken
where it enters the duct, but becomes contaminated lower
down. Water is carried to the upper town on skins slung on
ponies and donkeys. The neighbouring tribes bring wool and hides
to sell in Erbil, and articles are locally manufactured from these raw
products. There is much transit commerce of goods passing between
the Kurdish and Persian hills and Mesopotamia.
Inhabitants. The population is mainly Kurdish, of the Babari
tribe. Their language is a variation of the Mukri dialect. There is
also a certain Turkoman element, and Turkoman is understood.
Administration and Authorities.—The place is the head-quarters of
a Kaza under Kirkuk Sanjaq. The land-taxes are said to produce
£190,000 a year, of which one-third comes from land owned by the
Dā'irat es-Saniyeh. In peace time the garrison consisted of one
battalion.
HIT, on the r. bank of the Euphrates, 793 m. by river above
Fellūjeh, and 1191 m. below Anah.
Pop. estimated (1909) at 1,600. Houses estimated at 600. P.O.,
T. (Baghdad-Aleppo line).
River Routes.--For communication by the Euphrates see Routes
IV E, F.
Land Routes
(i) Baghdad-Aleppo caravan road passes through Hīt. (See
Route 46.)
(ii) To Damascus across the desert. (See Route 52.)
(iii) To Mosul across the desert. No details available.
General Description.-Hit is a small walled town with two gates,
built of field stones plastered with mud. It stands upon a mound
on the river-bank which is precipitous to the plain, and slopes less





ERBIL-HĪT–KHANIKIN
357
steeply to the river. A tall leaning minaret near the river-bank is
a conspicuous landmark for miles. At the S. end of Hīt are boat-
building yards. There is a khan below the town. In the neighbour-
hood of the mound on which the modern town stands are other,
somewhat lower, eminences which mark the sites of former settle-
ments. To N. and S. are palm groves. To W. near some Imāms
are the chief bitumen springs, and beyond them a barren desolate
plain of sand, clay, and black-seamed rocks. There is a ferry at N.
end of the town. The Mesopotamian plain on the other side of the
river is here quite flat; a little farther down.stream it contains
naphtha springs, and beyond these salt lakes. The atmosphere of
Hit is smoky owing to the burning bitumen kilns, and the furnaces
of the boat-building yards. A strong smell of sulphur (from neigh-
bouring sulphur springs) and of boiling bitumen pervades the air ;
it is said to have saved Hīt from a cholera epidemic. The ground
round Hīt is very dirty, owing to the bitumen and sulphur.
Supplies and Commerce.- No appreciable amount of supplies for
troops can be expected at Hit. The cultivated area near the town is
a very narrow strip, which does not produce a surplus for export.
Hit owes its existence to the bitumen springs around it, which are
said to have been worked here for 5,000 years. The bitumen has
a sale in Mesopotamia for caulking boats, binding bricks, &c. Boat-
building is an important occupation. The boats are made with
branches of tamarisk and mulberry trees interlaced with basket-
work of reeds and straw, the whole covered with bitumen and
sand. They draw 22 in. when laden, and 6 in. when empty. They
are exported to other places in Irak. Earthen pottery is also
made at Hīt.
Inhabitants.-The population consists of Sunni Arabs.
Administration.--Hit before the war was the head-quarters of a
Kaza and the seat of a Kaim'
makam.
KHANIKIN, 94 m. NE. of Baghdad and 64 m. from the Persian
frontier. Pop. 5,000 (1911). P.O., T. Bridge over the Alvand.
Routes—
(i) To Baghdad. (See Route 28 a.)
(ii) To Kirmanshah. (See Route 28 a.)
(iii) To Mandali. (See Route 29.)
(iv) To Salāhiyeh (Kufri). (See Routes 32 a, b.)
General Description. — The town lies among gardens on both
banks of a tributary of the Diyāleh, the rapid Alvand stream, which


358
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
is spanned by a solid brick and stone bridge, with roadway of 25 ft.
This bridge was constructed at the expense of the Persian Govern-
ment to facilitate the weekly postal service between Turkey and
Persia. The river here is 60 yds. wide, and fordable. The town
lies mainly E. of it. There are some well-built houses in the main
streets. The place owes its importance to its position so near the
frontier, and on the Shiah pilgrim-route from Persia to Kerbela
and Nejef. The Baghdad Railway Company before the war had
taken up the scheme, for which a native company had previously
secured a concession, of building a branch line from Baghdad to
Khanikin. There are several khans.
Climate and Hygiene. — Khanikin is the quarantine station on
the Turkish side of the frontier. A report of 1894 states that there
is here, as at most of the frontier towns, a European health officer.
The altitude of the town is about 1,000 ft. above sea-level, and no
extreme of cold is ever felt.
Supplies and Commerce. ---Water is abundant, and supplies are
said to be plentiful, but few details are given. The gardens are
famed throughout the Baghdad Vilayet for the excellence of their
fruits, which include dates, pomegranate, figs, and lemons. Barley
and wheat are the chief agricultural products.
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are mainly Kurds and Lurs, with
some Turks, Arabs, Jews, and Persians.
Administration.--Khanikin is the head-quarters of a Kaimmakam
in the Baghdad Vilayet.
KIRKUK, on the main route Baghdad-Mosul, 1874 m. N. of
Baghdad. Pop. variously estimated at from 15,000 to 50,000.
Probably 20,000 is fairly near the number (4,000 houses). P.O., T.
Brick bridge of 15 arches across the Hasa Su from Kirkuk to Qarveit
Mahalleh.
Routes-
(i) Main Baghdad-Mosul road. (See Route 25 a, m 1871.)
(ii) To Suleimāniyeh. (See Route 37.)
(iii) To Köi Sanjaq. (See Route 25 a, m. 1871, and under
m. 1981.)
(iv) To Taktak. (See Route 40, under m. 32.)
General Description.— The town lies on the l. bank of the Hasa Su,
with the suburb of Qarveit Mahalleh opposite it at the W. end of
the bridge. In this suburb are the serai, military barracks, military
hospital, post and telegraph office, a school, and the residences of





-KHANIKIN-KIRKUK
359
many officials. On the W., N., and NE. the low hills stand close
round the town, hiding it from view in these directions until one is
near it.
At the northern end the citadel stands on a large flat-topped
mound, 130 ft. in height, with the quarter near the Mosque of 'Ali at
its base. The Chaldaean community has a new cathedral built by
the French Roman Catholic mission. The town contains two arched
bazaars and several khans, as well as public baths which are reported
to be very bad. Owing to the sheltered position of the town, the
climate is excessively hot and not very healthy in summer.
Supplies and Commerce. --The town is said to contain apparently
about 500 shops, but the local authorities claim that there are
upwards of 1,800. Wheat, barley, a little rice, beans, melons,
cucumbers, and a few grapes are grown in the country round Kirkuk.
There are several flour-mills on the bank of the river. The inhabi-
tants were reported in 1903 to own 30,000 sheep in the pastures near
the town ; but the live stock of the district may have been diminished
owing to the constant raids of the Hamawand between the years 1906
and 1909. Water can be obtained after rain or the melting of the
snow from the Hasa Su, but there is generally little or no water in
the river bed, and most of the rather scanty supply comes from
wells. There are oil springs at Bābā Gurgur, 5 m. NW. of the town.
Kirkuk is a centre for the purchase of Arab horses, which are
exported.
Some cotton is grown in this region, and the chief exports of the
place are oil, wool, gall-nuts, wheat, barley, fruit, gum, and a little
wine. The chief occupation is that of drapers and mercers, and the
chief imports are cotton goods, Kirkuk being a distributing centre for
Kurdistan. Fruit trees include the vine, lime, olive, fig, apricot,
and mulberry.
Inhabitants.—The inhabitants are of many races and religions.
The principal are Turkoman, Kurd, and Arab. There are also
Armenians, Chaldaeans, Syrians, and numerous Jews, who are said
to own 200 houses out of 4,000. An equal number of houses is
said to be inhabited by the Christians of various sects. Arabic and
Kurdish are spoken indifferently in the bazaars, and Turkish is
understood by most.
The town itself has been strongly held by the Turkish Government,
which has maintained fair order within the walls.
The Sunni element is probably considerably stronger than the Shiah.
There is said to be a fanatical population in the quarter round the
Mosque of 'Ali to the N. of the town; but the Moslems of Kirkuk
have been given a good character for honesty and generosity, at any


360
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
rate in their dealings among themselves. They are said to be more
interested in local than imperial politics.
Administration and Authorities.—Kirkuk and the surrounding
country is administered by Mutessarif under the Vali of Mosul. In
peace time it was the head-quarters of the 12th Division of the 6th
(Baghdad) Corps. The ordinary garrison was a battalion of infantry
and a large detachment of infantry mounted on mules.
There is a Persian Consul (in 1909 a Kirmanshah Kurd).
History.-Kirkuk, in recent years an important Turkish ad.
ministrative centre, is an ancient city. It is fairly certain that the
town goes back far beyond Seleucid times, though nothing seems to
be known about its early history.
Three tombs shown to visitors are said to be those of Daniel,
Shadrach, and Meshech, and there was also one, now lost, of
Abednego. The place was one of the most important sees of the
Eastern Church, and figures largely in its martyrology. Outside the
town is a mound called Tamazgerd which was generally the scene of
martyrdom. It was acquired after the great persecution of Shapur II
in the fourth century, and takes its name from Tamazgerd, the
stimulator of the persecution in the reign of Yezdigird I, who is said
to have turned Christian at the sight of the endurance of the martyrs.
About 100 years ago the place was devastated by plague, which
carried off most of the educated community and consequently
destroyed many local traditions.
KÖI SANJAQ, about "90 m. ESE. of Mosul, between Erbil and
the Persian frontier. 1.200 houses. T. L.
Routes-
(i) To Erbil. (See Route 42.)
(ii) To Raniyeh. (See Route 40.)
(iii) To Suleimāniyeh. (See Route 39.)
(iv) To Rowanduz. (See Route 44 b.)
General Description.—The town lies in a kind of basin about 3 m.
across, bounded on N. and E. by low hills. On the N. is a knoll with
a ruined masonry fort 250 yds. square with towers at the corners.
A report of 1904 states that it was used as a barracks. The town is
less squalid than Suleimāniyeh, and has a few good houses.
• There are good places for camping in the neighbourhood.
Supplies and Commerce.--There is good water from a"large stream
and springs to the N. Corn and tobacco are exported down the





KIRKUK-KÖI SANJAQ-MOSUL
361
Lesser Zāb and Tigris to Baghdad. Pomegranates, apricots, figs,
mulberries, melons, cherries, and vines are cultivated, but, according
to an authority of 1904, without much knowledge of horticulture.
Cucumbers and other vegetables are also grown. Firewood could be
had from the wooded ridges to N. and E. There is no information
as to forage, but it is probably fairly plentiful.
Inhabitants.-The population are Kurds, with 50 Jewish and
30 Chaldaean houses. The prevailing language is Kurdish, but
Arabic is generally understood. Turkish is spoken only by officials
and educated people. An authority of 1904 speaks of the local Kurds
as being neither interesting nor attractive, without intelligence or
manners.
Administration and Authorities. The place is the residence of a
Kaimmakam. There is no evidence as to the size of the garrison.
MOSUL, on the r. bank of the Tigris, some 230 m. (overland)
NNW. of Baghdad. Pop. 70,000-80,000 (?). P.O., T. Communi.
cation before the war with Baghdad, Diyarbekr Rowanduz through
Erbil, Suleimāniyeh through Kirkuk. Bridge of boats.
River Routes.—For communication by the Tigris see Routes III D,
E, F.
Land Routes.-
(i) To Baghdad via Erbil, Kirkuk. (See Route 25 a.)
(ii) To Baghdad via r. bank of the Tigris. (See Route 25 b.)
(iii) To Rowanduz via Qandıl ferry. (See Route 45 a.)
(iv) To Rowanduz via Girdamamik. (See Route 45 b.)
(v) To Deir ez-Zor via 'Ain el-Ghazal. (See Route 49 a.)
(vi) To Deir ez-Zor via Beled Sinjar. (See Route 49 b.)
(vii) To Nisibin via Beled Sinjar or Samukhd. (See vol. iv, Routes
92a, b.)
(viii) To Nisibin via Eski Mosul. (See vol. iv, Route 91.)
(ix) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. (See vol. iv, Routes 90 a, b.)
(x) To Amādiyeh. (See vol. iv, Routes 67 a, b.)
General Description.—Mosul stands on the W. side of the Tigris
trough and is bounded on the E. by the river. To the W. of the
city the country consists of rocky formations, rising in gentle
undulations out of the plain. In the immediate vicinity these
formations consist of solid beds of compact, granular gypsum,
in horizontal strata and non-fossiliferous. This rock is extensively
quarried as “Mosul marble', and varies in colour from pure white to
bluish grey. Superimposed on the gypsum is a layer of coarse


362
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
friable limestone, abounding in shells. This layer is thin to the W.,
but much thicker to the S. of the city, where it is extensively
quarried for building purposes.
The Tigris at Mosul cuts into the side of its trough and threatens
some of the buildings of the town. The whole river-bed, covered
in high flood, is about 675 yds. broad, and there is a deep channel
on the W. of about 150–200 yds. The bridge of boats crosses the
river from a pier 32 yds. long opposite the Bāb el-Jisr Gate (in the
southern half of the river-front) to a gravelly bank which is sub-
merged when the Tigris is in flood. The boat-bridge is 125 yds.
long, and has a roadway of rough planking 24 ft. wide, which is
laid on 17 pontoons, flat-bottomed boats 26 ft. long by 10 ft. wide,
with a waterway 10 ft. between each and its neighbour. The
gravelly bank on the E. side of the river is crossed by a bridge of
brick faced with sandstone, which is laid at an angle of about 45°
to the boat-bridge. The masonry bridge is approached from the
pontoon-bridge by a ramp 46 yds. long, and has a total length of
278 yds. : the roadway, which is 16 ft. wide, is laid on 29 arches,
each of 20 ft. span, and at the eastern end there is a ramp 52 yds.
long. Beyond the E. end of the masonry bridge the road may be
under water for as much as 150 yds. in the flood season. In high
flood the boat-bridge is removed, and the river is then crossed by
boats. These boats (of which about 30 used to be available) are
each about 24 ft. long by 8 ft. wide. They are punt-shaped, with
the stern cut down to allow animals to go on board. Each boat
can take 6 laden mules. The boat-bridge may be expected to be in
position from some time in the early part of June to the end of
March.
The town of Mosul, though dusty, glaring, and treeless, is not
unpicturesque at a distance, the outline of the walls being broken
by numerous domes, minarets, and towers. The city is partially
surrounded by badly-built rubble walls, 15–20 ft. high, with a thick-
ness of about 6 ft. at the bottom and 3 ft. at the top. These were
constructed at the beginning of the last century as a protection
against Bedouin raids, and are now out of repair. In many places
they have already been breached, and the ditch has been filled in.
There are 11 gates. On the river side, houses have been built into
the wall, and their windows look out on to the river. To the N.
and W. there is an expanse of waste land between the houses and
the walls. To the S., beyond the Bāb es-Serai, the river is fringed
with mud houses inhabited by raftsmen, boatmen, and fishermen.
Behind these houses is a broad road planted with trees, and E. of
this is a broad open space used partly as the drill-ground of the








MOSUL
363
garrison, and partly, apparently, as a cattle market. At the end of
the road, about å m. from the city gate, are the barracks and
Government offices, and the residences of the Vali and other officials.
The post and telegraph offices lie on the road somewhat nearer to
the town.
The streets of Mosul are narrow, undrained lanes, winding
between blank house walls. A few of the streets are paved with
stones, which make very slippery going. The houses are built of
sun-dried bricks or of stone (* Mosul marble ') set in gypsum cement.
Little wood is used in their construction. The larger houses are
built round a courtyard, into which the rooms and a hall open.
They usually have serdābs, or underground rooms, for use in the hot
weather. The number of houses has been estimated at 12,000.
There are numerous mosques and several large khans. The bazaars
are held in booths in the streets. About the middle of the river-
front, not far above the bridge, is an old citadel. The church of the
French Dominican Mission is marked on a plan of 1873 as slightly
W. of the centre of the town.
Mosul is not an attractive place ; it is insanitary and dirty, with
a bad climate and smoky atmosphere. The smoke comes from the
gypsum kilns. The most unpleasant quarter appears to be a cluster
of some 300 houses near the river, which serves as abattoir, tannery,
and dye-works for the whole town. In 1906 it was stated that the
Government had twice endeavoured to abolish this quarter, but on
both occasions the attempt had provoked a riot.
Climate and Hygiene.—The climate of Mosul is very trying in the
summer. The worst part of the hot weather is from July to
September, when the thermometer may go as high as 120° F. in
the day, and not fall below 95° at night. Hot winds blow in from
the desert. Even in May a temperature of 100° may be looked for,
and the cool season does not begin till November. In the cool
weather, which is also the rainy season, the nights are often frosty.
(See chapter on Climate, vol. i, and accompanying tables.)
Owing to the glare and the dust, the amount of which is appreciably
increased by the numerous kilns and pounding mills in which gypsum
is worked, ophthalmia is common, and tuberculosis is said to be
'terribly prevalent'. Cholera, on the other hand, is not common,
though its existence has been suspected. Visitations of plague are
reported. Mosul has its “boil', from which few who reside there
long escape ; it is said to be not distinguishable from the Baghdad
'date-mark'. Almost all travellers comment on the filthy and
insanitary conditions of the place; which, in the opinion of one
observer, call for the abandonment of the site and the building


364
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
of a new town on another site. Sulphur springs, some of them hot,
are found near the Tigris both above and below Mosul (e.g. at
Hammām 'Ali, see Route III E, m. 1677), and are much resorted to
for medicinal purposes.
A hot eddying wind-the Sām—which blows in the desert W. of
the city, is said occasionally to affect fatally those who are exposed
to it. It is sometimes possible to avoid its worst effects by lying on
the ground.
Supplies and Commerce.—In spite of its arid appearance much of
the country from which Mosul is supplied is fertile, and agriculture
has on the whole been developing during the past twenty or thirty
years. There are said to be about 200 flour-mills in the city. In
normal times the bazaars of the town are well stocked with grain,
fruit, and meat. The principal crops of the Mosul country are wheat
and barley, which ripen in April, and among the minor produce
may be mentioned lentils, peas, beans, millet, maize, cucumbers, as
well as many fruits-melon, orange, fig, plum, pear, and grape.
The date palm grows, but does not fruit freely. Sheep and goats
were numerous before the present war.
The water-supply is not satisfactory; there are numerous wells,
but they are brackish ; and the people rely for their drinking
supplies on the Tigris, from which the water is brought on ponies in
skins. The Tigris water is considered good except when the river
is low. Schemes for a municipal water-supply have been talked of
for years, but nothing has been done.
There is much excellent spring grazing near Mosul. Wood for
fuel seems scarcely to be found in the neighbourhood of the city.
In normal times timber is brought from the Kurdish hills.
Mosul would make a good centre for the collection of transport
animals of all kinds. In peace time numerous donkeys, mules,
horses, and camels could be obtained here.
In the Middle Ages Mosul was an important entrepôt and manu-
facturing centre, and was celebrated for its jewellery, arms, and
carpets, as well as for cotton and silk and embroidered fabrics
(the word 'muslin ’ is said to be derived from the name of the town).
Misrule, insecurity of transport, the introduction of cheap machine-
made goods, and the diversion of trade by the Suez Canal have in
various ways affected its prosperity, but there are still a considerable
number of gold and silversmiths, of workers in iron and copper, of
shoemakers, and above all of weavers; and only security is required
to increase very largely its commercial importance. Mosul is a
distributing centre for European goods imported through Aleppo,
and for Indian goods which come through Baghdad ; and to it are





MOSUL
365
brought for re-export the abundant raw products and the textile
fabrics of Kurdistan and NW. Persia.
The following statistics (giving value in £ sterling) for 1912 show
that before the war trade was still on a fairly extensive scale :
IMPORTS.
EXPORTS.
€
mm
United Kingdom . .
51,000 163,000
India
41,000 22,000
Other foreign countries
56,000 53,000
Total 148,000 238,000
Other parts of Turkey . . 30,000 188,000
Grand total 178,000 426,000
The chief articles of import were cotton piece-goods, and yarn,
and the demand was increasing in spite of the superior durability of
locally woven articles. Iron and copper were always in large
demand, Swedish iron being much used. From France came tanned
leather and cigarette papers, from Austria broadcloths, from India
cotton goods, coffee, and gunnies, from Persia carpets. Petroleum
was also imported. The imports from other parts of Turkey included
piece-goods, soap (from Aleppo), dates (from Baghdad), dried fruits,
peas, and nuts. The main exports to other countries were wool,
hides and skins, boots and shoes ; and to other parts of Turkey
wheat, sheep and cattle, galls, hides, and fruits. In favourable
seasons exports of wheat were on a very large scale ; in 1908 their
value amounted to £200,000.
There is a large local production of flour, the number of mills
being not less than 200, and there is a good opening for the intro.
duction of Western methods of milling.
About 40 m. from Mosul, near the bank of the Tigris, are the
Kaiyara naphtha springs, which yield a thick black product. In
1908 the right of exploitation was leased to a native of Erbil, who
sold the refined product at his own village at 9 to 15 piastres for
4 gallons.
Inhabitants.--The population was estimated about 1904 at 40,000-
50,000, but more recent calculations raise it to double the former
figure. Fully three-quarters of the people are Mohammedans, and
practically all of these are Sunnis. The Mosulis are a race of mixed
origin, their language being Arabic. They have a bad reputation
for turbulence, cruelty, and viciousness. In normal times there is
a considerable floating population of Arabs and Kurds.
The Christians (perhaps about 15,000) are chiefly Syriac speaking,
and belong to various sects—the Chaldaeans, West Syrian Catholics,
and Jacobites are all represented; there are also some Nestorians.


366
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
There is a large and important French Dominican Mission in Mosul,
and at the Dominican mission-school many of the Chaldaeans and West
Syrian Catholics have learnt to speak French. There are also a few
native Protestants, the converts of an American mission; some of
these probably speak English. The strong Jewish colony lives in a
quarter of its own.
Administration and Authorities.-The municipal administration
before the war was in the hands of the Vali of the province and
a council of notables. This council has a particularly evil fame for
corruption and intrigue. Its members are wealthy merchants and
landowners, some of the latter being descended from the Arab
oligarchy which ruled Mosul in the eighteenth century. So far as
they could not make the Turkish officials their tools, they were
generally in more or less concealed opposition to the Vali's ad-
ministration. For the furtherance of their ends they used their
money and influence among the lower classes of the city, and they
have been known covertly to instigate violent outbreaks of riot.
The Chaldaean Christians have a patriarch in Mosul; the West
Syrian Catholics and Jacobites have their respective bishops. There
was also before the war a Papal Legate with supervisory powers
over the Uniate churches of the country.
In 1914 there was a French consul at Mosul, and also British,
Russian, and German vice-consuls.
History.—On the l. side of the Tigris, opposite the present city of
Mosul, are the extensive ruin-mounds which mark the site of
Nineveh. After the fall of Nineveh and of the whole Assyrian State
in 604 B.C., no considerable city appears to have existed in the
neighbourhood for many centuries. Under the Mohammedan
Caliphate Mosul rose to importance as a centre of commerce and
manufacture, and in the decay of the Abbasid's power it became
the capital of an independent kingdom under an Arab dynasty.
In the eleventh century it was ruled by a dynasty of Seljuk Turks-
the Atabegs. It was sacked by the Mongol invaders of the thirteenth
century, and at the end of the fourteenth was for some time the
head-quarters of Timur Lang. The Persians conquered it early in
the sixteenth century, but in 1516 it was won by the Turkish Sultan
Selim. It was placed under the Pasha of Baghdad. The Turkish
hold on the city was for long weak, and in the eighteenth century
the city was practically ruled by an oligarchy of local notables. In
the nineteenth century Turkish authority was revived, and in 1878
Mosul became the capital of a separate Vilayet which was carved out
of the Pashalik of Baghdad.








MOSUL-RANIYEH-RAQQAH
367
RANIYEH, about "100 m. E. of Mosul, not far from the Persian
frontier. 300 houses. No T.L., though the wire between Köi
Sanjaq and Qal'ah Dīzeh passes within a few miles of it.
Routes-
(i) To Köi Sanjaq. (See Route 40.)
(ii) To Suleimāniyeh. (See Route 38.)
(iii) To Banah. (See Route 41.)
(iv) To Rowanduz. (See Routes 44 a, b, c.)
(v) To Urmia. (See vol. iv, Routes 60 a, b.)
General Description.—The village is built partly on a mound,
partly round it. It is dilapidated and unhealthy. Camping-grounds
could be found on the numerous gravelly spurs round the plain.
Supplies.—Water is procurable from springs in the plain. It
contains some impurity, and is rather unpleasant to taste. There
is some rice-cultivation, and firewood is abundant on the neighbouring
hills.
Inhabitants.—The population is composed of Raya Kurds.
Administration and Authorities.—The place is the seat of a Kaim-
makam and the head-quarters of a Redif battalion composed of Kurds.
In summer, during peace time, it had a garrison of two companies of
Nizam infantry.
There is also a zaptieh post of 20 men.
RAQQAH, on the l. bank of the Euphrates, 2 hrs. ride above the
mouth of the Belikh River, and 1122 m. by river above Deir-ez-Zor.
Pop. apparently about 2,000. T. (connexion with Baghdad-
Aleppo line).
River Routes.-See Route IV, H.
Land Routes-
(i) Baghdad-Aleppo caravan route on opposite bank. (See
Route 46.)
(ii) To Meskeneh by 1. bank. (See Route 47.)
(iii) To Ānah by l. bank. (See Route 47.)
(iv) To Harrān. (See vol. iv, Routes 132 a, b.)
(v) To Hama. (See Route 55.)
General Description.—The Arab settlement lies about 1 m. from
the river in the SW. corner of a large semi-circular enclosure, formed
by an old brick wall with round bastions at intervals. In the middle
of the enclosure are the remains of a mosque. To the west of the


368
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
Arab village, outside the enclosure and standing on high broken
ground. is a Circassian colony. To the east of the enclosure con-
taining the Arab village is another ruin-field with a minaret rising
from its centre.
Supplies and Commerce.-There is a good deal of cultivation in
the neighbourhood. The settlement has a bazaar, and is much used
as a market by the surrounding Arabs.
Inhabitants.-Arabs and Circassians.
Administration.-Raqqah is the head-quarters of a Kaza in the
Vilayet of Aleppo and is the seat of a Kaimmakam.
History.-Raqqah occupied the site of the ancient cities of Nice.
phorium and Callīnicum. The later town, Callīnicum, was a strong
fortress and important market on the frontier of the Roman Empire.
It flourished under the early Caliphs (Harūn er-Rashid had a palace
here), but by the fourteenth century it was a mere ruin-field, the
city having probably been destroyed by the Mongols. About 40 years
ago the site was nearly unoccupied, but the place has been growing
in size and importance during the last few years.
ROWANDUZ, about "80 m. ENE. of Mosul, not far from the
Persian frontier. T.L. from Erbil. Pop. at least 5,000. Number
of houses probably about 1,000 (1910).
Routes-
(i) To Mosul
(a) via Qandil ferry. (See Route 45 a.)
(6) via Girdamamik. (See Route 45 b.)
(ii) To Erbil
(a) via Bātās and Shakhlawa. (See Route 43 a.)
(b) via Baba Chichek Dāgh and Bahirka. (See Route
Babacand Share
(iii) Ton
(iii) To Raniyeh
(a) via Balassān. (See Route 44 a.)
(b) via Khata. (See Route 44 b.)
(c) via the Nalkewan valley. (See Route 44 c.)
(iv) To Urmia
(a) via the Kelishin Pass and Ushnu. (See vol. iv,
Route 61 c.)
(b) via Neri. (See vol. iv, Route 61 a.)
(v) To Suj Bulaq. (See vol. iv, Route 61 d.)
(vi) To Köi Sanjaq. (See Route 44 b.)
(vii) To Amadiyeh. (See vol. iv, Route 62 a.)








RAQQAH-ROWANDUZ
369
General Description.—The town is remarkably situated on a sloping
tongue of land, very abrupt in parts, which runs down to the cañon
of the Rowanduz Chai; this tongue is separated from the country
eastwards by the Kalund, a great gully with precipitous sides which
joins the Rowanduz Chai just above the town. An easy track, by
which the narrow streets of the town can be avoided, leads from the
S. end of the gorge to the Persian route in the river valley 2 m. E. of
the town.
At the top of the town is a suburb called Qalah Teluk on a plateau
among gardens. It contains the house of Sa'id Bey, villas of
Turkish officers, and the summer residences of some of the in-
habitants.
The town itself is long, steep, and straggling, and is in two parts,
of which the upper is the larger. Between the two parts is a tract
less steep than the rest, with the summer quarters of the Kaim makam
and the palace of 'Abdallah Pasha. The T.O. and winter serai are in
the lower town.
The streets are narrow, and the houses are built across them in
some places, while in others the road goes over the roof. To make
a wheel road some of the houses would have to be levelled.
Sanitation is quite unknown.
A stream flows through the town. Below the lower town the
Rowanduz Chai is crossed at a deep and narrow gorge by a wooden
bridge of 18 ft. span without parapets. The Kalund gorge is crossed
by a similar wooden bridge of 20 ft. span. Both are passable for
mules but not for guns.
About 1,500 yds. to the N. the town is commanded by an old
Kurd blockhouse, and at a short distance are the insignificant ruins
of a castle on a yellow, bluff, steep-sided knoll. They were con-
structed about eighty years ago by Mohammed Pasha. (See below :
Administration and Authorities.) To SE. is the Beni Hindawin,
a steep ridge rising to about 8,000 ft., wooded near the summit.
Supplies and Commerce.--There is little evidence as to supplies.
Water seems to be plentiful, and a little wine is made, but practically
none is exported. Grapes may be had either fresh or dried.
Trade is mostly in gall-nuts, wool, and goat's hair.
Inhabitants.—The inhabitants are mostly Kurds. There are about
40 households of Jews and about a dozen Christians who have come
for trade, unaccompanied by their families.
Administration and Authorities.-Rowanduz is the seat of a Kaim-
makam in the Kirkuk Sanjaq of the Vilayet of Mosul. In 1910 the
Kaimmakam was a Moslem Greek. The Kaza includes the following
four Nahiyes (1910):
MES. 111
A a


370
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
Nahiye
Head-quarters
Deireh Harīr
Deireh Harir
Bārak
Gellala
Baradost
Sadaqah
Shirwān
Beirisiyão
A battalion of Nizam is usually quartered here (1910); they have
no barracks, but camp near the Government buildings which lie in
the suburb of Qalah Teluk (1904). In 1910 the place was the head-
quarters of two Redif battalions, probably nominal, which had not
been embodied.
There is also a post of 60 zaptiehs (1904).
SALĀHIYEH (KUFRI; in some maps also marked Zengabād),
on the Baghdad-Mosul main route, 417 m. NNE. of Baghdad. Pop.
(800 houses) ? 4,000. T. (Baghdad-Mosul line).
Routes
(i) To Baghdad. See Route 25 a.
(ii) To Mosul. See Route 25 a.
(iii) To Suleimāniyeh via Zagirmeh Pass. See Route 34 a.
(iv) To Suleimāniyeh via Dar. See Route 34 b.
(v) To Qasr-i-Shirin. See Route 33.
(vi) To Khanikin. See Routes 32 a, b.
General Description.—The town lies in a plain at the mouth of
a gorge in a low ridge (300-400 ft. high) to the N., through which
the Chechepan (Kufri Su) emerges. The river, on the r. bank of
which Salāhiyeh stands, is unbridged. A cultivated treeless plain
extends for a few miles to the S. and E. for about 10 m. to NW. The
hill of Bāwa Shāh Suwār, to the N. of Kufri, commands an excellent
view of the town. There are a shrine and a cemetery on it. The
town is surrounded by a mud wall in poor repair. The houses are
of stone and mud, with flat roofs; a few on the S. are built of lime
and gypsum from the hills close by. There is a stone khan on the
N., outside the town, and a new khan on the E. with upper rooms.
It is 40 x 55 yds., with stabling for 150 horses, and of rough stone and
cement. There is another khan, single-storeyed, 30 yds. square, and
stabling for 50 horses.
Supplies and Commerce.—There is a bazaar at Salāhiyeh containing
about 80 shops with a fair amount of supplies (flour, dates, dried
fruits). The neighbourhood is said to produce good wheat, and near
the town are gardens with date and fruit trees. Sheep and goats
are plentiful in normal times. The water, which comes from the





ROWANDUZ-SALĀHIYEH_SAMARRA
371
Kufri Su east of the town, is abundant and good. There is very
good grazing in the neighbourhood of the town. Fuel is plentiful.
In normal times it was estimated that 400 horses and 300 mules
might be obtained here.
The Nāsāleh coal workings lie in the low hills E. of the town,
the nearest being about å hour from the town: the newest workings
apparently lie at a distance of 1 or 2 m. The coal obtained before
the war was of poor quality, but possibly a better quality has since
been found in deeper workings. It is said that three workmen can
excavate about 30 cwt. or 20 donkey-loads daily, and the coal is
sold in Salahiyeh at 71 Rāij Piastres per donkey-load (32d. a cwt.).
During the war coal has been exported by camel to Sindiyeh (Route
III D, m. 453), and thence floated down the Tigris, and a Decauville
railway has been reported.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants are mostly Kurds, though there are
a few Arabs and Jews. The town lies in the country of the Jaf
Kurds, whose power has recently been much reduced by the Turkish
Government, though they are still a considerable tribe. They inhabit
both sides of the frontier and live a semi-nomadic life, moving
between the hills and the plains. The Turkish Jaf claim that, though
they are the less numerous section, they number 3,000 mounted
men : this is probably an exaggeration.
In the country towards Khanikin live the Bajalan Kurds (150
riders) and the Zengabād Kurds (270 riders). The Hamawand Kurds
at least as late as 1910 were a serious danger on the roads in the
neighbourhood, and in spite of measures taken against them in recent
years may possibly still cause trouble.
Administration.—The Turkish Government is represented here by
a Kaimmakam, and there was before the war a post of infantry
mounted on mules.
SAMARRA, on the l. bank of the Tigris, 891 m. above Baghdad
by river. Pop. 2,000 (?). T.L. to Baghdad. Bridge of boats (32-55,
according to width of river). In Oct. 1903 (1. w.), when river
was 370 yds. wide, only 270 yards were spanned by 32 boats: on
1. bank it was necessary after leaving bridge to cross some shallow
water for about 80 yds. to a sandbank, from which the river bank
could be reached. Roadway across bridge 12 ft. wide. Reported
1903 to be unfit for wheeled traffic. The Baghdad Railway has been
laid as far as Samarra (see Appendix).
River Routes—See Routes III D, E.
A a 2


372
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
Land Routes-
(i) To Baghdad via r. bank of Tigris. See Route 25 b.
(ii) Track to Baghdad via 1. bank of Tigris, joining Baghdad-
Salāhiyeh road near Khān Nahrawān and Deltāweh.
No details available.
(iii) Across desert to Hit (+75 m. ?). No details available. It
apparently runs by Abu Khasheb and S. end of Tartar
River, which carries water after rain.
(iv) To Mosul via r. bank of Tigris. See Route 25 b.
General Description.--The modern town is reported as lying about
400 yards from the river bank. The country round is a rolling
sandy plain strewn with ruins, with few or no signs of vegetation
visible from the city. The river varies in breadth between 370 and
460 yds., according to the season. Its current is 3 m. an hour
(mean water ?), and the depth is considerable : information reported
unreliable estimates it at 30 ft. in deepest places. The I. bank is
high and steep, shutting off the view of the town from the opposite
side of the river. The height is estimated at 60-70 ft. above
low-water level. The r. bank is said to be about 30 ft. high
(above low-water level) and steep. The banks and river-bottom are
mainly firm earth, with not much sand and few stones (the sand is
found chiefly on r. bank). On the r. bank at the bridge is a small
village of 40 mud houses and a khan 50 yds. square, with stabling.
The town is surrounded by a polygonal wall, with about 15 sides,
20 ft. high and 4 ft. thick, until near the top, where it narrows to
little over 2 ft. It is crenelated with 2 rows of loopholes, one at a
height of 6 ft., the other near the top. It has four gates, north, south,
east, and west, and has a semi-circular bastion at each salient angle
built to flank the curtains. The ruins and broken ground in the
vicinity would afford good cover for an attack. The town is said to
contain about 900 houses, mostly of brick, but not only is there much
open space within the wall, but many of the houses are empty (as in
the area S. of N. wall), and the place seems to be declining. Its im-
portance lies in its position on the Shiah pilgrim route from Persia
to Kerbela and on its own sanctity as containing the tombs of the
10th and 11th Shiah Imāms, and the cleft into which the 12th Imām
(the Imām Mahdi) is believed to have vanished, and from which he
is expected one day to reappear when he comes to establish the true
faith upon earth. The principal Mosque in the modern town, where
the Imāms are buried, is jealously guarded against infidel intrusion.
The tombs of the 10th and 11th Mahdis are under a dome of fine
Persian tiles, while a smaller dome covered with gold-leaf is built
over the place where the Imām Mahdi disappeared. Of the ruined


SAMARRA
373
buildings of old Samarra, the most important lie to the N. of the
present city. A few hundred yards outside the walls lie the ruins
of the great Mosque (260 yds. x 170 yds.), a large rectangular enclosure
(middle 9th century A. D.), surrounded by a ruinous wall, with four
large angle towers, with smaller rounded bastions at intervals of
about 20 ft. The longer sides run N. and S. There is a large gate
in the middle of the southern side. The E. and W. walls are
broken by numerous doors. The wall above the larger doors has
in every case fallen away. There are 5 gates to the N. Windows
occur irregularly. Near the centre of the N. wall stands a minaret
called the Malwiyeh, about 160 ft. high, which is ascended by an
external spiral path. From the top there is a wide view over the
town of Samarra and the neighbouring country. To the N. of the
Malwiyeh, between it and the ruins called the Beit el-Khalifeh, a
space of nearly 3,000 yds. is covered with the remains of walls and
streets.
Supplies and Commerce. - Local supplies are described in general
as limited, but before the war the town must have had sufficient
provisions for the numerous Shiah pilgrims who visit or pass through
the town. Melons and vegetables appear to be the chief agricultural
export. The Baghdad supply of melons comes mainly from
Samarra. There are no wells in Samarra containing drinkable water,
but the water which is obtained from the river is said to be excellent.
The pilgrim-waggons (capable of carrying about 20 men) which ply
between Samarra and Baghdad are owned in Kazimain, but in the
pilgrim-season there are usually 10-20 of them in the small village
which lies opposite Samarra on the r. bank. Large sailing boats
(baghalehs and safinehs) can ascend to Samarra, except, apparently,
when the current is strongest at flood-time, and quffehs are still in
use (see vol. i, p. 166). Before the war a small steamer made weekly
voyages to Samarra from Baghdad.
Inhabitants.- Probably about four-fifths of the inhabitants are
Shiahs, and there is a Persian community in the place. Persian
is said to be more spoken here than Arabic, and Persian coinage
prevails. A few Jews are settled here, and there is a small British
Indian colony, mostly Kashmiris.
Administration and Authorities.-Samarra is the headquarters of a
Kaza in the Vilayet of Baghdad.
History.-Samarra was a small town for many centuries in the
Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Sassanian periods (here the army of
the Roman Emperor Julian halted in its retreat from Ctesiphon
in A. D. 363, and near the town Julian died of wounds); but at
the beginning of the ninth century there seems to have been little








SAMARRA -SULEIMĀNIYEH
375
At the accèssion of Abdul Hamid the town was a market for the
produce of all southern Kurdistan. Carpets for Mosul and Baghdad
came here for sale, gum from Banah began to be sold here in-
stead of in Senna, and a large number of Chaldaeans of Mosul
carried on here an extensive and profitable business in the cotton
cloths of Aleppo and European fabrics. The beys and pashas of the
Jaf tribe entered into agreements to send all the produce of
the tribe-skins, wool, tobacco, and butter---to the bazaars of Sulei-
māniyeh.
In 1880 the value of the trade was estimated at £T500,000. In
1909 it had sunk to £T400,000 and was decreasing. The reason
is to be found partly in the history of the town during the interval
(see below), partly in the presence of a 15 per cent. customs duty.
An important local industry is the manufacture of fire-arms,
especially of rifles. The model for this is the Martini-Peabody
American patent, but the bore is that of the Russian Bourdan rifle.
All the cartridges are of Russian manufacture. These weapons,
which can be turned out at the rate of about 9,000 per annum, are
fairly reliable up to 500 yds. One craftsman constructs the barrels
(spirally welded strips of sheet-iron), another the locks and springs,
a third collects and browns the arms and an agent sells them, the
cheapest for £T2, the dearest for £T4. There is an excellent market
for the weapons among the neighbouring Kurds.
Shoe-making and saddlery are also important occupations.
The coinage-system and weights and measures at Suleimāniyeh
are more than usually complicated. Though it is long since the
town belonged to Persia the Persian currency has been retained, no
Turkish coin being accepted but the mejidieh. The actual coins are
the copper pul', the silver baichu' or Persian 'panj shahi' and
the ordinary 2-qran piece of Persia, here called 'tihrani'. Every.
thing is reckoned in "qamari', an imaginary coin worth 4 pul.
The 'baichu' is worth 7 pul. For larger amounts there is the
'tihrani' which is equivalent to 5 baichu and 1 pul, or 9 qamari.
Other names used are charkhi', ‘jout', 'deh para', 'ghazi ', 'qran',
and 'gran-i-rash'..
(It may be noted that in Kirkuk the baichu is called a qamari
and the tihrani a qran.)
As for weights, the local ‘huqqa' is equivalent to 21 times that
of the Stamboul oke', which is the basis throughout Asiatic
Turkey. It is also, however, 4 of the Panjurn huqqa, 4 of a Tabriz
ó man', and of the Halebjeh 'man'. It is divided into 400 dirhams,
and all fractions must be expressed in Turkish.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants are a mixture of Kurdish, Arab,


376
GAZETTEER OF TOWNS
and Turkish stock. There are said to be 100 houses of Jews and 20
of Christians who live in a separate quarter outside the town.
Kurdish is the chief language spoken, though nearly everybody
understands Persian. The dress is partly that of the Kurds, but
in costume and other matters the natives are said to be extremely
conservative. They are also suspicious and inquisitorial in their
bearing towards strangers.
Administration and Authorities.—The place is the seat of a Mutes-
sarif under Mosul. There is also a Persian consul. The usual
garrison is 4 battalions of about 400 men each (report of 1904).
See also under History
History.-The importance of the place in modern times dates
from the time of Suleiman Pasha of Baghdad. In 1779, during his
tenure of office, the government of the district, which was then ruled
by chiefs descended from a Kurdish priest called Mullah Ahmed,
was transferred to the site of the present town. A government
house and other buildings were built and the new town called
Suleimani. In 1851 Kurdish rule in Suleimāniyeh (the more modern
name of the town) came to an end with the seizure of 'Abdallah
Pasha and his brother Ahmed. Ismail Pasha, a Turk, was appointed
kaimmakam, and a garrison sent to the town.
From now onward the priests, free of the restraints imposed by
the Kurdish pashas, gradually acquired for themselves a position
which kept both governor and governed in awe. Op till 1876,
however, under Sultan Abdul Aziz, they contented themselves with
gaining a reputation for sanctity. After the Sultan's death and
the accession of Abdul Hamid, Sheikh Sa'id, the leader of the
priestly family, began a system of self-aggrandizement and enrich-
ment. This led to revolts on the part of the people who summoned
the Hamawands to expel the governor and sheikhs. The arrival of
a battalion from Kirkuk drove off the Hamawands and Sheikh Sa'id
began a campaign of open robbery, assisted by a very effective
spy-system. The merchants were the chief sufferers, many of whom
moved into Persia, as did also the fruit and vegetable cultivators
in consequence of a 300 per cent. special entry duty imposed on
every load entering the town. The ultimate object of the Sheikhs
seems to have been to make themselves practically independent.
Matters at last reached such a pass that Sheikh Sa'id was summoned,
or rather induced, to come to Mosul with some members of his
family, where he was murdered by the mob in 1909, at the age of 85.
Thereupon fresh revolts broke out in Suleimāniyeh, fomented by the
family of the sheikh who had influence both there and in Constanti.
nople, and in August 1909 the sheikhs were still predominant.








SULEIMĀNIYEH-TEKRIT
377
TEKRIT, on r. bank of the Tigris, 31 m. above Samarra by river.
Pop. possibly 5,000 ; 950 houses. Ferry.
River Route. See Route III E, m. 31.
Land Routes.
(i) To Samarra (a) along r. bank of Tigris. See Route 25 b, m. 104.
(8) L. bank, caravans appear to travel to Dar and Samarra on this
side, but there is no regular route, and no details are available.
(ii) To Hīt, *85 m. SW., a little caravan traffic; no details available.
(iii) To Mosul. See Route 25 b, m. 104.
(iv) To Kirkuk. See Route 26.
General Description.—The town is built in the form of a semi-circle
on conglomerate cliffs, which at the centre of the town rise to
a height of 50-60 ft. The frontage of the town on the river is 400 or
500 yds. The stream here has been estimated at 250 yds. wide in
October (1903), and 500-600 yds. wide in May (1910). It is shallow
on the Tekrit side. In May 1910 it was possible to wade 100 yds.
from the r. bank. The current has been estimated at 2–3 m. an hour
(1. w. season). Along the banks, where there are no bluffs, there
is a strip of cultivated land averaging & m. in width. W. of the town
there is high broken and stony ground, uncultivated. The neigh-
bourhood of Tekrit is covered with ruins of the pre-Mohammedan
city. There is a wide view over the country to S., N., and E. from
an eminence a few minutes W. of the town. Jebel Selweh, 44 m.
WNW., rises to 407 ft.
Above Tekrit the cliffs (mud and conglomerate) continue on the
r. bank. The district immediately above the town is called Qā’im.
Supplies and Commerce. -A few poor shops; sheep exported over-
land to Syria. Small local export of cereals, melons, &c. ; import of
cheap manufactured goods. The place is a centre of rafting trade
down-stream ; many raftsmen live here. Several large boats are
available, fit to carry horses, which, however, are usually swum
across the river. The wickerwork quffehs (ferry-boats) carry 10-15
men each.
Inhabitants.-Mixed Arab population; the men are largely employed
as raftsmen (some of them are settled for this purpose in Mosul).
Administration.—The place is administered by a Mudir, under the
Kaimmakam of Samarra.


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE AND LIST OF MAPS 379
(C) Maps.
Eastern Turkey in Asia Series. Scale 1:250,000. Issued by the War Office.
Corrections to W.0. maps, E.T. A. Series, nos. 26, 32, 33, 35, 36. H. G.
Hony, 1912.
Indian Degree Sheet Series. Scale 1 : 253,440. Issued by the Government of
India.
Maps in the Unofficial works given above. Of these the most important are
Map in Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergsbd. x (Černik).
Map in Petermanns Mitteilungen, lx, i, 1914 (Hinrichs).
Map in Bull. de la Société de Géogr. de Paris, vii (Huber).
Map in Oppenheim's Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf.
Maps in Sachau's Syrien und Mesopotamien.
Maps in Sarre and Herzfeld's Archäologische Reise.
Sketch-maps in Sykes's Dar ul-Islam.


TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC, PERSIAN,
AND TURKISH NAMES
An attempt has been made in the Handbook to transliterate
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish names upon a uniform system,
which is explained in detail in the following paragraphs. The
aim has been to assist the reader in their correct pronunciation,
without overburdening the text with a large number of dia-
critical marks. It will be noted that a long accent is used to
mark the length of a vowel above which it is placed (ā, I, 7, a);
the only other symbols employed are' for the consonant 'Ain,
and’ for the Hamzah, or cutting off of the breath which can
precede or follow a vowel. Conventional spellings have been
retained when sanctioned by general usage ; a list of examples,
with their correct equivalents, is given on p. 387.





TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES
381
TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND
TURKISH NAMES
ARABIC
I. Consonants
1. — (Hamzah) =’except at the beginning or end of a word, and
in common terms such as Bir and Ras, when it is omitted in
transliteration ; e.g. Ahmad, Rejā, Medā’in.
u= b j= dh bort J=1
[
o
m.n
una A (
Não com
6.
6.
s=d
we
E
II. Vowels
2. (i) – (Fet-hah) = a or e according to pronunciation, e.g.
Jebel, Qatah,
(ii) F (Fet-hah + Alif) = ā, e.g. Jemāl.
(iii) Ś (Fet-hah + final ye, rare in place-names) = \, e. g.
A'ma.
3. (i) = (Kesrah) = i, e. g. Dizfül.
(ii) .- (Kesrah + Ye) = 7, e. g. Mināb, Qasīm.


382 TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES
4. (i) – (Dhammah) = u or o according to pronunciation, e.g.
Jubb, Hodeideh.
(ii) , _ (Dhammah + wau) = ū or o according to pronunciation,
e. g. Shush, Khôr.
III. Diphthongs
5. ; – (Fet-hah + wau) = an, e.g. Haurān.
6. ; = (Fet-hah + double wau) = aww, e.g. Fawwāreh.
-7.. (Fet-hah + ye) = ei or ai according to pronunciation,
e.g. Sheikh, 'Ain.
8. - (Fet-hah + double ye) = eyy or ayy according to pronun.
ciation, e.g. Feyyādh, 'Ayyād.
IV. Remarks
9. Teshdid (-) is represented by doubling the English con-
sonant over which it stands, e. g. Mohammed, Jinn.
10. In the Definite Article (JI), spelled as usually pronounced el,
the usual assimilation of the l is made before dentals, sibilants,
and l, r, n; e.g. Süq esh-Shuyūkh, Harūn er-Rashid.
11. A Hyphen is used only in the following cases :-
(1) After the Definite Article.
(2) Between the following consonants when they belong to
different syllables, s-h, d-h, t-h, k-h, z-h, to prevent confusion with
the single consonant sh, dh, th, kh, zh ; e.g. Is-hãq.
12. Final ó (the feminine ending) = eh or ah (et or at before a
vowel), e. g. Meskeneh, Qalah, Birket esh-Shuyükh.
13. Final är = iyeh (iyet before a vowel), e.g. Zāwiyeh, Zāwiyet.
Final am = iyeh (îyet before a vowel), e. g. Nāsirīyeh.








386 ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH ALPHABETS
(6) VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS
ISH
ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH
Short
Long
— (Fet-hah) = a or e 1 (Fet-hah + Alif) = ā
= (Kesrah) =i
:- (Kesrah + Ye) = 1
- (Dhammah) = u or o , - (Dhammah + Wau)= ū or o
Diphthongs
- (Fet-hah + Ye) = ai or ei
; — (Fet-bah + Wau) = au, and also ü and ö (Turkish).





387
EXAMPLES OF CONVENTIONAL SPELLING
RETAINED
'Asir
Acre
Akka
Aden
‘Adan
Akaba Aqabah
Aleppo Halab
Alexandretta Iskandarün
Alexandria Iskandarīyeh
Algiers Al-Jazā'ir
Anazeh 'Anzah
Asir
Basra
Al-Basrah
Bedouin Badawi
Beyrout Bairūt
Cadi
Qādhi
Cairo
Al-Qāhirah
Caliph Khalifah
Damascus Dimashq
Dervish Darwish
Diarbekr Diyar Bekr
Euphrates Al-Furāt
Fakir
Faqīr
Fez
Fa's
Hejaz Hijāz
Irak
Irāq
Kaimmakam Qa'im Maqām
Kerbela Karbala
Khedive Khidiv
Koran Qur'ān
Koweit Kuwait
Mecca Makkah
Medina Al-Madinah
Meshed Mashhad
Mocha Mokhah
Moslem Muslim
Mosul Al-Maușil
Muezzin Mu'adhdhin
Muscat Masqat
Oman
“Отап
Suez
Suwais
Tangier Tunjah
Teheren Tihrān
Tripoli
Tarābulus
Vizier
Wazīr
Bb 2


GLOSSARY OF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER
TERMS
Āl (A.)
(A.) = Arabic. (T.) = Turkish. (K.) = Kurdish. (P.) = Persian.
(S.) = Syriac. (H.) = Hindustani.
Ab (P.)
Water, river.
Aba (A.) (Arab. ‘abā' or 'abā'ah) Arab cloak.
Ābād (P.)
Town, plain.
Abu (Àbũ) (A.) Father (often used, in the genitive relation, to denote
possession, &c.).
Abyadh (A.)
White.
Agha (T.)
Chief.
Agbāj (T.)
Tree.
Ahmar (A.); fem. sing. Hamrā Red.
'Ain (A.)
Spring (of water).
Tribe; Bū, in the expression Al Bū (occurring in
many tribal names), is an abbreviation of Abū
(see Abu).
Ambār (Anbār) (A.) Storehouse.
‘Ami, ‘Ama (A) Blind (used of dry stream-beds).
Aq, Aqcheh (T.) White.
Arabeh, Arāba (T.) Four-wheeled cart or carriage.
Arid (A.)
A small desert plant eaten by camels.
Arzān (P.) Millet.
Ashāghi (T.) Lower.
Ashireh (in genitive relation Ashiret) (A.) Kindred, family, tribe ; used
of the tribes paying taxation through their own
heads.
Asiyāb (P.) Water-mill.
‘Atiq (A.)
Ancient.
Av (K.)
Water, river.
Bāb (A.)
Gate.
Bādgir (A.) Wind-scoop; house ventilator.
Baghaleh
Big cargo-boat, sometimes of 200-300 tons burthen.
Bāghcheh (T.) Garden.
Bahr (A.)
Sea, lake.
Banāt (A.)
see Bint.
Bandar (P.) Port.
Bāsh (T.)
Head, summit.
Beg, Bey (T.) Title given to persons of distinction.
Beit (A.)
House.
Bel (Î.)
Pass.
Beled (A.) Town, district, country.








390 GLOSSARY OF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER TERMS
Gardān (P.) Pass.
Gavvan (P.) Small prickly shrub used for firewood.
Gechid (T.) Ford, pass.
Gedik (T.)
Pass.
Gharb (A.) West.
Gharbi (A.)
Western.
Ghi (.)
Clarified butter,
Girik (K.)
Hill.
Gök (T.)
Blue.
Göl (T.)
Lake.
Göz (T.)
Fountain; arch of bridge (lit. eye).
Gumbet (T.) Small domed shrine.
Gund (K.)
Village.
Gurmah (in genitive relation, Gurmat) (A.) Canal, channel.
Hadrah (A.) Commercial mission.
Haji (Hajji) (A.) The title assumed by a Moslem who has performed
the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Hajj (A.)
The pilgrimage to Mecca; pilgrim caravan.
Hamād (A.) Barren (region), used of the Syrian Desert.
Hammām (plur. Hammāmān) (A.) Bath.
Hamrin (A.) Red; plur. of Ahmar (q. v.).
Hāwi (A.) Used in Tigris Valley for a flat foreshore between the
river and the side of the valley.
Hisar (T.) Castle.
Howeir (A.) (Khuwair). Diminutive of Khor, q. v.
Ibn (A.)
Son.
Idhrah (A.) Mealies.
Imām (À.) Religious leader; tomb of Imām.
Imāmzādeh (A.) Tomb of Imām.
Irmak (T.)
River.
Jāmi' (A.) Friday mosque.
Jebel (A.) Hill, mountain.
Jezīreh (A.) (in genitive relation, Jezīret). Island; Mesopotamia.
Jirf (Jurf) (A.)
Jirjib (A.) Stream-bed dry in summer.
Jisr (A.)
Bridge.
Juss (A.) Gypsum; gypsum mortar.
Kaimmakam (T.) Administrator of a Kaza (q. v.).
Kani (K.) Spring, well.
Kpau (T.) Gate,
Karez (P.) Underground water-channel.





GLOSSARY OF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER TERMS 391
Kaza (T.) Turkish administrative district, subdivision of a
Sanjaq (q. v.).
Kebir (A.) Great.
Kcfr (A.) Village.
Kelek (A., &c.) Raft of beams and branches, supported on inflated
skins, of a kind used on rivers of Northern Meso-
potamia (especially the Middle Tigris).
Keli, Kel (K.)
Pass.
Kesik (T.) Broken.
Khabrah (A) Depression in which rain-water collects.
Khāchiyeh (A.) Light summer cloak.
Khān (A., P., &c.) Inn, caravanserai (spelt Khan except with names).
Khan (P.) Lord, chief.
Kharāb (A.) Ruin.
Khidhr (A.) Prophet (used of Elias and a few others).
Khirbeh (A.) (pronounced Khărbeh, in genitive relation, Khirbet.) Ruin.
Khor (A.) Sheet of water, bay, inlet, marsh; also used by
Bedouins to denote salt-encrusted ground.
Kilisseh (T.) - Church.
Kināseh, Kunāseh (A.) Shoal or sandbank.
Kirk (T.)
40, numerous.
Köi (T.)
Village.
Köprü (T.)
Bridge.
Küchük (T.) Little.
Kūh (P.)
Mountain.
Kūt (A.)
Kutal (Kotal) (P.) Col.
Fort.
Mā, often pronounced Moi (A.). Water.
Ma'den (T.) Metal, mine.
Maheileh (A.) River sailing-craft of large size used in Irak.
Maidān (A.) Open space, plain.
Malik (A.)
King, chief.
Mamur
Turkish subordinate departmental official.
Mār (S.)
Lord, master.
Māsh
A kind of vetch or pea.
Mashhūf (A.) A light reed or plank canoe covered with bitumen
used on the marshes of Southern Irak.
Mazār (A.) Shrine.
Medineh (A.) (plural, Medā’in). City.
Merkez (A.) Head-quarters.
Mezjid (A.) Place of prayer; small mosque.
Mudir (T.) Administrator of a Nahiye (q. v.),


392 GLOSSARY OF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER TERMS
Mujtahid (A., &c.) Shiah religious authority.
Mutessarif (Mutesarrif) (T.) Administrator of a Sanjaq (q. v.).
Nahiye (Nāhīyeh) (T.) Turkish administrative district, subdivision of
a Kaza (q. v.).
Nahr (A.)
River, canal.
Naqib (A.) Leader, head of community, local head of Seyyids
(q.v.).
Naqībzādeh (A.) Son of a naqīb.
Naur (Nā'ūr) (A.) Water-wheel, used in irrigation.
Nizam (T.) Turkish regular troops.
Nullah H.) Water-course.
Nuqtah (A.) Police post.
Pā (P.)
Foot.
Pir (P.)
Old.
Pul (P.)
Bridge.
Punār (T.) Spring.
Qabr (A.)
Tomb.
Qal'ah (in genitive relation, qalʼat) (A.) Fort.
Qanāt (Qanāh, plur. qanawāt) (A.) Canal, water-channel, subterranean
conduit.
Qanātir (A.) see Qantareh.
Qantareh (plur. qanātīr) (A.) Bridge.
Qara (T.)
Black, great.
Qasr (A.)
Palace, castle, fortress, walled village.
Qishlāq (A., &c.) Barracks.
Qubbeh (A.) Dome, cupola ; small domed shrine.
Quffeh (A.) Coracle used on rivers of Central Mesopotamia.
Quru (T.)
Dry.
Qūyū (T.) Spring, well.
Rais (Ra’īs) (A., &c.) Chief.
Ras (Ra's) (A.) Head, promontory.
Rayah.
Subject; used to denote that part of the population of
the Turkish Empire which pays taxes direct to the
Imperial Government (cp. Ashireh, above).
Reāl (A. Riyāl) The Maria Theresa dollar, worth about 2s. These coins,
though still being minted, all bear the date 1788.
They are the usual medium of circulation in Arabia.
Redif (A.) Turkish reserve force.
Resh (K.)
Black,
Ribāt (P.)
Inn, caravanserai.
Rūdbār (Rubar) (K.) River.


394 GLOSSARY OF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER TERMS
Tezek
Tibbin (Tibn)
Tulūl (A.)
Tura (Tur) (S.)
Umm (A.)
Veiran (T.)
Vilayet (T.)
Wādi (A.)
Cow or other dung used for fuel.
Straw.
Plural of Tel (q.v.).
Mountain.
Mother (used, in genitive relation, to denote pos-
session).
Ruined, ruin.
Province of Turkish Empire, under a Vali.
Water-course, bed of stream, river-valley (spelt wadi
except with names).
Property held (actually or nominally) in trust for
religious purposes.
Chief minister or ruler.
Waqf (A.)
Wazir (A.)
Yāilā (T.)
Yeni (T.)
Yuqāri (T.)
Zaptieh (T.)
Ziyāret (P. &c.)
Zozan (K.)
Summer pasture-grounds.
New.
Upper.
Member of armed police force.
Pilgrimage, place of pilgrimage, sanctuary, usually a
tomb.
Summer pastures.


396
APPENDIX
THE EUPHRATES AND CONNEXIONS BETWEEN THE EUPHRATES AND
BAGHDAD
(Compare Routes IV E-H.)
(i) The following are estimated normal times for native craft
(shakhtūrs) descending the Euphrates from Meskeneh to
Fellūjeh :-
March-June: 6 days
July-February : 12 days
A Turkish prisoner seems to have taken 15 days on the
journey in January 1916.
It is rumoured that metal rafts are to be used on the Euphrates.
(ii) There are now (1916) stores of petroleum at Hit, and depôts of
supplies at Anah and Deir ez-Zor. Compare Gazetteer of Towns,
pp. 351-352, 353-354, 356-357.
iii) Grain is reported to be sent from Deir to Ridhwāniyeh (see vol. ii,
Route IV D) by a small launch with barge. Ridhwāniyeh is
the western terminus of the Decauville railway from the
Euphrates to Baghdad via Abu Thubbah and Tel Aswad (see
vol. ii, Appendix).
(iv) It is reported that in 1916 motor-boats were sent from Baghdad
to the Euphrates through the Saqlāwiyeh Canal (see Route IVE,
m. 8).
ROUTES FROM KHANIKIN AND QASR-I-SHIRIN TO
SULEIMANIYEH AND HALEBJEH. (Soane, 1911-13.)
Khanikin
(i) KHANIKIN-SULEIMĀNIYEH
Via HÃūsh KURI AND HALEBJEH.
Passable for wheels to Hāūsh Kuri. Caravans frequently use
whole route.
Miles from
Khanikin. General direction to Hāūsh Kuri N. : quite
flat. Water en route only from villages off road. Fodder,
sometimes from district of Ben Kudra, on Turkish side of
frontier-towers and fort passed at m. 13.
Hāūsh Kuri, on stony ground under low peaked hill. Water
from spring and stream. Very little supplies.
From here route proceeds up Sirwan (Diyaleh) River:
tracks marked on both banks, but no information as to
their nature except that they are well used.











402
INDEX
Bālādöz, see Beledrūz Bāzī Darāz, 188
Balakyan hill, 285
Bāzī Darāz range, 188
Balassān, 270, 271
Baziyan, 243
Balijeh, 119
Baziyan pass, 15, 242-
Balijeh mound, 300
244, 246, 350
Bālis ruins, 140
Baziyan valley, 243, 244,
Balka, 228
246
Bamabal, 240
Bazkadraih plain, 239
Banah, 16, 241, 251, 257, | Bazmusian, 251
261, 375
Ba Zuwayeh, 279, 286
Banān, 100, 101
Bean, 359, 364
Band-i-Adheim, 145 Bebejek, 243
Banejaj, 261
Bedouins, 95, 323, 326,
Banīyeh, 32
338, 345, 362
Bankan, 211
Begil, 281
Ban Sandug, 212
Begil ravine, 282
Ban Sanduq hills, 211, Beiji, 50
212
Beirisiyão, 370
Baqli, 263
Beit el-Khalīfeh, 43, 373
Bāqübeh, 15, 33, 142-144, Beit Nawāb, 24
147, 182, 183, 185, 207, Beit Sa'ādeh, 102
209
Bejān pass, 269, 270
Baradost, 370
Bejān Qal'ah, 270
Bārak, 370
Beled, 20, 32, 168, 172
Barbalissus, see Bālis Beledrūz, 15, 184, 194,
Barda Resh, 278, 279
197, 207
Barda Resh Walad, 280 Beledrūz canal, 197
Barda Resh Yunus, 280 Beled Sinjar, 13, 314
Bari pass, see Shillo pass Belikh R., 9, 11, 94, 137,
Bārij I., 108
302
Bārij rapid, 108
Belum, 124
Barley, 20, 21, 94, 169, Benāwi, 270, 272
183, 298, 351, 352, 355, Beni Amām, 111
358, 359, 364
Beni Amām I., 110
Barqeh I., 20, 34
Beni Dāghir, 106
Barudar, 236, 239
Beni Hindawin, 369
Ba'rūreh tract, 19, 32, Beni Tamīm tribe, 23
34
Berawa, 271
Bārzīn, 282
Bereliyeh, 128
Bas, 101
Berkhoused, 274
Basheikha, 286
Berwān I. and village,
Bashīrīyeh, 179
107
Bāsh Qal'ah, 69
Beshīr, 260
Bāsh Tepeh, 164
Beshir Su, 260
Bastoreh Chai, 69, 262, Betwata, 271, 272
265, 268, 286
Bevrān, 260
Bātās, 264, 267, 268, 283 Bevrăn Su, 260
Bataweh, 160
Bevrān-i-Zirū, 260
Bāwa Shāh Suwār, 370 Bibaneh Kebir, 161
Bāweh Dāgh, 211
Bibaneh Zardak, 161
Bāweh Palāu, 210
Bibaneh Zughair, 161
Bāwiyeh, 267
Bihif plain, 238
Bayeva, 238
Bila Su, 270
Bāzai gorge, 280 | Bilalij spring, 175
Bilavar, 235
Bimánsū Chai, 237, 238,
240
Bina, 246
Binavasuta, 238
Binavasuta R., 238
Binieh, 126
Bint Hasan, 144
Bir Abu Daruk, 340
Bir Abu'l Hayāyeh, 337
Bir el-Amiri, 343
Bīr el-Buseiri, 3351
Bir el-Quteibeh, 332
Bīr Hellān, 279
Bīr Qabāqib, 331, 332
Bīr Sakr, 335
Bīr Zobeideh, 335, 337
Bireh Kafra, 69, 281
Birijik, 93, 138, 140, 352,
354
Birinji Chai, 163
Birket Senbín, 329
Birtulla, 167
Bisāt, 43-45
Bisereriyeh, 80
Bishkireh rapids, 112
Bistan, 241
Bitumen, 62, 357
Boat-building, 357
Bogrus, 124
Bogut, 252
Boksin, 258
Boraka, 256
Botmal, 83
Bozār I., see Sariyāfi I.
Bugheidid, 340
Bū Kemāl tribe, 95
Bukh-rasul Ziyāret, 221
Bulkhah Jura, 233
Burairideh, 127
Buraish, 256
Bureihah, 127
Burt Khra, 274
Burzungeh, 274
Buseireh, 127, 299, 301
Bustān, 125, 300
Buweitir I., 130
Buyuk Soura, 245
Calah, 60, 71
Callīnicum, 368
Camel, 13, 17, 94, 182,
183, 194, 326, 364





INDEX
403
D
Su
Camel-thorn, 41, 168, 1 290, 299, 312, 354, 355,
289, 299
364, 368
Canals, 21, 22
Cattle, 22, 215, 232, 247
Chadcherin, 86
Dahli Bisman, 256
Chahala cliffs, 63
Dahri Rocks, 49
Chailasura, 251
Dahuk, 156, 157
Chair, 85
Dahuk' Chai, 155
Chalau Khurik, 213 Dalaran, 273
Chalbaca Kūh, 204
Damascus, 17, 292, 325,
Chaldaean Christians, 329, 331, 336-338
353, 359, 361, 365, 366, Danavishk Mt., 189
375
Daqiqeh, 314
Chaldāri, 23
Dār, 229, 230
Cham-i-Khalīfān, 283 Darabikush Chai, 69
Cham-i-Surkh, 200 Daraj, 271
Charăwa Su, see Waz Darakasab, 285
neh R.
Darakasab pass, 284
Chardakli, 159
Daraman el-'Aliyeh, 161
Charmilleh, 203
Daraman es-Sifieh, 161
Chasmeh-i-Zarneh, 202
Darăwīsh I., 19, 20, 172
Chechepan R., see Kufri Darbarberu, 247
Darb el-Wāwi, 132
Chedish I., 119
Darb Zobeidah, 327
Chemala, 243
D'Arcy Oil Company, 194
Chemchemal, 15, 89, 156, Dar-i-Barū, see Shāh Kūh
242-244, 246
Darkhāneh R., 220
Chemen Köprü, 150 Dartut, 246
Chenimassi, 219
Darwanjik, 210
Chenimassir, 228
Date, 20, 41, 205, 352,
Cherkuchan, 164
358, 364, 370
Chewashun, 252
Dāūdiyeh, 25
Chiah Surkh, 15
Dāūdiyeh tract, 25
Chiazarin plain, 223 Dawwarin canal, 300
Chiazarin R., 224
Debusi, 314
Childāyeh, 23
Defteh, 214, 215
Chiler R.: see Sūrāb R. Degā reh, 263
Chillav, 203
Deh Bālā, 203
Chinchal Dereh, 149 Deir 'Atīyeh, 338
Chiwa, 271, 273
Deir Borusa, 287
Cholera, 363
Deir ez-Zor, 13, 17, 92,
Choprījeh, 160
120, 128, 295, 296, 299,
Christians, 14, 354, 365, 301, 308, 311, 317, 331–
368, 369, 376
333, 353
Circesium, 127, 301
Deir Gezin, 243
Clover, 210
Deir Hafir, 288, 297, 298
Coal, 371
Deireh Harir : see Harir
Corn, 41, 169, 290, 360 Deireh Harīr Nahiye, 370
Cotton, 359
Deis I., 110
Ctesi phon, 373
Dekkeh, 211, 214
Cucumber, 359, 361, 364
Dellayeh, 306
Cultivation, 17, 20, 22, | Delli Abbās, 15, 142, 143,
41, 79, 94, 183, 208, 147
209, 232, 236, 257, 289, | Deltāweh, 29, 372
Demīr Qāpū defile, 145
Dera, 269, 274
Derāwish, 286
Derban, 179, 181
Derbend, 256, 258, 262
Derbend 'Ali Bey, 272
Derbend-i-Kalāja pass,
203
Derbend Sefin, 265
Derbend Soraq, 266, 268
Derīyeh rapids, 116
Dermanau, 87
Derwīshi, 279
Desht-i-Balassāni, 279
Diár, 160
Diarbekr, 361
Dibsi, 140
Dibsi tower, 140, 303
Dighāreh reach, 29
Dilaim tribe, 23, 94
Dīrā plain, 188
Dircheh, 82
Dishar, 234
Dithakra, 81
Diyāleh ferry, 195, 210,
211
Diyāleh R., 9, 15, 21, 33,
143, 147, 183, 184, 187,
195, 206, 208, 209, 214-
216, 227, 247
Diyāleh, Upper, see Ab-i-
Shirwan
Diyyeh, 237
Dizeih Kurds, 355
Doghur Khān, 256
Dojmeh tract, 29
Dokheileh, 27, 145
Dolan, 226
Dolar Sazeh, 164
Donguzāweh, 265
Donkey, 182, 183, 232,
236, 242, 264
Dostak, 280
Dowāliyeh I., 104
Dubardan, 286
Dubulu, 310
Dujeil, see Sumeikeh
Dujeil canal, 21, 22, 34,
36, 171, 172
Du Kani : see Dukhan
Dukhan, 15, 246, 250,
252, 255
Dukhan ferry, 247, 250,
252
Cc 2








408
INDEX
Kānisark, 314
Khăn el-Bir, 184
Khirbet el-Baghleh : see
Kāni Zerdek, 280
Khān el-Kharnīneh, 50, Khirbet ed-Daulaieh
Karan, 202
174
Khirbet el-Fărih ez-
Karind, 192, 204
Khān el-Khuleilat, 334 Zeireh, 339
Kariz, 190
Khān el-Libn, 336
Khirbet el-Hanūreh, 348
Karkisīyeh, 127
Khān en-Neft, 160, 161 Khirbet el-Khanzīr, 340
Karwātāneh, 267
Khān es-Safineh, 29 Khirbet el-Majūs, 340
Kāsbegi, 252
Khān Feheimeh, 112, 293 Khirbet el-Matrān, 340
Kasha Mt., 237
Khăn Hangia, 160
Khirbet el-Qa'ah, 348
Kashawul canal, 212 Khān-i-Badran, 144 Khirbet Euboulia, 347
Kashmiris, 373
Khān-i-Batman, 270, 283 Khirbet Hadawi, 302
Kasikhân, 164
Khān-i-Leileh, 88
Khirbet Seyyid Kleb,
Kasubi, 132
Khān-i-Leileh Dāgh, 88 312
Katneh, 127
Khăn i-Mirãn, 248, 252 Khirbet Suhah, 340
Kaupich, 261
Khān Jāriyeh, 242, 245 Khiskhur, 316
Kawazi, 210
Khānj Kalasi : see Qal'at Khorāsābād, 15, 192,
Kazābāshi, 351
Salāhiyeh
205
Kazimain, 22, 169, 170, Khān Lubgilleh, 308, 309 Khorāsān canal, 206
305, 307, 373
Khān Meshāhidiyeh, 24, Khór Chai : see Qara 'Ali
Kdiran, 303
170
Chai
Kebalish, 314
Khān Mizräqji, 35
Khor et-Tanj, 328
Kebeiseh, 326
Khān Nahrawăn, 142,
Khör Jedeideh, 21, 25
Kebir Faraj, 307
145, 169, 372
Kbör Reshidiyeh, 21, 25
Kelebasha, 164
Khān Sāwiyeh, 35
Khör Tarmiyeh, 26, 170
Kelek Khăn Dereh, 255, Khān Seyyid, 143
Khubazi, 315
256
Khānābi, 15, 252
Khudrān, 256, 257
Kerableh I., 114, 115, Khandida Is., 52, 53 Khudrān R., 247, 251,
299
Khāneh, 89
253, 255, 271-273
Keremlis, 167
Khanh Khân, 249
Khunāsareh, 343
Kerkur Dāgh, 258
Khanihalujeh, 261 Khurkhur, 86
Kerneh I., 110
Khanikhur, 285
Khusruābād, 194
Keshān Dereh, 269, 271 Khanikin, 15, 182, 189, Khuweimāt, 328
Khabbīteh, 65
206, 210, 215, 357 Ki Bibaneh, 161
Khabûr R., 9, 11, 13, 121, Khanjiru R., 229, 243, Kimseh, 239, 240
124, 127, 299, 301, 311, 247
Kinjari, 258
312, 315, 317-320, 322, Khanūqah, 133
Kirkuk, 11, 12, 14, 15,
353
Kbār Ābdár, 259
74, 89, 142, 145, 153,
Khadheireh tract, 28 Kharābeh, 252
156-159, 179, 241-245,
Khafajeh, 140
Kharaju, 258
254, 358, 375
Khaglistán, 235
Khasradalah, 152
Kirkuk Chai, 245
Khailāki, 280
Khata, 271, 273
Kirkuk sanjag, 356, 369
Khalifān, 283
Khātūniyeh, 318
Kirkusmuk, 252
Khalifān gorge, 16
Khātūniyeh L., 318 Kirmanshah, 15, 16, 182,
Khalifān R., 279, 283, Khawājeh es-Sūseh Is., 193, 194, 205, 234-
284
110
236
Khalkalan ranges, 243 Kherāleh Tepeh, 314 Kirsa Chai, 179
Khamīsīyeh ferry, 132 Kherenao Dāgh, 254 Kissa Chai: see Kirkuk
Khān Abu esh-Shāmeh, Khirbet ‘Annazi, 344
Chai
329, 336
Khirbet ed-Dāhireh, 348 | Kitkeh, 162
Khān Baghdādiyeh, 100, | Khirbet ed-Daulaien, Kodareh, 213
102, 292
308
Kohaz, 212
Khān Beni Sa'id, 184 Khirbet ed-Dukhujeh, Köi Sanjay, 15, 16, 161,
Khăn Dhulū‘iyeh, 31, 33 | 302
252, 254-256, 259, 264,
Khān el-Baghleh, 309 | Khirbet el-'Abd, 340 , 273, 360


INDEX
413
Ser Decht, 16, 257, 259, 1 Sheikh Ibrāhīm's tomb, | Siffin district (near
260
171
Qishlāq Sabkhah), 136
Serenel, 259
Sheikh Ibrāhīm, 342 Siffin ruins (near Abu
Sergiopolis, 339
Sheikh Jābir shrine, 294 Hureireh), 138
Ser-i-Ab, 192, 193
Sheikh Jemil shrine, Sifweh, 33, 209
Ser-i-Āb-Nilnfar, 193
26
Sikr Sultan rocks, 116
Serianeh : see Serīyeh Sheikh Juneid, 344
Siktan, 273
Ser-i-Pul, 189, 191, 203 Sheikh Mahmudiyeh,267 Silat eth-Thedeyein, 339
Seriyeh, 338, 339, 343 Sheikh Mutti, 286
Simānah rock, 118
Serkupkan Su, 255, 273 Sheikh Qudr, shrine of, Simlet en-Na'am, 341
Setal Dereh, 158
326
Sindiyeh, 20, 29, 33
Seyyid Hāmid, 71
Sheikh Sā'id, 217, 218, Sinjar Mts.i see Jebel
Seyyid Khatil, 191
376
Sinjar
Seyyid Mohammed Sheikh Saleh, 323
Sinn Yehūdiyeh, 45
mosque, 32
Sheikh Sleb, 320
Sinthabaneh hills, 291
Shāh Kūh, 188
Sheitāneh, 86, 281 Sirsyān, 256
Shahrabān, 148, 186 Shekiyeh, 347
Sirvan R., 232, 234
Shaitapaneh, 212
Shemamlik, 67, 356 Sīsāweh, 267
Shajarat Miriam spring,
Shemsdinan, 368
Siv Sufleh, 238
296
Shemsiyat, 77
Skins, 375
Shakhlawa, 17, 264-266, Shems Serdaul, 87
Sofeiriyeh, 52
268, 270, 281
Sherbeh, 84
Solaq Chai, 314
Shakhlawa pass, 265 Shereimiyeh, 50, 52, 174 Spīlik pass, 283
Shaki, 218
Sherghat : see Qal'ah Steih, 307
Shalīābād, 235
Sherghat
Su'eib Semhān, 328
Shalmatti : see Shlamatte Sher'iāt Ba'ājehford, Sueru, 261
Sbamagheh, 82
319
Suez Canal, 364
Shamaskin Dagh, 159 Sherīyet el-Hamzeh, 174 Sufeil tract, 28, 30
Shāmiyeh, 94
Sherwein I., 116
Suhānīyeh, 148
Shammār tribe, 23, 42, Shiahs, 23, 95, 359, 372– Suj Bulaq, 260, 368, 374
94, 168, 321, 323, 374
Sukhneh, 333, 342
326
Shiblik tombs, 124 Suleiman Pasha, 376
Shapur II, 360
Shīleh, 254, 264
Suleiman Shah : see Zi-
Sharvat Su, 258
Shillo, 317
yāret Sultān Selim
Shatarli, 160
Shillo pass, 13, 317 Suleimāniyeh, 15, 16, 74,
Shatt el-Jidr, 57
Shināweh, 267
153, 228, 229, 232, 236,
Shaughir, 88
Shirinjeh Balaq, 157
237, 239, 240, 241, 243,
Shawāq, 265
Shirushi Chai, 258
245, 246, 247, 251, 252,
Shedādi, 13, 311, 315, Shirwān, 370
255, 350, 361, 374
319, 320
Shirwāneh hills, 213 Sultān 'Abdallah shrine,
Sheep, 22, 94, 214, 229, Shisrā pass, 190
40, 65, 300
232, 242, 247, 290, 352, Shlamatte, 259
Sultan Abdul Aziz, 376
354, 364, 370, 377 Shoraweh, 155
Sultan Selim, 366
Shehādi I., 119
Shuan country, 242 Sumbulak mt., 191
Shehr Habīb, 207
Shuan Dāgh, 159
Sumeikeh, 20, 36, 168,171
Sheibighah : see Habbein Shuan Kurds, 246, 254 Sunnis, 23, 352, 354, 357,
Gharbi
Shu'eib ed-Dufeini, 332 359, 365
Sheikhān, 164
Shumeit, 78
Sûq Abu Leban, 304
Sheikh Arūd, 354
Shumrīyeh, 347
Sūrāb R., 240, 241
Sheikh 'Attār, 239
Shura, 176, 177
Surdash, 246, 249
Sheikh el-Abyadh, 83 Shuweisīyeh, 267. Suriyeh, 138
Sheikh Hadid, 108
Siah Chaga, 192
Surkhadiza Khān, 191
Sheikh Hasan, 210
Sianmeh, 261
Sursureh, 267
Sheikh Hasan I., 105 Sidd Nimrūd, 34
Su Sai, 248