ΟΣΤΟΙ U23338004 VETYS TESTA NOWMIMI NTVM Whe ZESVB NUMINE-VIGE PRINCETON UNIVERSITY LIBRARY CONFIDENTIAL This book is the property of H. M. Government. It is intended for the use of officers generally, and may in certain cases be communicated to persons in H. M. Service below the rank of commissioned officer who may require to be acquainted with its contents in the course of their duties. The officers exercising this power will be held responsible that such information is imparted with due caution and reserve. Confidential. Attention is called to the penalties attaching to any infraction of the Official Secrets Act. A HANDBOOK OF MESOPOTAMIA VOLUME IV NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA AND CENTRAL KURDISTAN Prepared on behalf of the Admiralty and the War Office ADMIRALTY WAR STAFF INTELLIGENCE DIVISION (C.B. 296.) April, 1917 ۷۰ 4 ,. . . دراو / / س حمار NOTE Mesopotamia is treated in four volumes. The first volume contains matter of a general nature. The other volumes are devoted to the detailed description of the river and land routes. The second volume covers the regions of the Shatt el-'Arab, Kārūn, and Luristan, and of the Tigris and Euphrates up to Baghdad and Fellūjeh. To the third volume are assigned the Tigris and Euphrates from Baghdad and Fellūjeh to Mosul and Meskeneh, the Lesser Zāb, the country East of the Tigris towards the Persian frontier, and the routes running westward from the Euphrates valley across the Syrian Desert. The fourth volume treats of the country North of the line joining Rowanduz, Mosul, Meskeneh, and Aleppo up to Van, Bitlis, Diarbekr, and Mar'ash. All estimates of mileage must be considered as approximate only. In most cases they are based on the rough calculations of travellers, or on the times given by travellers, or on sketch-maps or incomplete surveys. The question-marks placed beside some of the figures indicate that these are peculiarly doubtful: it is not implied that other figures may be regarded as exact. It is necessary to emphasize the fact that in the circumstances the information given cannot be complete, and that conditions are con- stantly undergoing change. The Admiralty will be glad to receive corrections and additions. Maps to accompany these volumes will be issued separately. i ABBREVIATIONS In the itineraries the following abbreviations and conventional signs may be noted :- r. = right. l. = left. h.w. = high water. l.w. = low water. I. = Island. T.L. = telegraph line. T.0. = telegraph office. P.0. = post office. m. = miles. The following signs are used to distinguish distance :-* by river ; + by road or track ; " crow-fly. Distances are given throughout in statute miles. Alt. = altitude, which is given in feet above sea level unless other. wise stated. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION. THE ROUTE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL KURDISTAN, NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA, THE PLAIN OF DIARBEKR, AND THE UPPER EUPHRATES VALLEY AND COUNTRY WEST THEREOF . 13 ITINERARIES RIVER ROUTES ROUTE The Tigris. III G. DIARBEKR--MOSUL. . . . . . . . . 34 The Euphrates. IVI. BIRIJIK_MESKENEH . . . . . . . 66 LAND ROUTES Central Kurdistan. 60 a. RANIYEH-URMIA . 60 b. RANIYEH-EL WATAN (via SER DESHT) . . 60 с. CHIANEH-URMIA (via USHNU) . 61 a. ROWANDUZ-URMIA (via NERI AND Dizeh). 61 b. DizEH_URMIA (via MARBISHU DISTRICT) 61 c. ROWANDUZ-URMIA (via KELISHIN PASS AND Ushnu) 61 d. RowANDUZ-SŪJ BULĀQ . . . . . . . 62 a. ROWANDUZ-AMADIYEH. 62 b. AMADIYEH-ORAMAR (via LATKEH AND SURIN). . 63 a. NERI-KOCHANNES (via ORAMAR). 63 b. ORAMAR-DIZEH 64. Dizen-KOCHANNES (via GAGARRAN AND SHAWUTHA) DIZEH-Básh QAL'AH . 66 a. URMIA-DILMAN . . 66 b. URMIA-QOTUR. 67 a. MOSUL-AMADIYEH (via BA IDRI AND SHEIKH ADI). 67 b. MOSUL-AMADIYEH (via DOHUK). 68 a. AMADIYEH-JULĀMERK (via DEIR MARSOVA) 68 b. AMADIYEH-JULĀMERK (via LIZĀN) 69. JULĀMERK --BĀSH QAL'AH . 70. JULĀMERK-KOCHANNES. .. 71 a. KOCHANNES-BĀSH QAL'AH . . . . . . 71 b. KOCHANNES-HAREFTA DĀGH. . . . . . 104 108 112 113 114 117. 118 119 139 143 144 . . 146 CONTENTS 159 161 174 185 ROUTE PAGE 72. KOCHANNES-VAN (via SEKUNIS AND QASRIQ) . . 147 73. SEKUNIS-Bāsu QAL'AH . . . . 151 74 a. BASH MALAH-VAN (tia CHUKH AND KHOSHAB). . 153 74 b. BĀSh QAL'AH-KuosHĀB (via Tozo GEDIK). . 157 75. Bási QAL'AH-DILMAN (via NERZINGI AND KHĀN-I-SŪR) DILMAN-Van (via Khoi, QOTUR, RĀZI, AND ARCHAG) 76 b. RĂZI-VAN (via SEIVĀN). .: .: • • • 165 77. NERZINGI - SERAI (via QARA HISĀR DĀgh). 166 78. KHOSHĀB - SERAI . 167 79. AMADIYEH - Van (via THE KHABŪR SU AND MARWĀNEN). 170 80. JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-SHATTAKH (via SHERNAKH AND KHU- MARA). 81 a. SHATTAKH--VAN (via GURANDESHT) . 81 b. SHATTAKH-VAN (via PESAN DESHT AND VOSTAN) . . 187 82. MAIDAN JĀSŪS - Shiv SHALIL . 83. MARWĀNEN - SHATTAKH . . 189 84. SHERNAKH GEDIK -SAIRT .. 85. JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-BITLIS (via SAIRT EL-QUR'ĀNI) 192 86 a. SAIRT-BITLIS (via CHEMI KHĀN AND DUKHĀN). 200 86 b. SAIRT- BITLIS (via THE ARGIF KÖPRU) . 202 86 c. SAIRT - BITLIS (ria KIFRA AND OLEK). . 204 87 a. SAIRT-VAN (via THE SHIRWAN DISTRICT, MUKU PENDAGANZ) 205 87 b. SAIRT – VAN (via QARA SU AND PELO) 210 88. MUKUS - BITLIS .. 215 89 a. BITLIS - VAN (via S. SHORE OF LAKE VAN): : 218 89 b. BITLIS-SHAMUNIS (via KHOTUM). . . . 224 188 .190 RI AT AND Routes between Mosul and Diarbekr, 90 a, b. MOSUL- JEZIRET-IBN-OMAR (GENERAL NOTE) 226 90 a. Mosul- JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR (via ZAKHO) . . . . 227 90 b. MOSUL--JEZIRET-IBN-OMAR (via FEISHKHABUR), 238 90 с. AMADIYEH – FEISHKHABUR (via ZAKHO) 240 90 d. FEISHKHABUR- NISIBIN . . 243 91. Mosul-NISIBIN (via ESKI MOSUL AND TEL RUMELAN) 244 92 a. MOSUL-NISIBIN (via BELED SINJAR) . . . . 250 92 b. MOSUL- NISIBIN (via BEKRĀN AND SAMUKHA) . . 93 a, b. JEZIRET-IBN-OMAR-NISIBIN (GENERAL NOTE) . . 260 93 a. JEZĪRET-IBN-'OMAR- NISIBIN (NORTHERN ROUTE via NARINJA) . 261 93 b. JEZĪRET-IBN-'OMAR - NISIBIN (SOUTHERN ROUTE, ria AZNAIR AND DEIRUN) , 264 94. NISIBIN-MARDİN . 268 95 a. MARDİN-DIARBEKR (ria KHĀNEKI) 270 95 b. MARDIN-DIARBEKR (via AVINEH AND QIRQ) 272 95 c. MARDİN-DIARBEKR (via DEREK) . . . . . 275 258 CONTENTS PAGE 287 292 ROUTE 96 a. JEZIRET-IBN-OMAR-MIDIAT. IAT:. . : : . 96 b. JEZĪRET-IBN-'OMAR-AZEKH (via FINUK FERRY). 279 97 a. NISIBIN-MIDIAT (via THE VALLEY OF THE JAGHJAGHA). 279 97 b. NISIBIN -- MIDIAT (via SHOBAN) . 281 97 c. NISIBIN-MIDIAT (via DARA) . . . . . 281 98 a. MIDIAT-MARDİN NORTHERN MAIN ROUTE via APSHI) 283 98 b. MIDIAT- MARDİN (SOUTHERN ROUTE via YEZDI) 285 MIDIAT-HASAN KAIF . 100. MARDİN-HASAN KAIF (via KULLITI). 288 101. MIDIAT - DIARBEKR (via KULLITH) . . . 290 Routes between the Plain of Diarbekr and the Mountains to North and West. 102 a. DIARBEKR-SAIRT (via Hop). 102 b. DIARBEKR--SAIRT (via RIDUwĀN AND THE NASR ED-Din KÖPRÜ 300 103 a. DIARBEKR – ZIYĀRET WÄ'IZ EL-QUR ZOKH) . . . 302 103 b. DIARBEKR – Zoku (via THE DESHT-I-KERI). . . 308 DIARBEKR-LIJJEH. . 309 105. BATMAN BRIDGE-LIJJEH 310 106. FARQİN - LIJJEH . 312 107. DIARBEKR-HAINI . . 314 DIARBEKR-PIRĀN. . 315 109. DIARBEKR -- ARGHANA MA'DEN . 316 110. DIARBEKR-CHERMUK . 111 a. SEVEREK-CHERMUK (ria AGHAJ KHĀN) . . 111 b. SEVEREK -- CHERMUK (via Sola KHÃN) 321 112 a, b. ACROSS THE EASTERN TAURUS BETWEEN THE REGION OF DIARBEKR AND THE MURĀD VALLEY . . . . 322 AND 104. 108. 319 320 335 Routes between the line Diarbekr-Mardin and the Euphrates. 113. BIRIJIK-DIARBEKR (via HOVEK AND SEVEREK) 324 114. SEVEREK-GERGER . . . . . . . . . . . 329 115. RŪM QAL'AH - SEVEREK . 330 116 a. VEIRĀN SHEHR-MARDİN (via DEREK). . 333 116 b. VEIRĀN SHEHR-MARDİN (via TEL ERMEN). 116 c. VEIRĀN SHEHR-MARDİN (via MESHQÜQ AND HERZEM) 336 117 a, b, c. VEIRĀN SHEHR-DIARBEKR (GENERAL NOTE) . 337 117 a. VeIRAN SHEHR-DIARBEKR (BETWEEN THE MAZI DĀGH AND QARAJEH DAGH). . . . . . 337 117 b. VEIRAN SHEHR- DIARBEKR (via KERMEH AND ORTA VEIRĀN) 338 117 c. VEIRĀN SHEAR-DIARBEKR (via AQHIRLI) . . . 339 118. URFEH-VEIRAN SHEHR . . . . . . 342 119. SEVEREK – VEIRAN SHEHR . . . . . 345 120 a. URFEH-SEVEREK (via QARA JÜREN) . . . . . 348 120 b. URFEH-SEVEREK (via ANZELEH) . . . . . . 348 10 CONTENTS . . . . ROUTE 121. URFEH-SAMSAT . . . . . 122. URFEH-KILLIK 123 a. BIRIJIK-URFEH (via CHAR MELIK) . A) . 123 b. BIRIJIK-URFEH (via SERŪJ). . 124. URFEH-TEL AHMAR · · · PAGE . 350 . 350 . 351 . 353 . 356 . . . Interior of Northern Jezīreh, West of the Jaghjagha Su. 125. DEIR EZ-ZOR-NISIBIN (via THE JAGHJAGHA SU) 357 126. MARDİN-RAS EL-AIN . . . . . . 359 127. DEREK--RAS EL-AIN . 361 128. VEIRĀN SHEHR-RAS EL-AIN 362 129 a. HARRĀN-RAS EL-AIN . 363 129 b. JERABLŪS-HARRĀN . . . 364 130. URFEH-HARRĀN . 366 131. SHEDĀDI-HARRĀN. . . 369 132 a. RAQQAH-HARRĀN (via THE E. BANK OF THE BELIKH : 369 132 b. RAQQAH--HARRĀN (via THE W. BANK OF THE BELIKH) . 371 154. 377 380 382 .... . : The Euphrates Valley and Country West thereof. 133. MESKENEH-BIRIJIK (via THE L. BANK OF THE EUPHRATES) 375 QAL'AT EN-NEJM-BIRIJIK (via THE R. BANK OF THE EUPHRATES) . . 135. BIRIJIK --RŪM QAL'AH (via THE L. BANK OF THE EUPHRATES) 380 136. MESKENEH --ALEPPO .. 137. ALEPPO-TEL AHMAR (via EL-BĀB AND MEMBIJ) . . 138. MEMBIJ – QAL'AT EN-NEJM . . 384 139. ALEPPO-BIRIJIK (via AKHTERIN) 384 140. TEL AHMAR-ZAMBUR (via THE SAJUR VALLEY) .. 386 141 a. KILLIS-JERABLŪS . 388 141 b. JERABLŪS-ZAMBUR . 390 142. KILLIS-BIRIJIK . . 391 143 a. 'AINTĀB-BIRIJIK . .. 393 143 b. BIRIJIK - MAR'ASH. .. 394 144. BIRIJIK – ADIAMAN. .. 394 145 a. RŪM QAL'AH-'AINTĀB (via ZERDAGUN) 396 145 b. RŪM QAL'AH-'AINTĀB (via KAKHTIN AND ARŪL) 397 145 c. RŪM QAL'AH -'AINTĀB (via HĀJI MORLEH). 398 146. KILLIK-BEHISNI . 147. SAMSAT-MAR'ASH (via BEHISNI). 400 148. SAMSAT-KIAKHTA. . 403 149. BEHISNI - ADIAMAN 405 150 a. ADIAMAN-GERGER (via KIAKHTA) 406 150 b. ADIAMAN-GERGER (via TOKARIZ) 409 150 c. ADIAMAN-SAMSAT. . . : 410 .... .... 399 ..... . CONTENTS 11 PAGE 151 a, b, c. ACROSS THE TAURUS BETWEEN THE EUPHRATES AND MAR'ASH . 410 152. ALEPPO-MAR'ASH . . . . . . . 412 418 . . RAILWAY ALEPPO-RAS EL-AIN–TEL ERMEN . . GAZETTEER OF TOWNS . . . BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. . TRANSLITERATION OF NAMES GLOSSARY . . . . . . . INDEX . . . . . . . . PLATES (with list) . . . . . SKETCH-MAP OF ROUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 . . . 477 at end of volume at end -- - - -- - - - -- INTRODUCTION THE ROUTE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL KURDISTAN, NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA, THE PLAIN OF DIAR- BEKR, AND THE UPPER EUPHRATES VALLEY AND COUNTRY WEST THEREOF. CENTRAL KURDISTAN General Remarks.—The first section of land-routes given below covers the country lying E. of the line Raniyeh-Rowanduz-Urmia -Dilman, N. of the line Rowanduz-Mosul - Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, W. of the line Jezīret-ibn-'Omar - Sairt-Bitlis, and S. of the line Bitlis -Lake Van-Lake Archag-Qotur- Dilman. This area may be divided conveniently into three parts : (i) the basin of the Great Zab river, about half of the whole area dealt with and forming its central and SE. part; (ii) the southern section of the basins of Lakes Van, Archag, and Urmia, forming its N. and NE. part; and (iii) the W. and SW. part, about one-third or more of the whole area. This last part includes the basins of the Bohtan Su, the Khabūr Su, and some of the other tributaries of the Tigris : of all these the Bohtan Su, which joins the Tigris near Til, is by far the most important. The valleys of the Tigris between Jeziret- ibn-'Omar and Til and of the Bitlis Su are also included in this area. (i) The Zāb valley area is a wild mountainous country inhabited by Nestorians and Kurds, with some Chaldeans, Armenians, and Jews. Probably the Nestorians were the most numerous before the war, but nothing definite is known on this point. The Nestorians are under the control, spiritual and civil, of their Patriarch, Mar Shimum, who resides at Kochannes. The upper part of the valley (i.e., roughly, above the junction of the Chal with the Zāb), where most of the Nestorians and Kurds live, consists of rugged limestone mountains, rising to an altitude of 13,000 ft., whose general direction is E.-W., the Great Zāb running through them in a N.-S. direction. Its numerous tributaries, some of which are of considerable size, have a general direction 14 INTRODUCTION E.-W. All these rivers are simply mountain torrents, often running through impassable gorges : they are in high flood during the months April-June, when they are swollen by snow-water. The country is almost treeless, although there are poplars in the bottoms of some of the valleys, and junipers, oaks, walnut-trees, and others are found occasionally. It is unfertile, and the hillsides are so steep that most of the cultivation is terraced. There is a fair amount of grazing for sheep and goats, and in the late spring or early summer, when the snow has melted, nomad Kurds as well as the local inhabi. tants bring their flocks to the yāilās, or summer grazing-grounds, for three or four months : most of the grass on these grazing grounds dries up about the end of August. The crops produced consist of rice, wheat, barley, millets, tobacco, &c., and there are numerous small vineyards and fruit orchards: but the area suitable for cultivation is so small that the soil produces little more than is required for local consumption. The country, as indicated already, is well watered by numerous streams. The winter is severe, with a heavy snowfall : one result of this is that many of the passes and higher roads are closed by snow for several months each year, while snow-avalanches render some of the lower roads unsafe during the spring. In summer the heat is considerable, but it is not so great as to interfere with the movements of travellers. The middle part of the Zāb basin (i.e. between the Chal junction and the point where the river enters the plain of the Tigris), sparsely inhabited by Chaldeans and Yezidis with some Kurds, Nestorians, Jews and others, consists largely of sandstone hills, rising to altitudes of 8,000 or 9,000 ft., which are fairly well wooded with oaks, haw- thorns, &c. It is a fertile country, fairly well watered, which could support a large population if it were not exposed to raids from the Kurds who live in the hills to the N. To the S. and SW. these hills fall away in lower ranges to the undulating plain of Mosul. (ii) In the basins of Lakes Urmia, Archag, and Van, the hills are considerably lower than those of the Upper Zāb valley, few rising to a greater altitude than 8,000 ft. The hill-country has hardly any natural vegetation except grass, of which there is a certain amount in the highest areas. The plain of Urmia is extremely well culti- vated, producing rice, cotton, tobacco, &c. A considerable part of it, together with smaller plains in the neighbourhood, is marshy. The country as a whole is fairly well populated by Armenians, Kurds, and Nestorians (in the plain of Urmia), with a few Jews, almost all agriculturists. The Christian population has recently been much reduced by massacre (p. 32). (iii) This part of Central Kurdistan is separated from (i), the INTRODUCTION 15 E. and SE. part, by a great chain of mountains, rising to altitudes of 11,000 and 12,000 ft., which forms the western rim of the Zāb basin. From this divide the hills descend in ranges decreasing in altitude towards the Tigris, following either the Bohtan Su to the W., or the Khabur Su, the Hazil Su, or the Roshur Su to the S. To the south of the Khabūr basin lies the Mosul plain. Most of the higher country is uninhabited, except in the vicinity of the Bohtan Su and of the lower reaches of some of its tributaries. Most of the rivers, for a considerable part of their course, run through impenetrable gorges. The higher hills consist chiefly of down-like country, excellent grazing grounds (zozan), much used by nomad Kurds during the summer. The snowfall is considerable in these hills. The lower slopes and bottoms of most of the valleys are well wooded. Certain areas of the lower country are fairly well populated. Water is plentiful. General Description of Routes.—It appears that through com- mercial caravan-traffic from the Tigris valley to Van and the north, so far as it has touched this region at all, has only skirted its west side by the Jezīret-ibn-'Omar-Sairt-Bitlis route, or has followed its eastern border by the Mosul-Raniyeh-Urmia route into north-west Persia. This fact is probably due partly to the predatory habits of the Kurds, but more to the natural obstacles of the route, such as the high passes, the numerous rivers and streams which have to be crossed, and the severe snowstorms which are frequent throughout the winter. The rivers and streams are not bridged as a rule ; although some have rough wooden bridges, often carried away by floods, or wicker suspension bridges of little use except to pedestrians. A very few of the minor streams have stone bridges. In many places the tracks follow ledges cut in the sides of rocky gorges, or along precipices; while in others spurs jutting into rivers are crossed by stanga or staircases, some of the steps being cut out of the rock while others are built up: the roads in many places are so narrow that laden mules cannot pass along them. In other places the tracks simply follow the beds of streams, and are so rough as to be almost impassable for laden animals. In other places the roads run in zig- zags, which, however, are not properly graded. In fact the so-called roads, with a few rare exceptions, are simply tracks such as a rude, uncivilized people might be expected to make use of for local com- munications in a mountainous country. It is probable that in a short time a pioneer regiment could improve some of them sufficiently to allow mule batteries and pack transport to traverse the country. In most cases, therefore, the routes given consist of a con- nected series of local tracks, and few of them are really through 16 INTRODUCTION routes: there are many alternative tracks and connecting branches, some of which are described. Nothing is known of any improve- ments which may have been made in these routes since the war began : possibly a good deal of road-making has been carried out along the Persian frontier and in the neighbourhood of Lake Van, of Sairt, Bitlis, and Jezīret-ibn-Omar. Of the principal lines of communication four run from N. to S., viz. (a) Raniyeh or Rowanduz to Urmia; (6) Mosul to Van via Amadiyeh and Bāsh Qal'ah ; (c) Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Van via Shat- takh ; and (d) Jezīret-ibn-Omar to Bitlis via Sairt ; while one (e) runs from E. to W. from Urmia via Van to Bitlis. (a) Raniyeh or Rowanduz to Urmia.'—From Raniyeh to Urmia runs the route by the Wazneh Pass, El-Watan, and through the Labjan and Urmia plains by Chiāneh (Route 60 a), which has been pronounced to be the best line for a military road or railway from Mesopotamia to north-west Persia. Before the war, however, it was not passable throughout for wheels: it was steep and difficult in places in the hills, and marshy in parts of the plains: and recent reports indicate that the Wazneh Pass is more difficult than the Garau Shinkeh Pass on the Rowanduz-Sūj Bulāq road (see below). The passes are blocked with snow in winter, and the Shulduz Chai, Lesser Zab, and Nistān Su are unfordable when in flood. An alter- native route to El-Watan goes by Ser Desht (see vol. iii, Route 41, and this volume, Route 60 b), but this is nearly twice as long as the route by the Wazneh Pass and does not seem to be a better road. Other variants are provided by cross-tracks between these two routes to El-Watan. From Chiāneh, about 62 m. beyond El-Watan, an alternative route to Urmia branches off, leading by Ushnu, from which point onwards it may be passable for guns: but there is no recent information on the subject (see Route 60 c). From Rowanduz to Urmia a route leads by Neri and Dizeh. It follows the western slopes of the divide between Lake Urmia and the Great Zāb to Dīzeh. Thus far it is an extremely bad track through sparsely populated, rugged mountains, with fair grazing, poor fuel-supply, and plenty of water. From Dīzeh the soute by Bazirgeh is good, being capable of use by light vehicles. This part of the route is used by traders, and forms part of a fairly frequented trade route between Urmia and Bāsh Qal'ah on the Great Zāb. It crosses the watershed between the Zāb and Lake Urmia by a fairly easy pass (see Route 61 a). A much more difficult route le ids from Dizeh to Urmia through the Marbishu District (see Route 61 b). 1 The routes from Mosul to Raniyeh and Rowanduz are given in vol. iji. INTRODUCTION 17 Another route from Rowanduz to Urmia leads over the Kelishin Pass to Ushnu, and thence follows the Ushnu-Urmia road men- tioned above (Route 60 c). This, as far as the southern foot of the Kelishin Pass, seems to be an easy mule-track, but the pass itself is difficult (see Route 61 c). A third route is that which follows the Rowanduz-Sūj Bulāq road (Route 61 d) by Rāyāt and the Garau Shinkeh Pass into the Lahjan plain where it strikes the Raniyeh-Urmia road (Route 60 a) near Kaplisan. A great deal of work would be necessary to make the route from Rowanduz to Kaplisān passable throughout for wheels, and the passes are blocked with snow in winter. On the other hand, the Garau Shinkeh Pass was reported, by the Boundary Commission of 1914, to be the easiest between Qasr-i-Shīrīn and Ararat. (b) Mosul to Van via Amadiyeh and Bash Qalah.—This route crosses the Tigris plain to Amadiyeh, enters and ascends the basin of the Great Zāb, and then crosses a pass into the watershed of Lake Van. It appears not to be used as a through route, traders going from Van to the Tigris valley via Bitlis. But from Mosul to Amadiyeh it carries a good deal of traffic; as it does from Băsh Qalah to Van. Such trade as there is between Amadiyeh and Bāsh Qalah must follow it, however, and travellers going from the plains in the N. or the S. to visit the Nestorian Patriarch at Kochannes, some distance S. of Bāsh Qal'ah, generally use it. Throughout nearly its whole length there are two or more tracks, some of which are used only in the winter, others only in the summer, while others have certain advantages or disadvantages concerning which particulars are given in the detailed descriptions of the routes. From Mosul to Amadiyeh, and again from Bash Qal'ah to Van, one of the roads described is passable for light vehicles, at all events for the greater part of the distances traversed. The rest of the route is extremely bad, and is crossed by numerous streams almost impassable in times of flood; it is available for lightly laden mules only. Except in the neighbourhood of Amadiyeh there is not sufficient fuel for any considerable body of men, and the grazing is poor. Throughout there is plenty of water, and a considerable number of sheep could be obtained: the country is poor and little grain can be had. For details see Routes 67 a, 67 b, 68 a, 68 b, 69, 74 a, and 74 b. From Băsh Qalah Route 74 b affords an alternative road to Khoshāb. It goes via the Tozo Gedik and Seil Kilissa, to which latter place there is another branch road from m. 83: see Route 74 a. It is only used for local purposes, and part of it is extremely bad. (c) Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Van via Shattakh.—This route leads NE. across the hills forming the divide between the Tigris valley and the MES. IV 18 INTRODUCTION upper waters of the Bohtan Su. It crosses the latter stream near Shattakh and then crosses the northern watershed of the Bohtan Su into the basin of Lake Van. It is not used for through trade, nor indeed is there any trade along it except between Shattakh and Van. The rest, the southern part, is followed by the numerous flocks which go to the high lands S. of the Bohtan Su for summer grazing. This part goes through an almost uninhabited country, consisting chiefly of grass-covered hills of no great altitude, although they are under snow for three or four months in the year. The country is well watered, but produces little fuel and practically no grain. North of Shattakh its character changes, the valleys being well wooded and the population fairly dense for a mountainous tract. There are alternative tracks on certain stretches of the main route, e.g. one from Maidān Jāsūs to Van, via Shiv Shalil and Marwānen (Routes 82 and part of 79) and another from Shattakh to Van via Vostan (Route 81 b), but these are not so numerous as in the Great Zāb valley. A considerable part of the road N. of Shattakh was passable for light vehicles some years ago, and the greater part of it between Shattakh and Jezīret-ibn-'Omar either is passable for such vehicles, or could easily be made so. But immediately S. of Shattakh a stretch of some miles passes over such difficult ground that it would be extremely hard to grade it for vehicles. See Routes 80 and 81 a. (d) Jezīret-ibn-'Omar-Sairt-Bitlis.—The routes between Mosul and Jezīret-ibn-Omar are discussed below, p. 24.) The route from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Sairt before the war was a mule-track, apparently difficult in places, though perhaps easier than is suggested by the detailed report of 1888 given in this volume. As far as Til the road follows the general line of the Tigris valley on its eastern side, but does not throughout keep to the immediate vicinity of the river. Beyond Til the Bohtan valley is followed. The Bohtan Su would prove a serious obstacle, except at l.w. season, unless its bridge has been repaired. From Sairt the main route proceeds to Ziyāret Wa'iz el-Qur'āni (or simply Ziyaret) making a détour to W. The Sairt- Ziyāret road is perhaps passable for guns. From Ziyāret to Bitlis the line for a chaussée has been laid for 30 years, but it is doubtful whether the chaussée had been completed at the outbreak of the war. On this route from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Bitlis water is generally plentiful, but at Sairt the supply is sometimes deficient and not of good quality (see Route 85). An alternative route from Sairt to Bitlis goes by Chemi Khān, east of, and more direct than, the road by Ziyāret. It joins the Ziyāret- Bitlis chaussée near Dukhān. It apparently could be easily im- proved so as to make it fit for guns (Route 86 a). The Keser Su has INTRODUCTION 19 to be forded, but this could be avoided by following a track which goes somewhat W. of the Chemi Khān road, and crosses the Keser by the Argif Bridge ; it joins the road by Cheni Khān not far from Dukhān (see Route 86 b). Lastly, a track, difficult even for pack- animals, leads from Sairt to Bitlis farther east than the road by Chemi Khān: it passes Kifra and Olek (see Route 86 c). (e) Urmia to Van and Bitlis. There are two routes from Urmia to Van. One of these goes to Dīzeh by Routes 61 a, b, thence to Bāsh Qal'ah by Route 65, and from that town to Van by Route 74 a. The greater part of this could probably be used by light vehicles; but there are two impassable stretches; one of about 12 miles before the Great Zāb is crossed (see Route 65, m. 151), and the other of a few miles at the Chukh Gedik (Route 74 a, m. 14). This road has the dis- advantage of being more or less closed by snow to all considerable traffic for several months, at the Chukh Gedik and on the Gavvār plain some miles E. of the bad stretch at m. 154 of Route 65: other- wise it forms a good route for a mountainous country. The other route to Bitlis passes by Dilman, Khoi, and Lake Archag to Van (see Routes 66 a and 76 a). This is a driving road practically the whole way: the only part which presents any serious difficulty for regular vehicular traffic is a stretch of two or three miles at the pass beyond Razi (Route 76 a, m. 69). This road is fairly free from snow, and plenty of water and grazing are to be had along it, together with some fuel. There is an alternative track from Razi to Van (Route 76 b) across the Chul Chemen and Ermanis plains : an easy track, perhaps passable for light vehicles. From Van to Bitlis (see Route 89 a) the road follows the south shore of Lake Van. Some short stretches of it were open for wheeled traffic according to the latest information available: it is possible, however, that since the war began the whole road has been graded and made passable throughout for vehicles. This road passes through a populous, well-wooded, well-watered country, with fairly good grazing. Lateral communications.—There are many branch routes, some connecting the main lines of communication referred to above, and others forming alternative routes on the main lines. Most of these are extremely bad, some being impassable for laden animals, while some are closed by snow in winter, and some by snow avalanches in the spring. The following are the most important of these lateral routes which connect two main lines of communication :- (i) Connecting (a) with (6). (1) Amadiyeh to Rowanduz (Route 62 a). From this a very rough track branches to Oramar (Route 62 b), passing through a wild, sparsely inhabited country. (2) Neri to Kochannes (Route 63 a). A track similar to the Oramar route just B2 20 INTRODUCTION described, and passing through similar country. (3) Dizeh to Kochannes (Route 64). A rough track, sometimes used by travellers going from Lake Urmia to Julāmerk and Kochannes. (ii) Connecting () with (e). (4) Amadiyeh to Zakho and thence to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. This also connects Amadiyeh with the Mosul - Jezīret-ibn-'Omar route via Zakho. It is an easy hill-track (see Route 90c). (5) Amadiyeh to Van (Route 79), via the Khabūr Su and the Bohtan Su. A better track than the last, and perhaps of some importance as forming the shortest route from Mosul to the upper waters of the Bohtan Su. A track, on the character of which no information was available, leads from Margi at m. 513 to Sher- nakh (Route 80, m. 311). From Marwānen at m. 130, Route 83 leads to Shattakh (Route 80, m. 103) over country which may be of some military importance, about the upper waters of the Bohtan Su. It is an easy track for mules. (6) Julāmerk to Kochannes and on to Van across the upper waters of the Bohtan Su, where it meets the preceding road (Routes 70 and 72). This is a fairly good mule road and forms the shortest route between an important part of the Zāb valley and Van. It is closed by snow during the winter. (7) Bāsh Qalʼah to Dilman (Route 75) via Nerzingi: a local trade route of some importance. From Nerzingi Route 77 leads across the hills and the Chul Chemen plain to Serai. (8) Bāsh Qal'ah to Sekunis, on (5) above (Route 73). (9) Khoshāb to Serai (Route 78) across the Chul Chemen plain ; an easy road over a country where large bodies of troops might be manoeuvred. (iii) Connecting (c) with (d). (10) Bitlis to Mukus (Route 88), an easy mule-track which might be of importance if Bitlis were a centre of operations. · (11) Shernakh Gedik (on the Jezīret-ibn-'Omar- Shattakh road, Route 80) to Sairt (Route 84). This is the only route described which leads across the considerable area lying S. of the Harakol Dāgh and between the Tigris and the Roshur Su. (iv) Connecting (d) with (e). (12) Sairt to Van, without going through Bitlis (Routes 87 a, b). This is a fairly good mule-path, some- times used by traders. NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA AND THE PLAIN OF DIARBEKR General Remarks.-(a) The Plain of Northern Jezireh. -North of a line drawn from Mosul to Meskeneh through the Sinjar Hills, there stretches between the Tigris and the Euphrates a belt of plain some 60 to 80 miles from S. to N., and about 250 miles from E. to W. On the north this plain is bounded E. of Mardın by the Tur Abdin plateau, and W. of Mardın by the stony hill-country that and the Euph260 miles frome Tur - - - ----- INTRODUCTION has its centre in the Qarajeh Dāgh. Near the Tigris the plain is undulating, with a certain amount of broken ground: north of the Sinjar Hills it is very flat: west of the Jagbjagha river it is undulating again and sometimes rises in low hill-ridges. To the east of the Jaghjagha the plain is empty of settled inhabitants except near its borders : west of that river it contains villages in some districts along its northern side and in the country E. of Jerablūs: elsewhere they are infrequent, small, and unimportant. The plain as a whole is not naturally unfertile, and with a strong government and a good irrigation system agriculture might be revived over a great part of it. At present, however, cultivation exists only near its edges, or, in the interior of its western part, on the perennial streams (the Khabûr and Belikh), and here and there in better-watered areas, such as the valley of Migteleh, E. of Jerablūs. On the whole cultivation seems to have been on the increase in the western part of northern Jezīreh during the years preceding the war, and there is no clear information as to its present extent. Part of this cultivation is the work of semi-nomads. The surface of this country does not present much difficulty to movement. There are a good many wadis and stream-beds, and there are patches of marshy ground, but generally the terrain is easy and open. The difficulties, as in the southern Jezīreh, arise chiefly from the lack of water and supplies. Supplies are apparently either altogether lacking or very scanty except in the districts of Mardin, Urfeh, Serūj, and Migteleh, E. of Jerablūs. The most favourable time for movement across the plains is the spring, for though the going may then be heavy owing to rain, there is much good grazing, and the water-supply is at its best. In summer water is, in general, very scarce ; most of the streams dry up either altogether or in their lower courses; the grass is burnt up; and the nomads for the most part move towards the hills or the few perennial rivers. Along the foot of the northern hills there is apparently a better water-supply between Jezīret-ibn-'Omar and Mardin than between Mardın and Urfeh. The plain of Nisibin, especially, is well watered by the Jaghjagha and its affluents. From Mardin to Urfeh water is very scarce except in the neighbourhood of Veirān Shehr and in that of Urfeh itself. Between Urfeh and the Euphrates is the fertile district of Serūj. The interior of the plain is on the whole better watered in its western than in its eastern part. The Jaghjagha, the Khabūr, and the Belikh are perennial rivers. Fuel is very scarce, as there is practically no timber throughout the plain. (b) The Tur Abdin.-The northern border of the plain between Jezīret-ibn-'Omar and Mardin is very sharply marked by the abrupt 22 INTRODUCTION - southern edge of the Tur Abdin plateau. This plateau is bounded on the E. and N. by the Tigris, and on the W. by the hill-country which rises towards the Qarajeh Dāgh. The summit of the Tur Abdin is a mass of low rocky ridges, mostly basaltic, covered with patches of low oaks and undergrowth, with a fertile soil beneath the stones. Most of the ravines are dry for the greater part of the year, and water, which is very scarce in summer, is derived chiefly from wells and cisterns. The eastern part of the plateau is more intricate and difficult than that near Diarbekr, where the country becomes less stony and more undulating, with some fertile valleys containing streams. The Tur Abdin has a fair number of villages, largely inhabited by Jacobite Christians. Along the western side of the Tur Abdin, between it and the spurs of the Mazi Dāgh and Qarajeh Dăgh, there is a fairly easy line, along valleys running S. and N., and over low cols. This line connects the great Mesopotamian plain with the plain of Diarbekr. Diarbekr stands at the northern end of this line and Mardin at the southern. (c) The Qarajeh Dāgh and neighbourhood.-North-west of Mardın are the Mazi Dāgh and the larger and more important Qarajeh Dāgh, with their rocky spuis and outliers, forming a hill-country which is very broken and difficult, crossed by tracks which are few and bad and not well supplied rith water. There is practically no settled population in the interior of this country. The long spurs and out- liers of the hill-country run down into the plain between Mardin and Veirān Shehr, and between Veirān Shehr and Urfeh in rocky ridges where water is scarce. Some low ridges also come down to the west of Urfeh, but beyond them to Birijik, and from Birijik NW. to Severek, an undulating open plain intervenes between the Qarajeh Dāgh country and the Euphrates. North of the Qarajeh Dāgh its spurs run out to connect with a belt of stony ridges and plateaux between the Euphrates and the plain of Diarbekr. Over these northern spurs of the Qarajeh Dāgh there is easy communication between Diarbekr and Severek. (d) The Plain of Diarbekr and neighbouring district to East. To the north, north-west, north-east and east of Diarbekr extends an open, rolling, and in parts fairly well cultivated plain. On the west this plain is bounded by the low stony hill-country bordering the Euphrates, already mentioned. On the north-west it stretches up to the mountains of the Eastern Taurus in the neighbourhood of the Arghaneh defile--the main approach to Diarbekr and Mesopotamia from western Armenia and Anatolia. On the north the plain is bounded by a belt of low rocky ridges, beyond which rise the central INTRODUCTION 23 ranges of the Eastern Taurus, here forming a very difficult barrier. On the north-east the plain runs up to the ridges called the Hajertum and Sheikh Dodanli, outliers of the Taurus, lying north-east of the lower Batman Su. On the east it stretches in easy undulations to the Desht-i-Keri and the Ashita Dāgh, south and south-west of the lower Batman. Between the Ashita Dāgh on the south, and the Eastern Taurus on the north is a country of rolling plains and open hills, which gives access to the region of Zokh and beyond to Ziyāret, Til and Sairt, thus affording connexion with the Jezíret-ibn- 'Omar-Bitlis line of communication dealt with above. The plain of Diarbekr and the open country east of it is generally easy to traverse and is crossed by some comparatively good roads. The soil which is largely clay and gravel may make heavy going after rain. The chief obstacles are the larger rivers, the Tigris and its principal tributaries. The latter, however, are generally fordable except in the flood season. Water is on the whole plentiful. Though not cultivated in propor- tion to the fertility of its soil, the plain contains a fair number of villages and a few small towns. General Description of Routes.—The configuration of northern Jezīreh and the plain of Diarbekr described above has the following general results in the direction of the main lines of communica- tion:- (a) Caravan traffic going east and west across this part of Mesopo- tamia (from the neighbourhood of Mosul towards Aleppo) has long been compelled, by the lack of water and supplies and also by the general insecurity which prevails in the plains of northern Jezīreh, to make a détour to the north either along the foot of the hills (Nisibin-Mardin-Urfeh), or more commonly round by Diarbekr to the north of the Qarajeh Dāgh, through Severek, and thence by Urfeh or Hovek to the Euphrates. This way by Diarbekr, though the longer, is easier for wheeled vehicles, and on the whole is better furnished with supplies and water than the direct Mardın-Urfeh road. The railway, however, now affords a line of communication from Jerablus on the Euphrates passing south of Urfeh to Ras el-'Ain in the interior of the plain. From Ras el-'Ain it runs to Tel Ermen, and was planned to go to Nisibin and thence direct to Mosul by Tel Rumelan, thus cutting off the corner of what was before the war the more usual caravan route from Nisibin to Mosul, that by Jezīret-ibn- 'Omar or Feishkhabur. (But see next paragraph and p. 417.) (6) For communication between the Mesopotamian plain and Armenia or the Kharput-Sivas region, Diarbekr is by far the most important nodal point. Here converge the principal roads from the 24 INTRODUCTION passes of the Eastern Taurus on the north, north-west and north-east; from the south-west comes the road from Birijik by Severek: from the south the road from Mardin across the depression between the Tur Abdin on the east and the Qarājeh Dāgh country on the west : in 1916 the Turks were reported to be intending to construct a rail- way from Ras el-'Ain to Diarbekr by Mardín, a work which, it was said, was to take precedence of the extension of the line to Nisibin and Mosul. From the south-east there are tracks across the Tur Abdin from Jezīret-ibu-'Omar. Lastly, the Tigris below Diarbekr can be used for downstream raft-navigation. Above Jezīret-ibn-'Omar that river is bridged only at Diarbekr. The principal route to the north avoiding Diarbekr is that from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Sairt and thence to Bitlis ; but even this before the war seems to have been as far as Sairt only a rather difficult mule-track. The few other routes to the north which do not pass through Diarbekr (such as the Mardin- Bismil- Farqīn line and the Severek-Chermuk-Arghana road) seem to have been of minor importance. Routes between Mosul and Diarbekr.- The Tigris, between Diarbekr and Mosul, flows through a number of deep and narrow gorges, and the swiftness of the current and the rapids formed by rocks and gravel banks appear to make it impracticable for upstream navigation. But there is a good deal of downstream raft traffic on this part of the river (see Route III G). The most usual line for caravan traffic from Mosul to Diarbekr before the war seems to have been that by Jezíret-ibn-'Omar, Nisibin, and Mardın. Jezīret-ibn-'Omar can be reached from Mosul by a number of routes. The country to the east of the Tigris is for the most part easily undulating and well watered, and contains a fair number of Moslem, Christian, and Yezidi villages. The immediate neighbour- hood of the l. bank of the Tigris between Mosul and Feishkhabur is too broken to admit of easy movement, and therefore the river valley in this region is avoided by traffic. The principal obstacles en. countered are the line of the Jebel Abyadh and the Khabūr river, a large tributary of the Tigris. A dilapidated chaussée led before the war to the top of the pass over the Jebel Abyadh above Zakho, but the northern side of the pass seems to have been impracticable for wheels. At Zakho the Khabūr is bridged, and hence a road leads to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar along the north side of the Khabūr and then by the l. bank of the Tigris. This, though practicable for carts, is difficult in spring or after rain owing to the number of streams to be crossed. The Jebel Abyadh can be turned at its western end by a route pass- ing through or near Feishkhabur, whence either the Zakho bridge INTRODUCTION 25 can be reached, or in summer and autumn the Khabūr can be forded at one of several practicable places between Zakho and its mouth : or again the Tigris can be crossed at Feishkhabur(where there was a ferry before the war) and Jezīret-ibn-Omar can be reached by easy country along the r, bank of that river (see Routes 90 a, b, c). From Jezīret-ibn-Omar to Nisibin there are two roads over the plain below the Tur Abdin. These, some years ago, were not throughout passable for wheels, but were generally easy for baggage animals, though the southern route was liable to become difficult in winter owing to mud. Both routes are well supplied with water, There are a number of small Christian and Kurdish villages in the neighbourhood (see Routes 93 a, b). Nisibin can also be reached by a direct route from Feishkhabur over a rolling plain fairly well supplied with water (see Route 90 d). Again, caravans used sometimes to go direct from Mosul to Nisibin by Tel Rumelan, passing over undulating country, most of which is uninhabited. The surface here is fairly easy for wheeled traffic, but water is scarce, especially in summer and autumn. In spring there is abundant grazing here. This is the line which has been planned for the railway between Nisibin and Mosul. It is not known what may have been recently done to make it more easily passable for troops (see Route 91 and appendices). But it appears that in January 1916 the Turks were using a line of march from Ras el-'Ain via Tel Ermen, 'Amūdeh to Nisibin, and thence to Mosul direct (see Routes 126, introduction ; 94, m. 17, and 91, Appendix 4). The march from Ras el-Ain to Nisibin was stated to occupy 4 days, and that from Nisibin to Mosul 9 days (or according to another report 15 days for the whole). It was anticipated that from July onward a route from Ras el-'Ain via Tel Ermen to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, and thence to Mosul, would be used, as it is better watered. Lastly a circuitous way from Mosul to Nisibin is by Tel A'far and thence along either the north or the south side of the Sinjar Hills to the neighbourhood of the Shillo Pass, whence Nisibin can be reached by desert tracks over flat country, soft in wet weather, with a poor water-supply (see Routes 92 a, b). From Nisibin to Mardin there is a carriage-road easy in dry weather but soft after rain, running along the foot of the Tur Abdin. It is not very well supplied with water (see Route 94). From Mardin to Diarbekr there was a partially metalled road which was described before the war as passable for carts, but only in dry weather for carriages. It leads along valleys between the Tur Abdin and the Mazi Dāgh and crosses some low stony hills. Water is rather scarce on parts of the way (see Route 95 a). An alternative 26 INTRODUCTION route goes W. of the main road by Avineh and Qirq across the NW. course of the Tur Abdin : it is rough and difficult in parts and is not practicable for wheels. Near Qirq it connects with Bismīl on the other side of the Tigris, on the road from Diarbekr to Sairt (see Route 95 b). A third route from Mardīn to Diarbekr is by Derek on one of the Mardın—Veirān Shehr roads, whence it goes N. over the Mazi Dāgh, E. of the main road : but beyond Derek it seems to be only a rough and difficult hill-track (see Route 95 c). A further détour to the east would be by a track which runs between the Qarājeh Dāgh and the Mazi Dāgh. This is said to be passable over most of its length for carts and light artillery (see Route 117 a). A secondary line from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Diarbekr runs across the Tur Abdin plateau by Midiat : but this is not practicable for wheels throughout and lies over rather difficult country with little water (see Routes 96 a and b, 101). Tracks for pack-animals con- nect Nisibin with Midiat (see Routes 97 a, b, c). An easier road than these (but not for most of its length passable for wheels) leads to Midiat from Mardin (see Route 98 a). A road which is at best only just passable for carts runs from Midiat to Hasan Kaif on the Tigris (see Route 99). A route for pack-animals, difficult in places, runs from Mardın to Hasan Kaif, passing W. of Midiat, and crossing the Midiat-Diarbekr road (see Route 100). Midiat is connected by an easy track with Challek ferry in the Tigris valley, on the Jezīret-ibn-'Omar-Sairt road. Diarbekr might also be reached from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar by ascend- ing the Tigris valley to Til or to Sairt (see p. 23) and thence following one of the roads between Diarbekr and Sairt referred to below. Main Routes leading to Diarbekr from the North and East.— The chief entrance to the plain of Diarbekr from the north-west is the Arghana defile, through which runs the great chaussée from Sivas and Khar- put to Diarbekr. For an account of this route between the Arghana defile and Diarbekr see Route 109. This can be turned on the west by a pass leading over the hills west of Arghana by Pusherto, to which fairly easy tracks (apparently not passable for wheels) run from Chermuk and Arghana, and a more difficult one from Chunkush. Chermuk is connected by roads with Severek (see Routes 111 a and b: rather difficult), Diarbekr (see Route 110: easy), Arghana (fairly easy), and Chunkush (fair). An account of the passes over the Eastern Taurus between the Arghana defile and the Bitlis Pass will be found on p. 322. None was passable for all arms before the present war. But in 1916 it was reported that a road between Diarbekr and Mush by Hazro was under construction. Of the other routes over this part of the INTRODUCTION 27 Eastern Taurus the easiest seems to be the col over the Ziyāret Dāgh N. of Lijjeh across which runs a route used by mule-caravans in summer going between Diarbekr and Erzerum. For an account of the road between Diarbekr and Lijjeh see Route 104. Lijjeh is also connected with Farqin and the Batman Bridge by a fair road (Routes 105, 106). Mule-tracks also run from Diarbekr to Pīrān and Haini west of Lijjeh, from which paths over the hills can be reached (see Routes 108, 107). A number of roads passable for wheels, running over plains or rolling downs, connect Diarbekr with Sairt and Ziyāret, and thus with the Bitlis Gorge, the main approach to Mesopotamia from the NE. The roads between Bitlis and Sairt or Ziyāret are discussed on p. 18. The Diarbekr-Sairt road bifurcates near Ermi, one branch going by Ridhwan and the Nasr ed-Dīn Köprü, the other leading north of the Bekhan Dāgh by Hop. Both were before the war passable for wheels though some improvement was needed here and there. The road by the Nasr ed-Din Köprü seems to have been somewhat the easier. It was connected with Til by a branch from Ridhwān. Before the war the only practicable bridge on these routes was that called the Nasr ed-Din over the Bitlis Su. The Batman, the Hazo, the Bitlis, and the Keser Su are the principal streams crossed. These can be forded with ease in low water, but are impassable in flood- time. The limits of the flood season vary from year to year: but as a general rule the rivers are in flood from March to the end of June; the Batman remains high after the others-perhaps till the middle of July. The streams other than those mentioned above are insignifi- cant except after heavy rains (see Routes 102 a, b). The principal route from Diarbekr to Zokh and Ziyāret and thence to Bitlis is that which runs by Farqin and the great bridge over the Batman (the Batman Köprü). Along this line the Diarbekr-Bitlis chaussée has been laid. The road is easily passable for wheels. Of the unbridged streams which are crossed the chief obstacle is the Hazo Su. Another road to Zokh follows the Diarbekr-Sairt road to Ermi, and there diverges NE., crossing the Desht-i-Keri. It is passable for all arms, and is shorter than the route by the Batman Köprü ; but by this way it is necessary to ford the Batman as well as the Hazo (see Routes 103 a, b). Routes between the line Diarbekr-Mardin and the Euphrates. The principal road between Diarbekr and the Euphrates is that which passes north and west of the Qarajeh Dāgh by Severek and Hovek to Birijik. The country traversed is generally level or easily undulating, except among the northern spurs of the Qarajeh Dāgh. The road is passable for wheels though not good after heavy rains. Between 28 INTRODUCTION Diarbekr and Severek there was before the war a chaussée in poor repair. Water is plentiful on some stages, scarce in others. Grazing is good in spring: supplies are fairly plentiful in normal times (see Route 113). Between Severek and Birijik wheeled traffic seems generally to have preferred a détour by Urfeh to the more direct road by Hovek. This détour followed Route 120 a and Route 123 a or b. It is about 6 hours longer than the way via Hovek. From Severek a track, apparently fairly easy, leads NW. to Gerger on the farther side of the Euphrates valley (see Route 114), and from Mishmishin near Severek, on the road between that place and Hovek, a route runs into the Euphrates valley, which it descends, passing Samsat on the opposite bank to Rūm Qal'ah ferry. This route runs over easy undulating country with a good deal of cultivation (see Route 115). The Urfeh -Samsat route crosses the Severek-Hovek high road at a point a few miles from Hovek. From Hovek an easy track passable for carriages leads to the Euphrates at Kilik, whence it continues as a mule-road to Behisni. From Mardín the direct route to the Euphrates leads by Veirān Shehr and Urfeh to Birijik, but, as has been already mentioned, the country as far as Urfeh is broken and difficult in places, and water is not on the whole plentiful. Between Mardīn and Veirān Shehr there are two main routes, a northern by Derek, a southern by Tel Ermen and Meshqūq. The former is generally rough and stony till the plain of Veirān Shehr is reached, and is apparently impassable for wheels without improvement. Water is scarce (see Route 116 a). The southern route traverses much more easy country except in the neighbourhood of Mardin, but water is scarce except in spring and early summer. The heat in summer is very great (see Route 116 b). A variant of this route generally used in summer takes a rather more northerly line to Meshqûq (see Route 116 c). Between Veirān Shehr and Urfeh is a waterless limestone region, which before the war was considered passable for two-wheeled carts and guns, but not for four-wheeled vehicles. A number of difficult ravines are crossed between Veirān Shehr and the low hills called Tektek Dāgh, in which is the worst part of the route. Water is very scarce in summer. Grazing is good, at least in spring. Urfeh lies in a cultivated plain where villages are fairly numerous (see Route 118). From Urfeh to Birijik there are three routes: (i) the longest and most southerly runs S. along the E. side of the Nimrūd Dāgh, skirts the Serūj Dāgh and then runs NW. across the plain to Birijik ; this is apparently easier than the second route, but nothing is known INTRODUCTION 29 of it in detail : (ii) via Serūj, over an undulating plain, passable for wheels though muddy in winter ; there are numerous villages in this district ; water is fairly plentiful : (iii) via Char Melik, a shorter route to north of the second, fairly easy in dry weather, but in places heavy after rain: for the first third of the way from Urfeh there is a good metalled chaussée ; water is scarce and supplies are lacking as far as Char Melik, but beyond that place there is a good deal of cultivation, and water is more plentiful (see Routes 123 a and b). Between the lines Diarbekr-Severek-Birijik and Mardin-Veirān Shehr-Urfeh-Birijik, lateral communication is largely obstructed by the difficulties of the Qarajeh Dāgh country. From Veirān Shehr to Diarbekr the easiest cross-country track seems to be that already men- tioned (p. 22), running up the depression between the Mazi Dāgh and the Qarajeh Dāgh, which may be passable for light wheeled vehicles (Route 117 a). For other hill tracks see Routes 117 b and c. Between Veirān Shehr and Severek there seems to be no direct route in com- mon use: for some account of a cross-country journey here see Route 119. From Urfeh to Severek the best route is that which strikes the high road between Severek and Hovek at Qara Jüren (Jurneresh): it is passable for wheels. A rougher track through country badly sup- plied with water leads by Anzeleh (see Routes 120 a and b). An easy route from Urfeh to Samsat strikes the Severek-Hovek main road a few miles from Hovek (Route 121). No details are available as to the road from Urfeh to Hovek. To the south of the line Mardin-Veirān Shehr-Urfeh there is now the important line of communication afforded by the railway from Ras el-Ain to Jerablūs which passes south of Harrān (see pp. 23, 416). It is probable that the road-communication between Nisibin and Ras el-'Ain, and Mardin and Rās el-'Ain, has recently been much improved (see above, p. 25, and compare Routes 126, introduction, and 94, m. 17). The plains north of the railway are apparently fairly easy in spring when water is least scarce and grazing abundant : but in summer the heat and aridity of the country would make movement very difficult. Some account is given in this volume of desert-routes to Derek and Veirān Shehr (see Routes 127, 128). There is very little water between Ras el-'Ain and Harrān (see Route 129 a), or on the route from Ras el-Ain and Urfeh (Route 128), but the country is open and easy. Between Urfeh and Harrān the route follows the line of an ancient made road, passable for wheels, across arid country (see Route 130). From Harrān to Jerablūs the route passes at first over a stoneless plain with very little water : as it approaches the Euphrates water becomes fairly plentiful, and the fertile Migteleh valley is passed : there are some low stone hills 30 INTRODUCTION towards the Euphrates, but the country in most places would be passable for field artillery or light carts in dry weather: the stone. less parts would, it is said, be impassable after rain (Route 129 b). The country between Jerablūs or Tel Ahmar and Urfeh seems to be open, easy, and passable for wheels, though much of it would prob- ably be heavy going after rain (Route 124). The route Jerablūs - Urfeh passes through the Serūj district. At Jerablūs the Ras el.'Ain-Aleppo railway crosses the Euphrates (see p. 416). From the Middle Euphrates in the region of Deir ez-Zor the line of the Khabūr and the Jaghjagha seems to afford a fairly easy route northward to Nisibin, over country likely to be heavy in wet weather, but fairly open. Light vehicles might be able to pass, and improve- ment of the track should be easy. Water from the Khabūr and Jaghjagha : cultivation in patches (see Route 125). Similarly the course of the Belikh river gives a line for a route from Raqqah to Harrān (see Routes 132 a and b). The country between the Khabūr and the Belikh and between the Belikh and the Euphrates is a rolling plain inhabited only by nomads, with water at scattered wells or (in spring) in pools and wadis. The country between the Khabūr and the Belikh seems to be particularly desolate (Route 131). THE EUPHRATES VALLEY BETWEEN MESKENEH AND SAMSAT, AND COUNTRY WEST OF THE EUPHRATES TOWARDS THE LINE ALEPPO--MAR'ASH General Remarks.—The belt of country west of the Euphrates with which this volume is concerned is for the most part an open rolling plain, well cultivated here and there, especially in the neigh- bourhood of Aleppo, Killis, and 'Aintāb. The country gradually rises from the south in higher undulations and low downs, easy to traverse, up to the foot of the Taurus mountains. It is crossed by a number of fair roads, passable for wheels at least in dry weather. The water-supply is on the whole fairly plentiful. The Euphrates valley in this region is apparently not very difficult, at least below Birijik, but movement along it is somewhat obstructed by wadis and ravines, and there has been little traffic along the greater part of it. The country on either bank becomes gradually higher and more hilly towards the north. General Description of Routes.-On the Euphrates, from Meskeneh as far as Birijik, upstream navigation by steamers might be possible except in the months of low water (August-November), and at the height of the spring floods (see further Route IV I). Downstream navigation by shakhtūrs is practised on this part of the river through. out the year. INTRODUCTION 31 Navigation by raft (downstream only) is possible, at least under favourable conditions, from Erzingan on the Frāt Su and from 3 or 4 hrs. above Palu on the Murad; but where the Euphrates breaks through the main line of the Eastern Taurus, between Kumur Khān and Chunkush Ferry, there are some very bad and difficult rapids which may make navigation by rafts impossible in the highest flood and perhaps also when the river is low (see further Route IV I). On the ). (eastern) side of the Euphrates valley, there appears to be little traffic, though caravans sometimes made the journey. On the last 15 miles into Birijik the track has been improved in places. Water from the river ; grazing good in spring (see Route 133). From Birijik to opposite Rüm Qal'ah and thence at varying distances from the river past Samsat to join the Severek-Hovek road at Mishmishin, runs a fairly easy road, which might with some improve- ment be passable for wheels (see Routes 135, 115). From this route near Rūm Qalah a track diverges to Kilik via Saghpir (Route 144). Along the r. (western) side of the valley above Meskeneh traffic seems to be even more infrequent. Some account is given below of the country between Qal'at en-Nejm and a point opposite Birijik (see Route 134). Above Birijik the undulations become higher and ravines more difficult. A track from Aintāb to Adiaman, not passable for wheels, runs near this part of the Euphrates. The only bridge across this part of the Euphrates is that which carries the railway at Jerablūs. Birijik ferry has been the principal crossing place for caravans going east and west. There are also ferries at Meskeneh, Tel Ahmar, Kilik, Khalfati, Rūm Qal'ah, Samsat, Chunkush, and other points. West of the Euphrates this volume is concerned only with routes running from the river to Aleppo, Killis, Aintāb, Mar'ash, Behisni, Adiaman and Kiakhta. From Meskeneh to Aleppo run routes quite passable for wheels, though somewhat heavy in wet weather ; water is generally fairly plentiful, and there is a good deal of cultivation (see Route 136). From Tel Ahmar to Aleppo an unmade track, easy except in wet weather, leads by Membij and El-Bāb (see Route 137). From Jerablūs to Aleppo the railway runs by Akterineh and Muslimiyeh (see pp. 412-416). From Birijik to Akterineh and thence to Aleppo there is a well-frequented caravan-route, passable for wheels, with a good supply of water (Route 139). Between Zambur on this road and Jerablūs is a cross-track described in Route 141 b, and a track along the Sajur Chai connects Tel Ahmar with the same road about 5 m. from Zambur (see Route 140). Another cross-track joins Erkija near Zambur with 'Aintāb. 32 INTRODUCTION From Jerablus to Killis a track runs over undulating country which is in most places passable for field artillery and carts in dry weather : but the Wassa and Sejūr rivers are somewhat serious obstacles, and the track itself is not everywhere wide enough for wheels (Route 141 a). From Birijik to Killis a rough cart-track over undulating ground runs by Nizib and Tel el-Bashara, striking the Killis-'Aintāb chaussée some miles north of Killis (see Route 142). This cart-track is well supplied with water and could be easily improved. It gives the shortest line from Birijik to Alexandretta. From Birijik to 'Aintāb there is a route, which diverges from the Killis road at Nizib. This also is passable for wheels (Route 143 a). The direct route from Birijik to Mar'ash, which does not pass through 'Aintāb, also diverges from Nizib, beyond which it is not passable for wheels (Route 143 b). From Rūm Qal'ah to 'Aintāb there are at least three possible tracks, of which one is stated to be passable for wheels, and the others may be so (Routes 145 a, b, c). From Kilik a track over easy open country runs to Behisni (see Route 146), and a road passable for wheels leads from Samsat to Behisni and Belveren and on by Baghdin to Mar'ash : water is plentiful on this route, which lies over easy rolling downs, and sup- plies are fairly plentiful in normal times (see Route 147, and note at end of route). Mule-tracks running along the skirts of the Taurus also connect Belveren with Mar'ash (see Route 147). A road runs from Samsat to Adiaman, which is connected with Behisni on the W. by a road practicable for carts, and with Kiakhta and Gerger on the E. and Kilik on the S. by apparently inferior tracks (see Routes 149, 150 a, b, c). Tracks also run from Samsat to Kiakhta (see Route 148). All the country N. and NW. of Samsat up to the skirts of the Taurus, though undulating, is easy, and roads could be quickly made and improved. It is well watered with streams from the north. For the routes connecting Aleppo, 'Aintāb, and Mar'ash and those which lead across the mountains lying north of Kiakhta, Adiaman, Behisni, and Belveren, see pp. 410, 411. NOTE ON THE NESTORIAN AND ARMENIAN POPULATION References to population in the description of towns and villages date from the period before the war. But it must be remembered that owing to the war many of these references have now only an historical value. The Nestorians and Armenians have suffered especially severely, and while it is obviously impossible to give details, this note may serve to indicate certain districts within the limits of this volume which have been specially affected. The INTRODUCTION 33 Nestorian villages of the Urmia plain, of Salmās, Barandiz, Ter- gavar, and other districts, were plundered, and many were destroyed, by Kurds and Turks in 1915. The Nestorian mountaineers of the Zāb basin (Hakkiari) were attacked ; many were killed; some 20,000-30,000 escaped in September 1915 to the Salmās district, then reoccupied by the Russians. The villages of the Berwari, Tiari, Tkhuma, Kochannes, Bāsh Qalah, and other districts were nearly all destroyed : the survivors remaining in the mountains were prob. ably very few. The massacre of Nestorians in and near Jezīret-ibn- 'Omar has also been reported. The Armenians of the Urmia and Salmās districts shared the fate of the Nestorians of that region. Those of Van and the neighbour- hood were greatly reduced by warfare, massacre, or hardship suffered during their flight to Russian territory. The Armenian villages of the Van district, of the country S. of Lake Van, between Van and Bitlis, of the Shattakh and Nerdosh districts, &c., were largely destroyed. Elsewhere, between February and October 1915, whole- sale deportations of Armenians were organized. These were often preceded or accompanied by massacre : many emigrants died on the march, of disease or starvation. Apart from the Armenians of the Vilayet of Van, those of the following towns and districts in the area covered by this volume seem to have been almost wholly removed by massacre or deportation :-Bitlis and district, Sairt, Diarbekr and district, Mardīn (where other Christian sects are said also to have suffered), Severek, Urfeh (where the Armenians armed and resisted the deportation order for about a month), Killis, 'Aintāb, Adiaman, Behisni, Mar'ash. The Armenians deported from these areas, as well as the main body who were removed from Turkish Armenia proper and Anatolia, were sent southwards. Some may have been planted near and S. of Mosul (but there seems to be no clear evidence on this point). Others were settled round Ras el-Ain ; others round Aleppo or between that city and the Euphrates (as at El-Bāb and Membij); many were sent to Syria (Damascus, Hama, Homs, and neighbourhood): but the greatest number were planted along the Euplırates valley below Meskeneh. Concentrations of immigrants are mentioned at and near Raqqah, Deir ez-Zor, and Meyyādin. Some seem to have been sent farther S., towards Baghdad. Deir ez-Zor appears to have been the chief centre in 1915 and early in 1916. It was estimated in February 1916, that there were some 500,000 deported Armenians settled in Mesopotamia and Syria, the greater part in Mesopotamia. The mortality among them was very high. It is possible that Armenians have been employed on road-making and similar labour. MES, IV RIVER ROUTES THE TIGRIS ROUTE III G DIARBEKR-MOSUL (3331 m.) Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 99 (to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, report of a journey by raft in April 1903 : from Jezīret to Mosul, report of a journey by raft in October 1892). Report of a journey by raft from Diarbekr to Jeziret in June 1907. D. Fraser, Short Cut to India (Journey of 1908). · The Tigris over this portion of its course is only navigable by keleks (rafts) floated downstream. Because of this fact the upstream itinerary followed in previous volumes is departed from for this section of the river, and an account is given of its navigation and other features downstream from Diarbekr to Mosul. At Diarbekr the Tigris spreads out to some extent on entering the small level tract opposite that town, and in seasons of flood attains a width of 250-300 yds. The country through which it flows immediately after leaving Diarbekr is a stretch of mud hills and stony desert, the mud banks being the haunt of hosts of water-birds. The snow-capped mountains of Kurdistan are just visible on the horizon, with low undulating land extending towards them. The Tigris flows here in wide curves. The banks are thinly peopled, and the country about them only partially cultivated, but there are rich pasture grounds occasionally resorted to by nomad tribes. The mud banks at times give way to steep rocky sides, in the walls of which are often found rock-tombs. Here and there the narrow bed of the river widens over flats of sandstone. Sheep, goats, cattle, and buffaloes are seen on the banks or in the stream. Immediately after its junction with the Batman Su the river becomes narrower and deeper, and flows so rapidly through winding gorges that careful steering is required to avoid rocks and whirlpools. Between Bediyeh THE TIGRIS—ROUTE III G and Hasan Kaif the cave-dwelling Kurds, Arabs, and Yezidis try to levy blackmail on all who pass downstream. Their method is to post men at intervals along the bank, who keep up a constant fire at keleks, either killing people on board or perforating the skins so that the keleks have to put to shore. One protection against this is the great rate at which the current passes through some gorges in this district, so that it is difficult for the robbers to arrest the progress of the rafts. The villages are most often found on narrow points of land round which the stream curves. On ground a little higher than the village are generally to be found a loop-holed tower and the well-built stone house of the headman. After Hasan Kaif the valley widens out somewhat between mountain ranges. There is very little cultivation as far as the Hazo Su, but more is seen after that river is passed, chiefly on the l. bank, which slopes gently up to the hills. Between the junction of the Bohtan Su and Jezīret-ibn-'Omar the river becomes much more rapid and soon enters a mountainous tract, flowing through rocky gorges, whose sides are covered with oak-scrub. The river flows in a series of sharp bends round spurs, and navi- gation becomes more difficult owing to eddies and back currents. From Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Mosul the Tigris flows in a tortuous course between low hills and undulations intersected by one large valley (that of the Khabūr) and by numerous ravines. The banks rise here and there in cliffs 50-100 ft. high. Here; as above Jezīret-ibn-Omar, the river contains numerous rapids and shallows formed by ledges of rock and shingle. The kelek is a raft of timber or poles and brushwood lashed with tamarisk or willow bark supported on inflated sheep-skins, the necks of which are tied with liquorice fibre or hemp. The size of the kelek is reckoned by the number of skins used, and payment is made accordingly. A good-sized raft would be carried on 400-500 skins; the largest in use have about 800 skins. A kelek of 200 skins is said to measure about 29 x 20 ft. The load ranges from about 5 to 36 tons. The kelek, if well constructed, is practically unsinkable. These rafts can only move with the current, and are guided by two or four rough sweeps, according to their size. On arrival at their destination the timber or scantlings are sold, and the deflated skins are returned overland to the starting-point. The kelekjis or raftmen usually talk Arabic and Kurdish, and are a willing set of men who would make good pilots. The raft has a mooring rope plaited from strips of bark. At the mooring-places where there are no mooring.posts, the rope is laid out on the shore and a small heap of stones placed on it: a collection of such heaps c 2 36 RIVER ROUTES marks a usual halting-place for keleks. The cost of a passage on a kelek from Diarbekr to Mosul is said to be about £4, and the voyage is accomplished in about 4-8 days in March, April, and May, but in other months it usually takes much longer--from 8 to 20 days, according to the condition of the river and the weather. A raft is said to travel at rates varying according to the strength of the current from 31 to 8 m.p.h. Wind is a dangerous impediment to the navigation of the more difficult portions of the river, and this is particularly noticeable when the kelek has any superstructure to catch the wind. A strong wind consequently makes travelling very difficult. The direction of the wind is immaterial. If it is favourable in one reach, in the next it may be blowing on shore, Left Bank. Total distance Miles Haji 'Isa, Kurdish village, 15 houses (10 mins. below Charokhi). Mudarris, Kurdish village, 10 houses (1 hr. 10 mins. below Haji ‘Isa). Zorāweh, Kurdish village, 70 houses (25 mins. below Mudarris). 64 101 13 Arzogla, Armenian and Kurdish village, 60 houses (10 mins. below Yuvaijik). 161 Hõleh, Armenian and Kurdish' village, 80 houses (15 mins. below Hujeti). 21 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G 37 and it may be impossible, if the wind is strong, to keep in the stream. TINES FROM DIARBEKR TO JEZĪRET-IBN-'OMAR TAKEN BY RAFTS April 1903. June 1907. Hrs. Hrs. mins. O Diarbekr. O O Diarbekr. 12 Bochelu. 10 55 Bochelu. 24 Kbandaq. 23 20 Hasan Kaif. 33 Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. 25 25 Khandaq. 38 0 Jezíret-ibn-'Omar. As far as Jezīret-ibn-'Omar times given in the text of the itinerary are taken, unless stated otherwise, from a report of a journey in June 1907. In the flood-season the passage from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Mosul has been made in 25 hrs. Inter. mediate distance Miles Right Bank. Diarbekr. River, 150-300 yds. wide and 3-12 ft. deep, 'flows in general direction S. Speed of raft 3 m.p.h. Valley generally 2-3 m. wide, bordered by low hills. Slopes at times covered with abundant grass. Swampy tract with willow gardens below Diarbekr. Substantial stone bridge over the river, partly Roman, partly Turkish in construction, carrying road to Farqin (Route 103 a). Charokhi, Chaldaean village (1 hr. from Diarbekr). The Hawār Su enters the Tigris. Pornakh, Kurdish village, 40 houses (45 mins. below Zorāweh). Yuvaijik, Kurdish village, 60 houses (45 mins. below Pornakh). Ferry. 3} Hajeti, Kurdish village, 70 houses (1 hr. 10 mins, below Arzogla). Qirq, Kurdish village, 70 houses (1 hr. 10 mins. below Hõleh), about 12 m. from the Tigris. The Gök Su joins the Tigris. . RIVER ROUTES 38 Left Bank. Total distance Miles ? 'Ambar, Kurdish village, 40 houses (15 mins. below Qirah Ambarc The 'Ambar Chai joins the Tigris. 281 Bismil, Kizilbash Korselleh). Ferry. village, 100 houses (1 hr. below 37 ? 40 ? Qurukji, Kurdish village, 35 houses (25 mins. below Tersakkeh). Bochelu, Kurdish village, 100 houses (55 mins. below Qurukji). (This place is given as 36 m. and 12 hrs. below Diarbekr in a report of 1903. The times here given make a total of 11 hrs. from Diarbekr.) Zari, Kurdish village, 50 houses (25 mins. below Tepeh). Kehhāna, Kurdish village, 30 houses (20 mins. below Zari). 452 452? 46? ? Salāt, Kurdish village of 80 houses (1 hr. 20 mins. below Gunda Avdi). This is apparently the lower part of the village or Ashāghi Salāt ; compare Route 102 a, m. 354. The Hazro Su joins the Tigris here. Ferry over the Tigris. ? Köprü, Kurdish village of 40 houses (20 mins. below Tel Shahān). 'Ain Joli, Kurdish village of 20 houses (15 mins. below Köprü). This place seems to be marked on r. bank in W. 0. Map, sheet 25-on what authority is uncertain. The text follows a report of 1907. THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G 39 Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. Korselleh, Kurdish village, 90 houses (55 mins. below Ambar). Tersakkeh (Tezekli), Kizilbash and Kurdish village, 100 houses (35 mins. below Bismil). The Kerdilek Su joins the Tigris. Tepeh, Kurdish village, 150 houses (5 mins. below Bochelu). Gunda 'Isa, Armenian village, 50 houses (15 mins. below Kehhāna); see under Gunda Avdi, below. Kunjik, Kurdish village, 100 houses (5 mins. below Gunda 'İsa). Allis, Kurd and Armenian village, 60 houses (5 mins. below Kunjik). Gunda Avdi, Kurd and Armenian village, 40 houses (5 mins. below Allis). This village and Gunda 'Isa above, are placed by the W. 0. Map, Sheet 25, on the 1. bank : compare Route 102 a, m. 334, 331. The text follows traveller of 1907. Ferry opposite Salāt. ? Tel Shahān, Kurdish village, 110 houses (25 mins. below Salāt). RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles Khenjika (or Kunjik), Kurdish village of 25 houses (25 mins. below ‘Ain Joli). Batman Su joins the Tigris. After its junction with the Batman Su the Tigris flows for some time in a series of loops. The water becomes much colder. The rate of the current becomes 5-10 m.p.h., and one is seldom able to see more than 2,000 yds, ahead. It often looks as if the raft were heading for an impene- trable curtain of rock, until it suddenly opens to reveal a gorge. It is essential to keep in the middle of the current. At the edge of the stream are eddies and whirl- pools raised by projecting and sunken rocks. The stream passes some castles perched high up and curious little villages hidden in crevices in the rocks. At several places are cave-dwellings very difficult of access. Bediyah, village of Rajeba Kurds, 40 houses (10 mins. below Khasrika Shāhin). Limestone cliffs begin. Zirreki, village of Rajeba Kurds, 30 houses (3 hrs. below Bediyah). Bedān, village of Rajeba or Raman Kurds, 35 houses (25 mins. below Zirreki). Kuresha, village of Raman Kurds (45 mins. below Bedān). Ferry to Merdes opposite. Shkefta, village of Raman Kurds, 150 houses (35 mins. below Merdes). Ferry. Zakhora, village of Raman Kurds, 90 houses (1 hr. 5 mins. below Shkefta). Zoheiri, village of Deran Kurds, 90 houses (25 mins. below Zakhora). ? 96 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G 41 Inter. mediate distance Miles Right Bank. 14 i Zheweh, village of Habesbini Kurds, 30 houses (10 mins. below Khenjika). ! Khasrika Shāhin, village of Habesbini Kurds, 15 houses (25 mins. below Zheweh). --- -- - Kela Alodina, 40 houses (30 mins. below Kuresha). Merdes, village of Habesbini Kurds, 30 houses (35 mins. below Kela Alodina). Ferry. Ferry to Shkefta opposite. 36 i Hasan Kaif, large village (30 mins. below Zoheiri). Pop. estimated in 1907 as occupying 500 Kurdish houses and 100 of Syrian Christians. Some Yezidis. Ruined bridge (see below). Boat ferry. Hasan Kaif has been de- scribed as one of the most remarkable sights on the upper Tigris. As one approaches the village the banks rise perpendicularly in a wall of rock in which are numerous tombs. The gorge of the river which thus gives access to Hasan Kaif opens out into a large oval RIVER ROUTES Left Bank Total distance Miles Mouth of Hazo or Ridhwan Su. Milika, village of Aleka Kurds, 20 houses (15 mins. below Shaibiyeh). 102 105 Khandaq, village of Aleka Kurds, 15 houses (25 mins. below Milika). In report of April 1903 this place is estimated at 48 m. and 12 hrs. below Bochelu. In the text, follow. ing report of June 1907, the total time from Bochelu is 141 hrs. Bela Beleka, village of Aleka Kurds, apparently variously estimated at 10 and 50 houses (50 mins. below Khandaq). Avta village, 30 houses of Armenian and Aleka Kurds (1 hr. below Bela in June, 45 mins. in April). Til (or Tela Nauroyi), Armenian village, 20 houses : 40 109 113 1141 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. hollow. The high precipice overlooking the l. bank is honeycombed with cave-dwellings connected with each other by internal staircases. These are so high up that human figures look minute. On the opposite side of the hollow, half a mile from the river, is a high ridge of rock over- looking the wooded space below. This ridge also presents la continuous frontage of arches and openings into the caves beyond. The stony paths on the face of the rock lead over the roof of one habitation to the next. In the river are the ruined piers of a fine (Roman ?) bridge of four arches. The ancient piers could be utilized now as piers for a military bridge. Span about 100 ft. The third arch and one land span of 50 ft. are still standing. Pace of raft in April 1903, 3-5 m.p.h. to Khandaq. Between Hasan Kaif and Jezīret-ibn-'Omar the river winds through a number of narrow gorges with steep walls of limestone with many lock tombs. Here and there bands of vegetation, ferns, and green moss and oleander bushes. (The distance to Til given below may be a few miles too short.) Kefr Albo, village of Deraf Kurds, 40 houses (30 mins. below Hasan Kaif). Deraf, village of Deraf Kurds, 100 houses (30 mins. below Kefr Albo). Ferry. Shaibiyeh, village of Deraf Kurds, 40 houses (25 mins. below Deraf). From here to about 3 m. below the mouth of the Bohtan the valley is much wider. The high moun. tains are 2 or 3 m. back from the river, and the low inner hills are of red clay covered with grass. 4 Valley fairly open and covered ; Rough rapids below Bela with grass. RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles mins. below Avta in June, 15 mins. in April; distance as in A[ilitary Report (April). The Bohtan Su, the largest tributary of the Tigris above Mosul: It is 200 yds. wide at the mouth, and appears to be here quite as large as the main river. There is a ford across the Bohtan a few miles above the junction. 'Ali Ramo, village of 5 houses. 123 126 Pir ed-Dal, tributary, joins Tigris, 30 yds. wide (40 mins. below Challek in April and June). 127 130 1301 133 Kesta, village of Dakshuri Kurds estimated at 20 houses in 1903 and 150 houses in 1914, in an amphitheatre of high limestone mountains. (This place was 40 mins. below the Pīr-ed-Dal in April, and about 1 hr. 20 mins. in June. Dis- tance as in Military Report.) A break in the gorge below Kesta. 1352 138 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Right Bank. Inter- mediate distance Miles Below the Bohtan the speed of the descent by raft in. creased in April 1903 to 8 m.p.h. The augmented Tigris now enters a series of great gorges over 50 m. in length and at many points scarcely 100 ft. wide. Through this narrow passage the stream rushes with great force, raising waves that make the keleks rock noticeably. Moweleh, village of Dakshuri Kurds, 60 houses. (This is given as , m. below Til in the Military Report, the time in April being 10 mins., and in June 20 mins.) Very rough rapids (25 mins. below Moweleh in April) and gorge which continues down to Challek. Challek, Syrian and Kurdish village, 40 houses (1 hr. below Moweleh in April, 40 mins. in June. Distance as in Military Report). This is a halting-place for rafts, and a river port for villages to the W., from which grain and firewood are shipped. From Challek to Hardak the valley opens out a little. Open side-valley from which a stream joins Tigris. Hardak, Kurdish village estimated at 5 houses in 1903 and 30 houses in 1907. Between this point and Khesta are Bogcheh Musan and Ghera Silo Bavo, Kurdish villages respectively 30 and 50 mins. below Hardak. River is 100 yds. wide in a narrow gorge. Rough rapids. Very rough rapids. Ferry. ස් උප co nevarno de Rapids. Germav, Kurdish village of 10-25 houses, hot spring (apparently also called Hammām. This is placed 40 mins. below Kesta in June). The low hills near the river are of | soft grey shale. Below Germav the river runs in a deep 46 RIVER ROUTES 1- ! Left Bank. Total distance Miles 139 1391 Small stream enters Tigris. Dilan, Kurdish village of 30 houses (25 mins. below Germav). Ferry. 1451 1491 Perpeti Su, apparently between Hetem and Gundo Sheikh. 1601 Finuk, Kurdish village, 30 houses (1 hr. 25 mins. below Gundo Sheikh). Ferry. Gardens. For further description see Route 85, m. 9. Valley widens to l. Deran, Chaldaean village, 30 houses (50 m. below Finuk). Rohsur Su, large tributary, joins Tigris (see Route 85, m. 44). Olive garden below junction. · Mansuriyeh, small Chaldaean village of 20-40 houses (25 mins. below Deran). 1621 165 166 1692 THE TIGRIS ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. gorge between hills and cliffs 500 ft. high, covered with scattered thorn trees. Rapids shake the raft a good deal, but there is no danger so long as the raft keeps in mid-stream well away from the rocks on the banks. Enter narrow gorge in limestone hills. This in April was 40 mins. below Kesta. Herpisen Su, apparently about opposite Dilan. Rapids. Stream enters, 10 ft. wide. River bends ESE. Hetem, village of Memmam Kurds, 50 houses (1 hr. 35 mins. below Dilan). Ferry. i Gundo Sheikh, village of Memmam Kurds, 25 houses (45 mins. below Hetim). Valley opens out to the r., and speed in April dropped to 5 m.p.h. The breadth of the river in the gorge is not much over 100 yds. Zewa, small village on hill to r. Island. Jezīret-ibn-Omar (1 hr. below Mansuriyeh). Boat-bridge (see Route 90 a, m. 109%). River 135 yds. wide ; current 21 m.p.h. (1.w.). For the Tigris below Jezīret the main authority here fol. lowed descended the river in 1892. The journey was made in October, when the river was lowest : a rise of a foot is said to make an important difference to navigation. Moreover, the bed of the river being liable to alterations due to the annual floods, the details as to rapids, shingle ledges, &c., are no longer reliable. Changes may also have occurred in the number, position, size, or names of villages on the banks. RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles Low undulations on 1. bank. 170 1703 Qasr Delau, 20 Kurd huts. Spring. Some gardens and orchards. Almonds, figs, apricots, pears, mulberries, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes. 1711 172 1721 1731 1741 174 Low undulations. 1753 176 177 1774 Mahmadi village, 20 Kurd huts, 178 1782 THE TIGRIS--ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. The navigation before the war was fairly safe, but there was still some risk that rafts may be stopped by small bands of Kurds. On account of sunken ruins off Jezīret raftsmen have to be careful in flood, and they are taken by the right or western channel. The current past the entrance to this channel is so strong that several men ashore with ropes are required to guide the raft. For further particulars of the country adjacent to the river as far as Rubāhi, see Route 90 a, m. 943-110. Cross a ledge of shingle which causes a quickening of the current to about 4 m.p.h. AW Pīr-i-Bahfit, stone bridge (ruins); one arch of about 60 ft. span still standing next r. bank; piers of other arches visible. Below is a slight rapid formed by a shingle-bank, 3 to 31 ft. water in October. Pace of raft, 21-23 m.p.h. River-bed 300 yds. wide, channel 150-200 yds. Ford in autumn ? Shingle island; channel next 1. bank deepest, 3 ft. Wind round the base of a high spur from E. Short ledge, with 3 ft. of water, and 200 yds. further another ledge 300 yds, long over which the current quickens to about 4 m.p.h. | Another ledge with 3-32 ft. of water; current 41 m.p.h. Anjiwa, village in a ravine, gardens. Masr, Christian village, 20 huts. Wide deep reach ; stream in flood 800 yds. wide ; low undulations on either bank. Ledge 30 yds. broad with 31 ft. of water, followed by a sudden dip into deep water again. Broad ledge at right angles to the stream with 24-3 ft. of water ; rapid current. Masr, Kurdish portion, 20 huts. Many nomad Kurds winter along r. bank. į | Large shingle island; the r. channel is the better. This NES. IV 50 RIVER ROUTES Left Bank, Total distance Miles Slight rapid 180 Korugh, 15 Kurd houses, i m. distant. here, with 5-6 ft. of water. 1803 182 1831 The Zakho-Jezīret-ibn-'Omar road (see Route 90 a) skirts the 1. bank. Rawini, 30 houses (deserted 1903). Width of stream 150-200 yds. A slight rapid for some 400 yds. with 4 ft. of water at its upper end. The Nurdush Su, a large stream, joins Tigris down a shingly valley 700 yds. broad entirely filled in flood, but river may be reduced to 30 ft. wide and 18 in. deep, with a strong flow. Chemkara, 10 houses. Deep slow reach. A short rapid with about 6 ft. T.L. to Mosul follows the 1. bank. Qal'ah Rubāhi, ruined fort on a knoll. Village and gardens irrigated by canals from a large stream. 184 185 1852 1861 Rubāhi, Kurdish village of 100 houses with ruined church. 188 1881 1902 1921 Rehani, village of 30 houses. Long, straight reach, 6-10 ft. deep. 1932 1957 THE TIGRIS—ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. has a long diagonal shingle bank across it with 3 ft. of water. A little lower is another bank with 3ft. of water for 30 yds. and then a sudden dip into water 10 ft. deep. River takes sharp turn SW. with slight rapid and 5 ft. of water. Low conglomerate cliffs narrow the river bed here, showing marks of a flood rise of 18-20 ft. Stream 8 ft. deep and 100-150 yds. broad. Derek, 20 Kurd houses on low cliffs. A small ledge with 3 ft. of water just above the village. Chemsheraf village, 50 houses. Low, gravelly cliffs at intervals on either bank. River bed 600-800 yds. of shingle and gravel Channel here deep and slow, 250 yds. wide. A large sandy island, the r. channel being best. Channel narrows to 60 yds., with a rapid 6 ft. deep and easy to pass. Some low cliffs and conglomerate boulders. 1 Qara Karān, Kurdish village of 20 houses. Long ledge in the channel, with 3 ft. of water. ; Rapid reach for 1 m. with 5 ft. of water. Two rocky ledges jut out a short way from 1. bank. 2 1 Shingly island ; 1. channel the better, 100 yds. wide and 15 ft. deep. Such islands are covered in flood. Little water in r. channel. 24 ¡ Small rapid, 4-5 ft. deep. D 2 RIVER ROUTES Left Bank, Total distance Long, easy rapid, 4 ft. deep, next the l. bank. Miles 1961 1971 Kuroveh and Maghareh, two small Kurdish villages, m. distant. Khabūr Su, a large tributary, enters Tigris here. This is navigable for rafts from Zakho up to the middle of June after the spring floods. At other times it may contain very little water. 1981 1992 201 2021 2031 Feishkhabur (Peishkhabur), 200 houses of Uniate Chal- daeans on a knoll. The houses are well built of stone and mud, and it is a fairly thriving place. Some gardens along the foot of the knoll, and an irrigated flat 2 m. to the S. growing rice and cotton with fruit. To E. of Feishkhabur is the end of the Jebel Abyadh range. The slopes of these hills are here easy. From this range numerous small streams flow into the Tigris. In 1892 there was a ferry of one pontoon which could carry 6 to 8 laden mules, and was 25 ft. long and 12 ft. broad, with one end cut down to allow animals to enter. See further Routes 90 b, c, d. 204 2053 m. of shingle on 1. bank, covered at flood. 207 Bojideh, Yezidi village, 50 houses. Tensan, village of Moslems and Yezidis, 30 houses. 208 2091 210 2103 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. Kharāb Rashib, Christian village of 50 houses. Low hills. A mile below Kharāb Rashib the bed widens and a shingle island is formed; r. channel is the better, with a slight rapid having 21 to 3 ft. of water. Fordable here in October. Below this point two small ledges of shingle, with 22 to 3 ft of water. 1ż Enter slow deep reach below the mouth of the Khabūr Su. | Saimurka village. (This and Kamik village, 1 m. further down, had been burnt by nomads in 1892.) A few ledges of conglomerate rock close to the r., but none in the stream itself. Earth cliffs, 100 ft. high. Beyond these rise flat-topped undulations which culminate 4 m. off in the Qarachok Dāgh, a bare rugged range of no great elevation. Broad shingle ledge with 23-3 ft. of water. Below this is a reach 300 yds. broad, deepest next the r. bank. Long diagonal shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water, deepest next the l. bank. Pass a shingle ledge with 21-3 ft. of water. The river makes a bend to W. Small rapid, with 3 ft. of water. A long shingle ledge with 21-3 ft. of water, deepest next r. bank, where there are cliffs of earth and broken con- RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles 2111 212 Bishari village, in ruins. 2122 2123 2131 Pass some gardens. 2141 Wide stretch of shingle. 216 Ledges of rock. 2171 Small stream. 219 2192 2212 222 Cliffs begin on 1. Small stream. 2241 227 - -- - -- -- -- - - -- THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. glomerate rock, rising about 100 ft., cut up with numerous ravines. A slight rapid 4 ft. deep. Near Bishari is a small rapid with 3 ft. of water. Mushora Dāgh, a line of low hills 3 m. distant, parallel to river. Valley narrows, with cliffs of loose rock and earth on either hand. | River takes sharp turn E. under cliffs 100 ft. high on the r. Some ledges of rock project from the r. half-way across the stream, but leave a deep channel about 50 yds. wide. Sharp bend to the N. for 3 m. begins. The flood-marks indicate a rise of 20 ft. Two small rapids with 4 and 31 ft. of water respectively. Cliff. End of northerly bend, river turns SE. again. Deep channel close to r. به باد River passes through the defile called the Baghluja Boghaz, where the channel narrows to 40 yds., having ledges of rock on either side with scattered boulders in the stream next the right and a flat ledge on the left. Current about 5 m.p.h. The centre channel is deep with no rocks in the fairway. This passage is only difficult at low water. The narrow portion is 100 yds. long, after which one enters a long straight reach deepest next the left. A small ledge of rocks in the stream close to the r., one rock being just awash in October. Sharobi, small village on a cliff. Small shingle ledge forms a rapid 41 ft. deep. Below Sharobi there is another sharp easterly bend with cliffs 150 ft. high of rocks and loose earth known as Skefsofi cliffs, the end of the Ghirmathak Dāgh, low rounded hills which runs NW. A sharp turn S. again and a small rapid. Cliffs cease on r. A broad rapid 21-3 ft. deep narrowing to a quick rush for a short distance 5-6 ft. deep. A ledge of rock on r. bank, causing an eddy, which can be passed by keeping to the RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles 2271 2281 Qasr Mullā Tayyib, ruins. Below is a slow deep reach | 2311 with scattered boulders along the l. bank. 2353 2361 2363 2381 2391 241 2423 Ledges of rock. 2433 2453 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. 1 1. bank. The Ghirmathak or Butma Dāgh continues W. for about 1 m. and dies away. Broad shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water. i Shingly island. The channel next the r. bank is the deeper. At the top there is a sharp rush for 30 yds., and below it is deep, 50 yds. wide, but with a tumbled mass of conglomerate boulders on r. Traverse a loop. CO A Alo 13 Sheikhuba, Kurdish village, 30 houses on a bluff. These (Sliwāni) Kurds are sedentary, and inhabit the villages to the NE. Downstream are Huseineh Kurds. Kefr Zemān, halting place for rafts in a slow deep reach. The stream is 150 yds. wide with shingle for nearly 1 m. on the l. covered in flood. Flood-marks indicate a rise of 10 ft. in flood. Shingle island ; 1. channel better, 5 ft. of water. Āv-i-Tahid (? Wādi Suediyeh) joins Tigris. The land to the W. is in winter and spring a grazing.ground for nomad Kurds and Arabs. It lacks water in summer and autumn. | Sharp turn S. with a ledge of rocks showing 4 ft. next the l. bank. An easterly bend, the stream dividing into 3 channels between shingle islands, the centre containing most water, 3-4 ft. deep. Settlements of Jebūr Arabs begin. They cultivate millet and live in booths of reeds or in tents. They are peaceful and inoffensive and dread the Bedouin of the desert. Fields of millet irrigated by cherrads. Small rapid with 3-32 ft. of water. Sheikh Mohammed Raba'ah, Arab village of 60 houses. Cross a shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water just opposite the village. 5 ft. of water in the channel on the r. The current quickens here for 150 yds. Below this is a shingly island, the l. channel being the better and containing 21-3 ft. of water. It is possible to ford here at certain times. Khamsiniyeh, Arab village with mudir. Channel 300 yds. wide, opposite village. A ferry here of a single boat to hold six laden mules. Open shelving 1 RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles Sheikhuba, village of 30 houses. 247 2511 2521 Derek, village of 20 Arab houses. Sūsān, Yezidi village, 30 houses. 254 255 256 2572 Chemberrikat, Yezidi village, 20 houses. Low rounded hills rise beyond it. 2584 Khānich, Yezidi village, 50 houses on rising ground on the l. bank. 2591 260 Khāneh Qapaq, Yezidi village, 30 houses, į m. off. 2662 2684 Tereh Spi, Yezidi village, 30 houses. 267 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G 59 Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. banks and approaches. Some 5 m. W. is a line of low hills. A mile below Khamsiniyeh pass an island of shingle by the l. and deepest channel. There is a shingle ledge 20 yds. broad with 2 to 21 ft. of water over it. Large rafts at low water have sometimes to unload to get over it. Another island, the r. channel being best, containing 3 ft. of water over a ledge at the upper end. Tel Silail village, 1 m. distant, near mound. After a deep reach, cross a small shingle ledge with 5 ft. of water. Long diagonal ledge of conglomerate rock opposite Derek, r. channel being best, with 21-3 ft. of water for 20 yds. and a rapid current and then deep water. Some clearing of this ledge would be required to improve the navigation at low water. Sūsān, Arab village. Ferry of a single boat propelled by one pair of oars. Deep slow reach. A long shingle ledge with 24-3 ft. of water, deepest next r. bank. Sharp bend to SW. NE Long diagonal ledge with 3 ft. of water next the l. under a projecting cliff. Below turn sharply to the E. Cliffs 30-40 ft. high along the r., rising to hills,' 200-250 ft. above the river. Khān-i-Shirin, Arab village, 30 houses. Extensive ruins. Slow deep reach. Two large shingle islands. Take the l. channel past the first, then cross, and descend the r. channel of the second. Current rapid, but deep water. Hasūmi, Arab village, about 30 houses. Some distance below Khāneh Qapaq. ? A shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water. } | Wakmamitri (Wakvamari), Arab village, 30 huts on a knoll 50 ft. above the river. 11) 60 RIVER ROUTES Left Bank Total distance Miles Jessār, halting-place for rafts with ruins of a village. 2703 Jessār, small village. 2731 275 278 Tel Fisna, Arab village near mound 1 m. from bank and near stream entering Tigris. Blal Habbish Gumbet, small white gumbet with a pointed top, on an isolated mound 300 ft. high, forming a prominent landmark. Durhal village, 20 houses. Ferry of one boat. 2783 Butaq Su (small stream in autumn) enters Tigris. 280 2802 2803 2813 Babanuk, Kizil bash village of 60 houses with 4 or 5 good stone houses. A small Yezidi shrine near. 2811 2831 2841 2851 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Niles Right Bank. High cliffs rising to 100 ft. Numerous ravines. Below Jessār halting-place begins a curious winding loop to the E. Low hills culminating in an isolated knoll 300 ft. high 11 m. SSW. i Cliffs now cease to the r. ! Pass a shingle island, the right channel being best, with 5 ft. of water over a small ledge. Cliffs about 50 ft. high, alternate layers of sandstone and conglomerate, with several ravines. Jessār village, 20 houses, second village of that name. Tel Fisna, 10 houses. Easy broad reach. Wind round isolated mound on which Blal Habbish Gumbet stands. w co Alw Cliffs cease on the r., and the banks become low and shelving. Follow a loop in which are three Arab villages called Kerhul. Cross long diagonal ledge, deepest next to the l., with 21-3 ft. of water. A single flat-topped rock in mid-stream, about a foot above the water. Small stream enters Tigris. Jecana, Yezidi village of 40 houses. .. On 1. bank are some flat-topped ledges of conglomerate, rising 3 ft. out of the water. They extend about one-third of the way across, but leave sufficient fairway, with 3-5 ft. of water near the r. bank. Ferry; one boat. ml A strong rapid, about 6 ft. deep, close to the l., with a passage 50 yds. wide between a rock and a shingle bank. Botit Tang, a difficult passage formed by a ledge just awash, which leaves a passage 12 yds. wide between it and some low cliffs on 1. bank. There is a strong rush of water in the low season. Next r. bank is a shingle bank, where the depth is 18 in. to 2 ft. in l.w., so that with higher water the narrow passage could be avoided and this channel taken. Reach a point S. of Jessār halting place said to be "2 m. 14 RIVER ROUTES - Left Bank. . Total distance Miles 2871 Beraziz, halting-place. 2883 2893 2921 2923 Wanna, second village of that name, 100 houses. Ferry ; one boat. 2961 2981 2997 3002 301) Deir Umtutha, Arab village, 30 houses. 3041 Musherra, Arab village of 20 booths. Fields of millet, irrigated by cherrads. 3053 3077 3094 Maserik village, 40 stone houses. 309 3111 Kifrij village, 40 stone houses. A stream joins above it. Sheikh Mohammed Ziyāret, tomb surrounded by a few trees. Awaini village, 20 houses. Jedeideh village. 313) 3151 3161 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G ---------- - -- Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank. from it. The stream turns SSW., making a wider loop to the W. Some high earth cliffs on the r. bank at the turn. Hatuni, village of 20 houses, river 120 yds. broad. Slow current. A little below is a shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water. Another similar ledge, and then a slow deep reach. Low cliffs ; slow deep reach. Long shingle ledge, with 4 ft. of water. Shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water. Hassori, Arab village, 30 houses. Wanna village, 30 houses. 1 Fort of Eski Mosul, ruins on a mound. It is of masonry and about 150 yds. square, with towers at the corners. A short way below is Eski Mosul village, with extensive. ruins. Two shingle ledges with 21-3 ft. of water. Deepest channel near the r. bank. After this emerge into a broad reach, with low hills on r. bank. Small rapid with 3 ft. of water. Shingle ledge with 3 ft. of water. Ghelaga village, 15 houses on a low mound. Abu Sufeir, scattered settlement of 30 Arab tents and booths of reeds. Melons and cucumbers are grown and floated down to the Mosul market in large nets or on keleks. On both banks numerous low ridges and undulations. Sakarra village, 20 houses, į m. from bank, some millet fields. Rapid of shingle with 2 ft. 9 in. to 3 ft. of water next the 1. bank. An easy rapid with 4 ft. of water. Below Kifrij is a shingle island with deepest channel near the 1. bank; in this there is a small rapid. 2 Tel Astair village. Ferry; one boat. Hometot Pass some shingle islands, the channel next the r. bank being deepest. RIVER ROUTES Left Bank. Total distance Miles Khöja Khalīl village, 15 houses. 3171 3203 Sheikh Mohammed village, 20 houses, near some ruins. 3231 Sunken rock close to the l. bank. Guba, 120 good stone houses some 600 yds. from river. 3251 3261 3287 3283 Reshidiyeh, village containing 50 houses, some of stone. Shīrīn Khān lies beyond it. Howeiyeh Ziyaret: a few trees here. Mar Girgis monastery about 11 m. to NE. Gathiyeh (or Kadiköi), village of 100 huts, about 1 m. distant. 3291 3331 THE TIGRIS-ROUTE III G Inter- mediate distance Miles Right Bank, 1 | Two small rapids at the lower end of the reach with 3 ft. and 3 ft. 6 in. of water respectively. A sharp turn to the S. here, at which there are cliffs 100 ft. high of earth and rock. A deep slow reach from 300-400 yds. wide begins. Dernajo village, 15 houses. Badosh village, 40 houses. Rapid with 3 ft. of water. Gamerchi village, 20 houses, near some ruins. Single boat ferry. Low undulations. Halailah, Arab village of 20 houses. In this neighbour. hood, perhaps on 1. bank, is Baisan, village of 40 houses, with a white gumbet near it. Turn S. ; view of Mosul opens up. Ferry; one boat. Below, the river divides into two channels between islands of earth and shingle covered with low bushes. Both channels are used, the r. oftenest. The l. channel is 21 ft. deep with a rather rapid stream. A minor channel with little water keeps to the l., but is used only in flood. | Mosul. Deep water and slow current in front of town. 4 MES, IV THE EUPHRATES ROUTE IV I BIRIJIK—MESKENEH Authority:— Dobbs, Report on a Journey by river from Birijik to Fellūjeh,. January-February 1903. Between Birijik and Meskeneh, the navigation of the river down- stream by a shakhtur presented no serious difficulties in January 1903, except at the rapids just below Jerablūs. Depths varied from 6 to 12 ft., but the river was unusually full for the season. The current varied from 3 to 41 m.p.h. except at the rapids near Jerablūs and below El-Hammām, where it rose to 6 m.p.h. The width of the river was 150-250 yds., except where it broadened to tm. below Qalʼat en-Nejm. At the Jerablūs rapid the navigable channel was only 25 yds. The authority referred to above, in discussing generally the possibilities of steam-navigation on the Euphrates between Birijik and Fellūjeh, comes to the conclusion that the downstream journey would be easy from April to July, but that the upstream navigation would be very slow: and that in the 1.w. season (August-November) navigation by steamer would be too risky to be profitable (commercially). The principal dangers which he mentions as likely to attend navigation of the Euphrates from December to March are not connected with this section of the river. It is reported that the Germans have established a river-port at Jerablūs, and they may have done something to improve navigation on this part of the river. The bed of the stream is of soft mud or gravel. Along the river stretches a fertile belt of land producing wheat and barley without irrigation, and containing scattered mud villages. It varies from 1 to 3 m. in length and is bounded by low chalk or gypsum hills. The Aleppo--Ras el-'Ain railway crosses the Euphrates at Jerablus by a steel bridge (see p. 416). At Birijik the river is usually about 300 yds. wide. Its greatest width in flood is 700-800 yds. There is a strong current. A depth of 8 ft. is sometimes found, but usually there is 5-6 ft. of water. The approaches on the l. bank are much steeper than those on the r.. ROUTE IV I The following is the account given by Mr. Dobbs of the navigation of the river from Birijik to Meskeneh in January 1903:- Between Birijik and Alif Orfu (Oghla ?) the average depth is 12 ft., the pace of the current 3 m.p.h., and the width of the river 200 yds. m. below Alif Orfu (Oghlū ?) is an island unnamed about 1 m. in length. The navigable channel goes to the r. 1m. further down is another small island unnamed. The navigable channel goes to the l. Here the stream increases to 41 m.p.h. and continues at that pace until past Jera blūs. ... The stream as far as this point seems now to present no difficulties to navigation, and the depth was in no places where I sounded less than 6 ft. Half a mile below the ruins of Jera blūs the pace of the cur- rent increases to about 6 m.p.h., and there is a somewhat dangerous rapid lasting about 500 yards. The navigable channel is only about 25 yards broad, but in this channel the depth of water is ample, being about 12 ft. At the head of the rapid the channel keeps in mid-stream. After 350 yards it runs close in under the high 1. bank and continues on this course until the rapids end 150 yards further down. We passed some boats full of grain stuck in the rapids about half-way down, having kept too much to the left, and our boatmen said that numbers of boats were lost here every year. One and a half miles lower down, opposite Yerablis Zir (? Ashāghi Jerablūs), a village on r. bank, there is another rapid stretch, extending over a distance of about 3 m., the current being about 41 m.p.h. This rapid, however, contains no shallows. About 6 m. below Jerablūs we passed the island known as Jezīreh Ahmad, the navi. gable channel going to the right. About 4 m. lower down is the island of Boiraz, the navigable channel, 100 yds. broad, going to the left. The pace of the current, which had been only about 3 m.p.h., here increased to about 5 m.p.h., the average depth of the water being 9 ft. At the S. end of Boiraz, the stream spreads into several small channels, the navigable one goes to the left and is not more than 50 yds. wide. Three m. lower down (about 3 m. above Qizil Euyuk) is the island of Qirq Maghareh, the navigable channel going to the left. About a mile below Hammām there is a short piece of rapid, the current about 6 m.p.h., but no shallows, the depth being about 6 ft., and a short way below this is the whirlpool of Chaulik, which is said to offer some difficulties in heavy floods. From this point to a point about 3 m. below Qal'at en-Nejm the width of the river is about 150 yds., the current about 3 m.p.h., and the average depth 6 ft. At the latter point the stream broadens out over a wide gravelly bed, the width of which is about k m., and this broad stretch continues for about 6 m., the navigable channel, about 6 ft. deep, E 2 68 THE EUPHRATES being close to r. bank. Therefrom, until opposite the shrine of Sheikh Arud (a distance of about 25 m.), the river resumes its ordinary breadth of about 250 yds., the current being about 3 m.p.h. A short way below Sheikh Arud is the island of Mugharab el. Baghl, about 7 m. long. The navigable stream goes to the left and the current increases to about 41 m.p.h. Two m. below the N. end of this island is a second smaller island, and the navigable channel passes between the two. The width of the channel past the islands is about 100 yds. From these islands to near the place shown as Surje or El-Hammām on Dr. Kiepert's map, a distance of about 80 m., the average width is about 250 yds., the current 3 m.p.h., and the depth 8 ft. Navigation of this stretch presents no difficulties. ... Three m. above Meskeneh is the Jezīret el-Mullah, the navigable stream going to the right. Opposite Meskeneh again is an island, the navigable channel going to the left.' The flat-bottomed boats known as shakhtūrs are built at Birijik. They are oblong in shape, 18 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, with a depth from gunwale to flooring of about 22 ft. They draw 11 ft. fully loaded. The bottom consists of tree-trunks sawn in half, beneath which flat boards are nailed, and a flooring of flat boards is fastened 1 ft. above the bottom. The sides and ends of the boats consist of flat boards roughly nailed together, the interstices being stuffed with rags daubed with bitumen. The cost of building a boat of this sort is said to be about £T 41. One boat carries about 5 tons. Shakhtūrs nearly always travel in pairs, fastened together side by side. They are steered by clumsy sweeps, pulled in the bow, and are so unman- ageable that they can only travel in a flat calm. They carry mer. chandise downstream and are towed back empty. RAFT NAVIGATION ON THE UPPER EUPHRATES Downstream navigation by keleks is possible on this section of the river and also, under favourable conditions, above Birijik from Erzingan on the Frāt Su and from about three or four hours above Palu on the Murad. But where the Euphrates breaks through the main line of the Taurus, between Kumur Khān and Chunkush Ferry, there are some very bad and dangerous rapids. In April 1839, when the river was in high flood, these rapids were found by von Moltke to be quite impracticable: and it seems that they are extremely difficult, and perhaps impracticable, when the river is low. See further Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, p. 152. For description of keleks see Introduction to Route III G. LAND ROUTES CENTRAL KURDISTAN 1 ROUTE 60 a RANIYEH--URMIA (1631 m.) Authority:— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 108 (report of 1902). This route would form a main line of advance into north-western Persia from eastern Turkey in Asia, but would entail much labour in preparation and upkeep for the passage of large forces. The nature of the road varies greatly from good going over open level ground to steep ascents and descents through close and hilly country or marshy and swampy plains. It is only in parts passable for all arms. In some stages the road is too steep for heavy traffic and would require much labour to lessen the gradient. The Shulduz Chai, Lesser Zāb, and Nistān Su are all difficult to ford and would be impassable in flood time, and at such times the whole of the adjacent marshy land would be impracticable to animals. The alternative route given between Raniyeh and El-Watan via Ser Desht (Route 60 b) makes a détour over 40 m. longer than the main route, and can be further varied by intermediate hill tracks. Snow blocks the passes on the route leading out from Raniyeh during January and February, and military operations along the route would not be practicable in winter. The Urmia plain is very fertile and productive, but supplies else. where are limited. Grain is fairly plentiful in all the cultivated districts, but would be difficult to obtain in the hilly parts of the route, while grass is scarce in the hills, though probably easier to get in the plain. A certain amount of forest is met with in the hilly 1 Authorities consulted for Routes 60 a-89 b are marked with an asterisk in the list given in the general Bibliographical Note at the end of the volume (p. 459). Principal authorities for particular routes are in most cases mentioned in the notes prefixed to the detailed descriptions. LAND ROUTES parts, as well as stunted oaks and low scrub which would serve for firewood. Dried cow-dung is the chief fuel of the plains. Spring water and streams are plentiful along most of the route. Pack buffaloes, donkeys, and zebus can be got on the later stages near Urmia, but it is doubtful whether in great numbers, while in the hilly stages probably very few would be available. The Christian (Nestorian and Armenian) population of the Urmia plain used to be considerable, but see p. 32. Miles from Raniyeh 13 132 181 201 Raniyeh. The route goes in general direction NE. For the first 13 m. up to the Sharvat Su the route is the same as the Raniyeh-Banah route (see vol. iii, Route 41). Sharvat Su. Turn up and ascend the stream valley. Sultān Deh, large village of Mangūr Kurds. Ascend through village and skirt edge of valley. Pass Khān Diqqah, small Mangūr village. Cross small muddy stream. Pass Sharvat, large Mangūr village 2 m. off on the lower slopes of the hills to the N., the residence, in 1902, of Abraman Agha, chief of the Mangūr in the Pishder plain. Easy going, though very muddy at some times of the year, the path leading for the most part across fields. Descend a steep bank into a gully and reach Duchanān, Mangūr village of 20 houses ; residence of Safi Kidr Agha in 1902. General direction of route to El-Watan is N. Leaving the village, cross the Duchanān Chai from the N., here 5 yds. wide and 1 ft. deep. Ascend, following the stream, a wide gully with steep banks about 50 ft. high. Cross over to valley of another stream on the l. Pass Jalu Marjān, large Mamāsh village among trees on the l. bank of the river about 1 m. to r. Easy track along upper part of Pishder plain. A track leads across the fields to r. to Bālik, a small Mamāsh village under the r. bank. Pass cultivation to l. Valley narrows gradually and track gets more difficult. River winds considerably. Valley closes in. Descend into a stream valley by a winding stairway, partly artificial, in the rocks, and cross a stream. From here the track becomes more difficult. Pass some old ruins, of hewn stone, on the l. Path is now 211 23 262 ROUTE 60 a Miles from Raniyeh 291 31 351 difficult, winding along the rocky hill-side above the river with short but steep ascents and descents. Ford a stream from the NE., and, leaving the river bed, ascend the side of the valley of a tributary stream among rocks and then among scrub oak. Alt. 2,900 ft. Steep ascent from valley of river, over rocky débris. On the opposite bank is a small Mamāsh village amid sloping fields. The river is in a shingly bed, 150-200 yds. wide, with steep crumbling banks of red sandstone. Track very stony, but not otherwise difficult, keeping above the hill-side above the r. bank of the river. Ascend shaley hill-side over a spur. Pass Gurishir. A Mamāsh (Bilbās) village lies across the stream to the r. The Wazneh Su emerges from a gorge, and track ascends to the N. Above 1. bank of stream is the plateau of Shaniyeh, well cultivated with a few small villages and houses scattered on it. Above it are gentle slopes covered with oaks, rising to spurs from the summit of the Assus Dāgh. Descend the steep cliff on the r. bank of the stream. Ascend a steep ravine from the main valley of the Wazneh Su by an almost precipitous path. The path generally keeps some 20 ft. above the stream, but is broken away in places, when the stream has to be waded through. This is the most difficult part of the route. On the r., near the summit, is a small plateau known as Mergān, alt. 5,600 ft., with fields and cultivated terraces, deserted in winter. Ascend by a rocky, steep path winding up the l. side of a valley. Reach a col and cross a ridge known to the local Kurds as Da'watwar. Summit of the ridge, alt. 6,300 ft., forming the Turco- Persian frontier. Steep, stony descent. Cross a tributary of the Wazneh Su; then three parallel spurs, over which the road is a sandy track, 12 ft. wide, good going, after which it winds among rocks. The Wazneh plateau, alt. 5,500 ft., makes a rough figure of eight. Pasture said to be excellent. Keep first along the E. side of the southern loop, and then along the W. side of the northern loop. 371 407 72 LAND ROUTES Miles from Raniyeh 427 45 471 51 Cross the head-water of the Wazneh Su, now 15 yds. wide, and only a few inches deep in December; from this point it flows SE. To the l. is a plain called the Wazneh Yāilā, alt. 1,000 ft.(?), about 12 m. wide enclosed by hills with steep rocky sides, having a narrow opening close to l. of road, through which flows the Wazneh Su. A track to Ser Desht branches off to the r. Road goes through a gap in the hills to the N. Stony path winding among rounded, bare hills covered with gavvan. El-Watan (alt. 5,400 ft.), Kurdish village of about 50 houses, on a mound in a fairly wide valley among hills, the residence, in 1902, of Agha-i-Baizi, chief of the Mangūr, who claimed to be titular head of all the Bilbās Kurds. There is one large barn, used as a guest-house and also as a mosque. Few supplies and no barley obtainable. The village is deserted in summer, when the inhabitants go to Wazneh Yāilā. From El-Watan the general direction of the route to the Lahjān plain is N., but it first leads NE. Descend into the valley of the Lesser Zāb, and pass Gaurumar near the stream. An easy track along the wooded spurs which jut down into the river, following the r. bank until it opens into the Lahjān plain. The chief difficulties here are the crossings of a number of small tributaries which flow in deep beds cut out of the soft soil, but these become easier as the plain is reached. Forests of oak, mostly stunted. Track would require improving in places for wheels. Pass Tarkiash village, belonging to Baiz Agha of the Mangūr. Pass Gallalin, the village of Bapir Agha of the Mangūr. Enter the Lahjān plain, of irregular shape, 20 m. long and 15 broad, abundantly watered. General direction to Passova NE. Track over the Lahjān plain is perfectly easy and open, passing several Kurdish villages. Kaplisān, large village, about here. Route from Rowanduz (Route 61 d, m. 567) joins here. Ford a head-stream of the Lesser Zāb and approach hills to the N. 581 652 72% ROUTE 60 a 73 Miles from Raniyeh 761 ? Route to Saj Bulāq (Route 61 d, m. 601) branches off about here. 814 ! Pass Berk 'Amrān, 1 m. to the r. at the foot of a hill. Approach large stream, the head-waters of the Lesser Zāb, which flows S. round a small hill. 83 Skirt r. bank and pass village of Kandarkulan , m. to 1. Here the main stream bifurcates into two, flowing from the NE. Cross both these. Level and easy going, chiefly over fields without any signs of a track. 93 Passova, a large Kurdish village, practically ruinous, and the chief place in the Lahjān plains, with the residence of the chief of the Mamāsh section of the Bilbās Kurds on a mound above it. Big ruined khan. Old tel crowned with ruins of a government house. Zenieh and monolith of granite. Indifferent water. Besides the route described below, another track leads to Chiāneh (see under m. 1091). General direction to Yenikend NNE. Leaving Passova village ascend a valley to the N., skirting a stream to the r. The hills close in. Gradual ascent by a very winding track for 2 m. to a small plateau, the summit of the pass, the Gutrawāl Gedik, the most direct and easiest route from Passova to Sulduz. Another track goes to Ushnu by Jildigān. This is marked as passable for wheels on the W.O. map (sheets 34 and 27) of 1916. 97 Gatrawāl Gedik, alt. 5,900 ft. Descend a very steep and stony path for 12 m. by a track that would require improving for wheeled traffic. After this it becomes easier Valley joined by another from the SE. from Sūj Bulāq. 981 Baizava, small Kurdish village. | Gentle descent by an easy track, the valley becoming more open and less rugged. Small stream. 1027 Gelwan, Kurdish village. Join the road which comes from Sūj Bulāq (272 m.). 107 Bāliqji, a small Kurdish village at the foot of the hills bounding Sulduz plain on the S. Valley opens out into the plain. 1092 Naghirdeh, the principal village in the Sulduz plain and the residence of the Reshid-i-Sultān, a Persian official. It contains 600 houses grouped round the foot of a mound. 74 LAND ROUTES Miles from Raniyeh Chiāneh, 300 houses, on a mound near the southern edge of the plain, among orchards and cultivation, about 21 m. to w. of Naghirdeh. An alternative and probably shorter route runs through it from Gelwan to El-Malik. Leaving Chiāneh, follow an indefinite track over the plain through marshy fields, avoiding irrigation cuts and deep ditches. (For an alternative route from Chiāneh to Urmia by Ushnu, see Route 60 с. Another track leads to m. 131į below via Dīzeh on Lake Urmia.) 1151 El-Malik. Cross a succession of swampy fields used for rice growing. In dry weather movement would be easy in all directions. In rainy weather, however, the plain becomes a sea of mud and progress is rendered very slow. 1162 Ford the Sulduz Chai (also known as the Jerratu or Gadar), which is difficult to cross in the rains : width (when crossed in November) 40 yds.; depth 31 ft. On the far bank pass the village of Bechāni. | Lawashli, large village on 1. Reach foot of hills on N. side of plain. A good track crosses here and goes E. to Lakhtamor. 1192 , Cross ridge at a low col. Easy road, but rather winding, on account of projecting spurs which have to be turned. 121 Pass Yenikend, a large Qarapapak village, the residence of the Sertip of the district. Another track, which is the main route from Naghirdeh, rejoins here, avoiding the hills by keeping farther E. General direction to Jairān N. 123 Qara Zār, a Qarapapak village. Pass Qara Bulāq, the first of a succession of villages in a narrow plain which runs SE. 127 Steady ascent leaving the Sulduz plain. Cross a spur. Pass Gulger, i m. to l. Pass Bālusān, in a valley 1 m. to r. Pass Julber, on side of hill 1 m. to r. Road lies over spurs running down towards the lake. Easy going, ascents and descents being very gradual. Sheitānābād, large village in fertile, well-watered meadows and gardens. Good camping-grounds near it. Ascend by an easy road from the valley. 1281 Top of spur. Cross a succession of easy spurs from the hills to the 1. 130% Descend to the shores of Lake Urmia, passing W. of the 125 ROUTE 60 a Miles from Raniyeh 1341 1371 1401 village of Tāshaqli under some cliffs and crossing a small stream. A much-used road, easy for wheels, from Chiāneh or Naghir- deh along the lake shore through Dīzeh, joins route here. | Reshakhan, á m. to r. on the lake shore. Mud fort 300 yds. to l. Patches of cultivation. Bāsh Agal village. 1361 Reach margin of a wide extent of marsh which may be covered by the waters of the lake. Cross low ridge of a spur from 1., alt. 4,925 ft., and descend from ridge soon turning W. 138 An upper track branches off, and avoids Jairān (m. 1424, below), going round it. 1381 Dolameh village to r. Pass another Dolameh about 1 m. up valley to l. Mehki, m. to r. Skirt edge of lake for 1 m. with gentle ascent up slopes of hills coming down to its shores. 1412 Buzar Gabad. Continue generally NW. A range of low hills close on l. Wide flats stretching towards the lake, and alternate patches of cultivation and swamp. 142 Guldan on r. bank of a stream ; through winding lanes, much cultivation, and enclosed country. Cross low spurs. 1424 Ford the Derim Qalʼah Chai, a tepid stream, 10 yds. wide and 1 ft. deep. Over some open ground and through a few gardens to Jairān. Lake Urmia is 2 m. E. and the hills about the same distance W. of the village, which forms a kind of southern limit to the gardens extending on this side of Urmia. Route now goes in general direction NW. to Urmia. From Jairān road turns 1. Cross the Barandiz Chai (Baran'a) by four-arched brick bridge. Stream when not in flood is narrow, about 10 yds. wide and 3 ft. deep, with easy gravelly bottom and just fordable, but volume of water is considerable. Sardaru village. Dizehtekeh, 250 houses. Beyond this, join for a short distance to track from Ushnu to Urmia (Route 60 c, m. 561-75), which crosses easy cultivated country. Road skirts stream. 1464 Road turns off towards Fort Murad ‘Ali. 146 76 LAND. LAND ROUTES Miles from Raniyeh. 1492 Pass Fort Murād 'Ali. 1531 Cross somewhat large stream, Qāsidāgh, pass numerous villages and cross many water-cuts, keeping hill-spurs 2 m. to 1. and passing through well-cultivated country with numerous gardens. Pass through Gök Tepeh valley. Spurs approach the road from the l. About here cross dry, gravelly bed of the Shehr Chai, with bridge a little lower down. The Urmia plain is intersected by irrigation canals, lined with shady fruit trees. Castor oil plant is largely grown for fuel ; wheat, maize, vegetables and fruits are plentiful and tobacco flourishes. Big buffalo-carts are largely used in the country, and strings of laden donkeys are to be met with near Urmia. The last mile of the road is very muddy in wet weather. 1631 | Urmia. ܝܕܐܒܬܝܪܬܝܕܒܬ ROUTE 60 b RANIYEH-EL-WATAN (86 m.) Via SER DESHT Authority :- Routes in Persia, vol. ii, Route 107, Alternative (A.) (report of 1902). Miles from Raniyeh Raniyeh. See vol. iii, Route 41, for first 484 m. 481 Ser Desht. Besides the route described below, there is said to be a path over the mountains along the r. bank of the Lesser Zāb, which leads in 8 hrs. from Ser Desht to El-Watan. Leaving Ser Desht go N. through the village and across the plateau. Across the valley to the l. (NW.) is Sheo Ibrāhīma, about 11 m. distant. Descend by a lane 10 to 12 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep in mud to the ravine running down on the W. side of the Ser Desht terraces. Cross the stream in this valley (alt. 4,825 ft.), and ascend along the opposite side to 5,000 ft.; then descend a spur. 50% ! Pass a small village of Bairaji Kurds on r. ; alt. 4,600 ft. Easy descent towards the Zāb over a succession of terraces. • ROUTES 60 a, b Miles from Raniyeh 521 531 بانه 541 567 Biazila, residence of the chief of the Bairaji Kurds, à m. to l. About 2 m. NNW. (335º), pass Shinu village of Bosik Kurds. Ford the Lesser Zāb, locally known to the Kurds as the Zih, 20 yds. wide and 3 ft. deep at the ford, alt. 3,500 ft. The ford being difficult, a guide is advisable. On the r. bank, pass Gyavik (Bilbās) Kurd village of Vatmanava (? Walmanāva), 12 houses. Ascend a wide valley, easy going Cross a plateau, alt. 3,850 ft., with fields and meadows on either side of the road. Rabāt, large Gyavik village under a mound on the l. of the road, with 3 two-storeyed houses, and about 2 m. to the r., on the eastern edge of the plateau, another Gyavik village, Dilānah. Cross Nistān Su, stream flowing W. to the Zāb by an easy ford, 10 ft. wide (alt. 3,725 ft.). It is not, however, always fordable, and there is a bridge for foot passengers only a few yds. higher. About 1 m. to r. above the l. bank is Urumzāwa, a Gyavik village. Short steep ascent out of the valley of the stream, then cross some fields and ascend again. Reach a spur, alt. 4,850 ft. Descend into a valley and cross a small stream, alt. 4,400 ft. Ascend again. Alt. 5,100 ft. Here the path turns to the r. and descends to the valley of the stream again. Sueru, Gyavik village, å m. below to the r. on the l. bank of the river. Follow the river valley by an easy path, winding con- siderably. Nistān, a large Gyavik village, and residence of the Rais of all the Gyayik. Alt. 3,750 ft. So far this is the usual caravan route between Ser Desht and Sūj Bulāq, Nistān being the first stage from Ser Desht. This route is rather long. A more direct track to Sūj Bulāq crosses the Zāb higher up and goes NE. across the mountains. General direction W. Leave Nistān and retrace the path that leads to it for about å m. Turn to the r. and ascend above a small valley from the W. Arrive at a col, 5,300 ft., and descend a narrow valley : 583 591 633 78 LAND ROUTES Miles from Raniyeh descent steep in places following course of a stream which is constantly crossed and recrossed. 671 Pass Satka, alt. 4,550 ft., Gyavik village of 60 houses, residence of the Bapir Agha. Leave the valley and begin to ascend to the r. Reach a col (5,150 ft.) and descend into a basin and rise towards another col. Pass Zanzira, large Gyavik village, about 21 m. up a valley to the N. 69 Cross col (4,850 ft.). Steep descent into a valley with a stream flowing down on 1. of path ; here join a path from Zanzira down a valley from the r. Pass Zergatān, Gyavik village, up a little valley to the 1. 711 Pairasta, Gyavik village, 35 houses. A track between Sūj Bulāq and Ser Desht crosses here. Below Pairasta the valley widens and is well cultivated. Cross a small stream and leave the valley, keeping up to the r. Cross a cultivated plateau with a large Gyavik village, Nawāweh, about 1 m. to the r. Cross a ravine where three valleys meet. Pass Desht, large Gyavik village į m. to l. Steep ascent towards a ridge in front. Pass Jinniya, small Gyavik village on l. Cross ridge (5,000 ft.); descend by an easy path, cross a spur, and turn towards the valley of the Zab. Turn to r. above the river. The hills recede, leaving gentle slopes, covered with orchards and cultivation. W. of the Zāb are steep spurs, covered with forest almost to the bank of the river. 762 Ghoman, large village on a knoll above the Zāb. Pass Sermerghān, about 1 m. distant, at the N. side of the plateau of which Ghoman is the centre. Keep along the plateau, about 100 ft. above the river, now between steep banks of cliffs. 78 | Ford the Lesser Zāb, here 40 ft. wide, 21 ft. deep (December), and turn W., ascending the face of a spur on the r. bank. Pass through fields of pumpkins and tobacco enclosed with fences made of oak hurdles; cross a stream flowing N. Mūsalar, 60 houses of Gyavik Kurds, lying above 1. bank of the stream. 74 753 ROUTES 60 b, c Miles from 1 Raniyeh 813 834 Road now rises steadily and winds a good deal. Fields on either hand gradually give place to woods, chiefly oak. Turn l. and enter a narrow ravine, along which proceed for about 1 m. ; then turn r. up the side of the hill through oak forest. Col (6,300 ft.), from which there is a steep descent into a ravine (alt. 5,350 ft.). Ascend again by a steep and winding path to 6,100 ft. From here more gradual descent down to a valley down which a stream flows from S. to N. Turn to the r. and follow this valley. Cross the stream, 4 yds. wide and 1 ft. deep, and then follow path ascending above its 1. bank. · Turn to the l. up another valley down which flows another stream, the two uniting at this point. Cross this stream. El-Watan, At El-Watan join Route 60 a at m. 473. 854 ROUTE 60 C CHIANEH_URMIA (75 m.) Via USHNU Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 109 (report of 1888 : given in more detail in Routes in Persia, vol. ii, Route 109). Much of this route goes over very swampy ground. In 1888 the road from Ushnu to Urmia was said to be easily passable for guns ; but this seems doubtful. Supplies in normal times plentiful. Water is abundant, but that from irrigation cuts is not healthy. Miles from Chiāneh (see Route 60 a under m. 1094). Route follows a broad gravelly track running WNW. and skirting the hills which bound Sulduz plain to S. 2 Gornăva, village of 250 houses i m. to N. Extensive orchards. The plain is crossed by several irrigation ; channels which may be avoided by keeping at the foot of Chianeb 0 80 LAND ROUTES 111 15 Miles from Chiāneh the hills. Extensive rice cultivation at W. end of plain. Hills close in, leaving a gap about 1 m. wide. Derbend, small village in the gap. Emerge through the pass into the Ushnu plain, which is 18 m. long and 8 m. broad at the centre. Cross irrigation cuts and marshy ground. Very heavy going for baggage animals. Ford the Sulduz Chai (or Jerratu), 30 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep in July 1888. Through deep swamp for 300 yds. beyond ford; then very muddy road; over irrigation cuts. 131 Khaldavai, village of 100 houses, with a small grove of willows. Cross muddy irrigation cuts. Kurishawa, small Kurd village. Some wheat and barley cultivation. Ford small river. Ushnu (alt. 4,619 ft.). Route now follows a broad track by the foot of the hills, heading NE. Nahirwan, 150 houses, in a small valley to 1. Extensive orchards and gardens. Aliawa, in the plain lower down. High rugged hills to NW. Plain narrows. Begin ascent of valley 1 m. wide. Sengān, 50 houses, to r. Ascend steeply to NW. by a zigzag ledge in clay soil 6-8 ft. wide cut in the hill-side. This would require improvement for guns. Reach summit, alt. 6,025 ft., and cross a wide, grassy basin, skirting a number of rocky ravines to W. Ascend gradually and cross a ravine with a stream from the E. Cross a broad, rounded summit, the watershed between the Ushnu and Barandiz streams. Aq Bulāq, 4 m. to W. in an open grassy valley. Bāghshīrīm, close to road. Easy track over open uplands. Descend a narrow valley by a stream and ford it. Deep slopes on either hand. Good hay by the stream banks in summer. | Sakāneh and Aineromeh, small villages to r. VE ROUTE 60 c Miles from Chianeh 38 45 477 A broad track from Dizeh on Lake Urmia crosses here, going WNW. over some easy hills towards Mergavver 12 m. to W. Valley more open. Sanget, 30 houses on spur to r. Follow a broad track easily passable for wheels, down the windings of the valley. Some cultivation. Several side valleys with streams. Turn NW. through a rocky valley 100 yds. broad. Track stony but easy. Valley opens into a cultivated basin in which is the small village of Selāni. A few stunted trees and shrubs beside the stream. Valley narrows to 150 yds. Track stony for 2 m. Pass Shekā, small Kurdish village, usually deserted in summer. Large herds of sheep and cattle on the hill- sides. Track 8-10 ft. broad, passable for wheels. | Pass Chasimler on a stream. 50 houses with some orchards. Chuchar, village with small mud fort, at the S. edge of the Barandiz plain. A track skirts the W. edge of the plain, avoiding the irriga- tion canals and rice fields. The plain is 16 m. long by 10 m. broad and is very fertile, with vineyards and orchards. Chenār, poplar, ash, elm, sycamore and willow are to be found. Fruit trees include pear, apple, plum, and apricot. Some of the villages are inhabited by Armenian and Nestorian Christians, others by Qarapa paks, who are Shiahs. Persian is not commonly known. The Christian villages were mostly sacked in the winter of 1914-15 (see p. 32). Pass Jundarli, large Armenian village, surrounded by a 20-ft. mud wall. Follow a narrow lane, between vineyards and orchards, on the r. bank of a stream from Chasimler. Ford the Barandiz Chai, 30 yds. wide, 2 ft. deep in July, 1888. Rapid current. There is a foot bridge 1 m, down- stream. Many vineyards and gardens. Pass Dizehtekeh, with a mud fort on a mound. A few clumsy arabehs or ox-carts are to be seen here. (For road from Dizehtekeh to Urmia by Murād 'Ali, see Route 60 a, m. 146–1631) 541 / 551 562 YES. IV 82 LAND ROUTES Miles from Chiāneh 601 Pass Karilar and Sarela, two large Moslem villages on a canal. Low bare hills to N. across which easy tracks lead to Urmia. A track running W. through Gaitalu crosses several irrigation cuts and marshy ground. Ascend a broad col, leaving the Seri Dāgh, a high, bare hi to W. 692 Pass American Mission building, and, a little lower down Haiderlu, a Moslem village of 200 houses. Road now good. 73 Ford the Shehr Chai. | Urmia. 661 ROUTE 61 a ROWANDUZ-URMIA (1582 m.) Via NERI AND DĪZEH Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 123 (report of 1900): vol. ii, Route 93 (reports of 1887, 1890, 1900). General direction, N. by E. To Dizeh (90 m.) the route was before the war only a rough but fairly easy mule-track, but from that place to Urmia (68 m.) it was almost practicable for wheels, though needing improvement here and there (see below, m. 90, m. 111, m. 1302). The road leads over mountainous country (between the Persian fron- tier and the Zāb river), the passes being about 6,000 ft. in altitude, to the Gavvār plain at Dīzeh, whence the low divide is crossed to the Lake Urmia basin. Supplies are scarce : fuel, grass, and water are plentiful the whole way. As to the population, see p. 32. Miles from Rowan- duz Rowanduz. The Rūdbār-i-Rowanduz is crossed by a wicker bridge and some easy ground is traversed. Mergeh Su, which joins the Rūdbār-i-Rowanduz to SW., and is crossed at this point near the ruins of an old 14-arch bridge. Below the crossing the river flows through a deep gorge. The road passes close to Barkian ROUTES 60 с, 61 a Miles from Rowan duz 303 and follows the hill-side above the r. bank of the Mergeh Su, past cultivation of tobacco, oats, and barley, inter- spersed with vineyards and fruit orchards. 9 i Hebtian (Havdian). Here was a post of 50 Nizam troops in 1900. From the village the road ascends the valley, crossing to l. bank, passing several small villages and going through fine oak forests and good grazing grounds. At the head of the valley it ascends rather steeply through oak forest to 253 | Mergasar Gedik (alt. 4,250 ft.), a pass over the W. end of the S. watershed of the Rūdbār-i.Baras-Gir, a large stream flowing from the Hārūni districts to E. A rather steep descent leads down a wooded spur, through a well. cultivated valley dotted with Kurdish villages. 282 Ford the Rūdbār-i-Baras-Gīr, whence a low col is crossed into a cultivated valley.' Kāni Resh, Kurdish village of 30 houses, situated in the Baradost plain, of which it is the principal place. The track now ascends the valley of the Rūdbār-i-Haji Beg, a large mountain stream, feeder of the Rukuchuk Su. which is a tributary of the Great Zab. Track leaves the villages of Zerwa and Siro high up on r., and crosses the stream to its N. or r. bank at 373 Begijni, a small village with a mud fort and a zaptieh post, from which a narrow track leads up the stream to the Persian frontier. A steep ascent leads to 423 Shapatān, a Kurdish village at the head of Girdi valley, draining SW. to the Zab. On the banks of the stream, 2 m. down to l., is Jemmo. Farther on a plateau is crossed, and an easy ascent over clay soil is followed to 45 Ziniyeh Bāri Gedik (alt. 5,580 ft.), a broad, rounded eminence situated at W. end of the lofty Bashi-Ruwan Dāgh, along whose N. slopes the route now goes. A track leads from here past Jemmo to the Rezān ferry over the Great Zāb. The road descends easily. 47 Pass on r. Benawuki, village of 20 houses with a loop. holed building, the residence of a Kurdish Agha sub- ject to the Chief of Neri. Here diverges an easier and somewhat shorter track to Neri which goes via Evlian high up to E. F 2 84 LAND ROUTES Miles from ROWAD. duz Route then goes through some cultivation, and passes over a wicker bridge crossing the head-waters of a stream flowing in a side valley, a tributary of the Rūdbār-i.Begirdi (itself a tributary of the Zab). Route follows to the main stream a fair mule-track which passes through some fine plane, oak, and ash trees, and turns up the main valley by a rough, stony track. 502 Cross a mountain stream with steep wooded sides 2 m. up which is Evlian, 50 Kurd houses. The base of a rocky crag is now skirted, the track sometimes going up the bed of the stream, and then following a very rough, stony track, through low trees and bushes until, at an altitude of 2,940 ft., it leaves the stream where it is 30 to 40 yds. broad in September. Ascend through a scattered oak forest, meeting the alternative track via Evlian. 533 Cross another stream running down a deep valley from the well-wooded Bashi-Ruwān Dāgh. From the stream ascend by a fairly easy, stony track to a spur; descend to the well-wooded valley of a stream from r. ; ascend to a rocky spur, wind down the other side and bend to N. 55% Pass Begirdi village, 10 houses, situated on the edge of a ravine. Route now keeps along the hill-side above the main stream, which here runs in a rocky gorge, and then descends rather steeply. 5611 Sheikh's bridge (alt. 3,215 ft.), a single 18.ft. masonry arch with a 7-ft. roadway over the main stream. Beyond this the route rises by a fairly easy mule-track following a small ravine, through gardens. 58 Neri (alt. 3,895 ft.), the head-quarters of the religious sheikh (Sheikh Sadik in 1900) of the Shemsdīnan district, which is famous for tobacco. The village contains 250 houses, is the seat of a Kaimmakam, and is the terminus of a T.L. from Bash Qal'ah via Dizeh. A footpath follows the T.L., going W. from Neri and then NNW. to Dizeh, whereas the route followed, which is longer, goes NE. from Neri and then turns NW. to Dīzeh. From Neri a very steep but fairly easy ascent of a bare clay slope leads to the top of a spur whence a very long, steep descent by stony zigzags leads to a stream on the banks of which is ROUTE 61 a Miles from Rowan- duz 63 645 Shapatān, a thriving village of, 30 houses, with terraced cultivation. The route crosses a stony spur, and then enters a long valley from NW. Beitiwo, village of 20 houses, where there is good water and much tobacco cultivation in terraces. Route ascends steeply by a stony mule-path through an oak wood. Pass (alt. 6,080 ft.), wooded. Deiraresh (Mar Ishu), the residence of the Nestorian Matran, high up to E. The route now passes into the basin of the Khūmara Chai, following a rough, easy track through oak forest, and, turning to N., crosses a small ravine. Deryān, a Kurdish village, 12 m. down to r. on banks of the ravine above mentioned, close to its junction with the Khumara Chai. Pass below the Nestorian village of Sorasa, tm. up a valley to r. Continuing by an easy mule-track along the hill-side above the Khumara Chai, the route winds in and out of small ravines, with streams in them in March, the slopes of the hill being thickly wooded. Farther on a stony spur is descended by a fairly easy mule-track through an oak forest in short, steep zigzags. | Cross a stream, coming from Tīr and Diniān villages in the Ilider district to the NE., just above its junction with the Khūmara Chai, which at this point turns sharply to l. down a deep gorge and has a bridle-path leading down it to Shemsdīnan. An easy ascent by a good track leads past Spindaruk village, on a wooded height to l., beyond which a stream coming from Nerdosh to NE. is crossed, and the valley becomes 1 m. wide with a little cultivation and some scrub on the hill-sides. Golan, high up on the far or r. side of the valley : this village contains 30 Kurd houses and is the residence of Musa Bey, an influential Kurd of the Shemsdınan Miri family. The valley becomes narrower and the track is easier, passing over clay soil through oak scrub, after which the head of a rough ravine to l. is skirted, some small spurs being crossed, and an easy mule-track, becoming steeper as it ascends, is followed. Pass (alt. 6,270 ft.) in a low ridge which forms the NW. watershed of the Shemsdınan district and the SE. water- 71 73 741 77] 86 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan- dus 85 851 90 shed of the Gavvār Plain. A gradual descent, skirting a stream (dry in September) leads into the plain, the hills opening out on each side, and a marsh appearing on l., which fills the SE. part of the plain. The T. L. from Shemsdinan is met on l. This, the S. part of the plain, is occupied by the Doshki Kurds. The route continues across the plain by an easy track which skirts low hills on r. Kāni Mirān, large spring, draining into the marsh. Mergich, Kurdish village of 10 houses, à m. to l. Cross a small rocky spur from r.; continue past the marsh on l., into which more springs drain; and cross a spur. Cross a stream coming from E. whose shingle bed, 30 yds. wide, has a little water in it in September. Dara, 20 houses, the residence of Rustem Bey of the Diri Kurds. Pass Alwar, 1 m. to r. at the foot of the hills. Route now skirts low bare hills on r.. Dizeh (alt. 6,500 ft.), a small town of 700 houses, inhabited by Armenians, Jews, and some Kurds. There is a small bazaar, and a telegraph office. Dīzeh is the seat of the Kaimmakam of the Gavvār Kaza. Route 63 b comes from Oramar. Route 65 leads to Bash Qal'ah. Leaving the town to N. the road ascends a valley 11 m. broad, among low rounded spurs; it is broad and is shown in the W.0. map of 1901 as practicable for wheeled traffic all the way to Van, although in some places it is reported as only 3-6 ft. wide and as not practicable for carts unless widened, as indicated below (see under m. 111 and m. 1301). The valley narrows as the road ascends it, and several irrigation streams are passed. Ford the Dīzeh stream to r. bank. Wide, pebbly bed. The valley opens out to a width of 2 m. and the route passes through a grassy country dotted with several villages and a good deal of cultivation. Qal'ah Mohammed Agha, a village of 100 houses on 1. bank, the residence of the chief of the Dereli Kurds, dominated by the ruins of an old castle. Route 61 b to Urmia 913 ROUTE 61 a 87 Miles from Rowan- duz 971 992 1031 1032 branches here to E. : though shorter, it is apparently much more difficult. | Beyond the village the route continues up the valley, here 150 yds. wide with a little cultivation ; broad, easy track over a light clay soil. Ford to l. bank, 40 ft. wide and 18 in. deep in July ; rapid current over a gravelly bottom. There is a track along r. bank, but it is obstructed by a spur. A small stream in a wide, grassy valley coming from SE. is crossed (alt. 6,770 ft.), and the valley opens out to 200-300 yds. wide. Cross a stream 30 ft. wide and 18 in. deep, beyond which track leads NE. The mouth of a small valley to NW. is passed, and a short, steep ascent leads out of the valley past the grassy head of another valley, leaving Delasi, 100 Kurd houses, 1 m. to W., half hidden in a ravine. A broad track leads over clay by an easy gradient to the Delasi Gedik (alt. 7,680 ft.), beyond which the basin of Lake Urmia is entered and an easy descent leads to a small stream, tributary of a rapid torrent, 40 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in July, coming from the Mūr Dāgh. This torrent is crossed and the road continues along a flat terrace, 50 ft. above the stream, which is some 4 or 5 m. N. of the Maidān Dāgh. Some patches of wheat and hay are passed as the road descends, over shaley limestone, by a short, steep slope to the stream (alt. 7,160 ft.). Suryān, a village of 50 houses, į m. to N., with plenty of cultivated fields. Cross a stream flowing from the Mūr Dāgh. The track, stony but good, continues over a gravelly clay down the valley, here 2 m. wide, with good grass and some willows and alders. The valley narrows to 11 m. in width, and cultivated terraces and rolling grassy hills are passed. Barsān, a village of 30 huts, at the junction of a third stream from the Mūr Dāgh. The road then narrows to 4-6 ft., following a ledge in the clay slope, 30 ft. above the stream (alt. 6,520 ft.), and then becomes broad as it crosses a flat terrace to a fourth stream from the Mūr 106 108 111 88 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan- duz 119 1202 1221 Dāgh (alt. 6,225 ft.), from which point it descends easily to the bed of the stream, which here flows in a deep ravine 150-200 yds. wide, with patches of wheat along its banks. The valley narrows to 60-80 yds., and the road is only 3 ft. wide in places as it crosses a clay slope ; but the stream is fordable at all points, and carts would easily go down its bed. A wooden bridge 4 ft. wide (alt. 6,075 ft.) leads to r. bank. Bazirgeh, a half-ruined village where was a Turkish frontier post in charge of a Captain and 50 men from Dizeh. A footpath leads S. from here to the Marbishu district (see Route 61 b, m. 151). Persian frontier is crossed at the summit of a small spur (alt. 5,800 ft.), and the valley widens to 400 yds., down which the track goes, passing through bare hills and along a 3-ft. ledge in clay which could be widened easily. Baradost plain, a fertile, somewhat marshy, treeless tract, little cultivated, surrounded by low, undulating hills, 6-8 m. long and 3-4 broad, which lies S. of a similar plain, somewhat smaller, known as North Baradost. Route now strikes across the plain to Gangachin (alt. 5,495 ft.), an Armenian and Kurdish village of 80 houses, S. of which is a fort of sun-dried bricks, 200 yds. square with walls 20 ft. high and 3-4 ft. thick, standing on a mound 40 ft. high. Route continues across the Baradost plain by a broad track, leaving Gölaghani, 20 houses, 2 m. to r. Cross the Baradost Chai, 20 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in July, with a rapid current. According to the W.0. map of 1901 a cart-track goes from this neighbourhood N. to Dilman across the Aghwān Dāgh, and continues S. to Mawana (see Route 61 b, m. 273). . Leave Mastak 3 m. to S. on the Mawana track, and ascend low gravel hills, covered with good grass and dotted with a few pear trees, NE. of the plain. Mastachar, 30 houses, with high watch-tower and ruined mud fort, 2 m. to r. (passed 10 min. after Mastak). Shavtik (alt. 9,115 ft.) is passed 1 m. to l., and the track, crossing a rounded ridge, follows an easy descent to a deep 1251 1282 ROUTE 61 a Miles from Rowan- duz valley (alt. 5,825 ft.) down which runs a small stream, tributary of the Nazlu Chai. A broad clay track now leads over a ridge to another tributary of the Nazlu Chai, winding down steep clay slopes by an easy track, and passes 136 Zengachín (alt. 6,040 ft.), village of 40 houses 1 m. to l. up the valley. Track now crosses a rounded ridge and descends into the head of a broad, well-cultivated basin. 1383 Pass Issisu (alt. 5,880 ft.), 100 Kurd houses, 1 m. to r., whence a mule-track goes N. to Dilman. Cross a small ravine just beyond the village, followed by a level plateau to r. on which there is good grass, beyond which the track goes over a low watershed (6,145 ft.), and skirts some rocky spurs. 1411 Cross a broad spur (alt. 6,025 ft.), overlooking the plain of Urmia. Kāni Resh village, 50 houses, is passed m. to r., and a side road goes to Nazi, 150 houses, 1 m. to 1. down a valley. The route trends to r. over a low spur, the track being easy although rather steep near the foot, where it enters 1441 Hasan (alt. 4,845 ft.), 50 houses, with an old mud fort and a large well of drinking water. The route descends over a rich, gravelly loam to the plain of Urmia, well cultivated and dotted with villages, orchards, and vineyards. 1463 Karilar, 100 houses, with a mud fort 100 yds. square, fm. to r. 147 Cross a canal, 20 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep, the track being 30 ft. broad with high mud walls on both sides. 1471 Nazlu, village, 300 houses of Armenians and Persians, whence there is a track to Zernābād. Cross the Nazlu Chai, whose gravel bed is 400-500 yds. wide, and in July had two channels of rapidly running water, 50 ft. broad and 2 ft. deep. In spring this stream must be passed by a bridge at Shungarlu, some 6 m. lower down, on the Urmia-Dilman main road (Route 66 a). 1483 | Armud Darash, 150 Armenian houses, on 1. bank of the stream, from which a cart-track runs to Shungarlu. Route enters a plain on which wheat is grown, and crosses a canal 15 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep. 1502 | Yarbandi, 300 houses, 1 m. to r. 1511 | Zain Ali, 300 houses, 1 m. to r. 148 90 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan- duz 1543 Enter a belt of orchards i m. wide, the track being 20 ft. wide and having high mud walls on both sides. An open plain is now entered, orchards and vineyards being passed on 1. and some bare hills on r. ; the main road from Dilman is met, several canals are crossed, and the road passes through a well-wooded country. 1588 | Urmia. ROUTE 61 b DĪZEH-URMIA (51 m.) Via MARBISHU DISTRICT Authority :- Routes in Persia, vol. ii, Route 112 (reports of 1891 and 1899). This route is an alternative to the last part of Route 61 a. It goes S. of the latter and is 51 m. in length as compared with 68. m., the total distance by Route 61 a, but from m. 6 to m. 29 this is a bad mule- track, whereas the other is a cart-road. The route would be almost impracticable for military purposes, being passable only for small bodies, who would find difficulty even with light pack transport. In winter, operations would be impossible. Immense labour would be necessary to construct a road, as the mountains crossed are pre- cipitous. Supplies only at Dīzeh and Urmia. Water everywhere from streams. Some fuel perhaps obtainable. Miles from Dizeh 151 Dīzeh. From Dizeh the road follows Route 61 a for 6 m. to Qal'ah Mohammed Agha at m. 96. It then crosses the Dizeh stream by a ford and leads over a spur to the l. bank of a tributary of that stream, which is followed by a difficult, stony path to the S. slope of the Mamdān Gedik, from which a spur leading S. is crossed and the Marbishu district (Turkish name Ilider) is entered. The track leads down a stream in the Lake Urmia basin by a narrow, difficult pass to Hiyal (Eli), Nestorian village. The stream is followed through a narrow, difficult gorge. 22 ROUTES 61 a, b, c Miles from Dizeh 25 271 Persian frontier. Track is supported round the cliffs, above the stream, on poles and fascines extremely liable to be carried away by floods. Open basin is reached. Cart-track is joined coming from the N. (see Route 61 a at m. 1281) over the Baradost plain. Mawana, the principal village of the Tergavvar district. From the village the route follows a fairly easy clay track just passable for wheels. Shatokha. Cross the Tergavvar stream by an easy ford and emerge on the Urmia plain at Anhār. Continue over a level plain, joining Route 61 a just outside Urmia. | Urmia. 51 ROUTE 610 ROWANDUZ_URMIA (97 m.) Via KELISHIN PASS AND USHNU Authorities :--Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 119 (report of 1840): Lorimer, Report of a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan (native information of 1910). Miles from Rowan- duz -5? Rowanduz. Cross to r. bank of Rowanduz Chai by the · bridge over the gorge. In summer the river is easily fordable. Easy mule-track to m. 27. Ascend spurs from the Ser-i-Burd, a high wooded range to E. Easy going. Badilyan (?) village (2 hrs. from Rowanduz). Track skirts the Ser-i-Burd for some miles, ascending along a shelving declivity of schist formation, difficult for baggage animals. Sadāqah, with an old fort on a projecting spur, and Turkish frontier post. A report of 1910 gives the time from Rowanduz as 6 hrs. A wooded open valley unites from the SE. with the Sadāqah valley, which then emerges into comparatively open country between Ser Linitkeh and Ser-i-Burd. 10 92 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan- dus Descend by a brook and ravine. Bold isolated projection of rock. Cross a bridge over a stream from SE. from the Argot Dāgh, 10 yds. wide and 3 ft. deep. Ascend the valley and turn up the hill-side by a steep ascent, leaving the wooded region. Cross several large streams flowing NW. which unite in A wooded valley called Bairikmeh (9 hrs. from Rowanduz). Begin steep ascent of main frontier ridge. Kelishin pass, 8,570 ft. The snow may be deep here as late as July. Peak of Sheikh 'Awa to S., 10,570 ft. Begin steep descent. Ushnu (alt. 4,619 ft.). A track branches off here to Sulduz and Saj Bulāq. (For the rest of the route to Urmia, see Route 60 c, m. 18–75.) | Urmia. 97 ROUTE 61 d ROWANDUZ-SŪJ BULĀQ (894 m.) Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 116 (reports of 1881 and 1902): Routes in Persia, vol, ii, No. 108 (reports of 1881, 1891, 1902); Lorimer, Report on a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan (journey of 1910), Appendix B. Turco- Persian Boundary Commission Map, 1914; W.0. Maps, 1916, sheets 33, 34. Except in the Lahjān plain this route runs through hill-country, and a great deal of work would be necessary to make it passable for wheels through its whole length. It seems, however, that if the southern route from Rowanduz to Gellala be taken a fairly easy mule route can be found throughout in summer and autumn. In winter the passes are blocked by snow. For descriptions of particular parts of the route, see below on the two roads to Gellala, and also p. 95, and under m. 394 and m. 544. Supplies are not plentiful except in the Lahjān plain and near Suj Bulāq. Scrub on hills for firewood. Water apparently abundant from mountain streams. From Rowanduz to the neighbourhood (apparently) of Gellala ROUTES 61 c, d 93 two tracks, one by Dār es-Salām, the other by Dergala, have been described in detail. They diverge at a point about 31 m. from Rowanduz, whence the track by Dār es-Salām runs to the N. of the Rowanduz Chai, while that by Dergala continues S. of the river. The northern road was described in 1902 as a well-used caravan road, though it was then difficult even for pack-animals (especially about m. 111). On the other hand, the southern route seems to be referred to in information communicated in 1910 by the hereditary chief of Rowanduz. According to this information there is a good useful road' to Dergala (5 hrs.) and 4 hours' pretty easy going, but stony from Dergala to Gellala. The detailed description of the southern route given below dates from 1881. (i) NORTHERN ROUTE TO THE GELLALA VALLEY Miles from Rowan duz Rowanduz. Leave the town by the bridge over Kalund gorge, and ascend the l. bank of the Rowanduz Chai by a good mule-track. Pass Jinijian in a valley to r. Track follows the l. bank closely, crossing one or two spurs of shaley rock and two small streams. | The river flows in a fine gorge between perpendicular cliffs. Cross to r. bank by a bridge 6 yds. long and 5 ft. wide, some 40 ft. above the stream. (Southern route continues by I. bank.) 44 | Cross a spur crowned by a grove of trees containing a ziyaret. This ascent avoids the gorge. Descend again to river. Ascend again over a spur and reach the valley, which here has cultivation on the l. bank of the stream. (A stone bridge with 4 piers, 30 yds. long and 3 ft. wide, 25 ft. above the stream, crosses the river here, and a path leads from it to Warikowan.) Continue along N. side of valley. Cross two spurs and pass Zawā, 13 m. to l. The valley on the r. bank opens out somewhat. Descend face of cliff by stairs in the rock, partly made and partly natural, and extremely difficult for animals. The river makes a bend to NE. and back again. Its bed contracts, and the heights on either side are perpen- dicular. Pass the remains of two old brick bridges; but 11į 94 LAND ROUTES 127 Miles from Rowan- duz there appears to be no room for a road along 1. bank. After descent mentioned above, track runs along a stony beach and then ascends again from the river level. Pass Parsirin on opposite bank, where the cliffs somewhat recede. The road becomes very bad. Descend to river. 141 Ford river (alt. 2,700 ft.). The ford is difficult on account of the swiftness of the current and the boulders in the bed. Stream 10 yds. wide, 3 ft. deep (end of November). The banks are steep and the approaches are difficult for laden animals. Steep, bad ascent from river. 152 Ascend the face of a hill after passing a stream flowing down a side valley. Turn along a narrow path in the steep hill-side following the general direction of the Rowanduz Chai, which here flows nearly from N. Descend into steep rocky valley of stream from the north' (this is apparently the Rowanduz Chai). Cross the stream, and ascend the river bed. Keldkan on cliffs above the r. bank. Track passes through village. Stiff ascent from river, which here makes a bend to S. round two hills. Cross a col and descend steeply for a short distance. Dār es-Salām, small village 200 yds. to l. above the road. Descend steeply into a narrow valley and ascend again to a col, after which follow a narrow path curling round a hill. Descend into valley (apparently the valley of a tributary of the Rowanduz Chai). Gellala is on the far side of the valley : a steep ascent leads to it, but the main route continues along the valley of the Rowanduz Chai. Gellala is the head-quarters of a nahiye in the Rowanduz Kaza, comprising some 35 small villages chiefly in- habited by Balak Kurds. In 1902 the chief of the Balak lived at Walash, 11 hrs. from Merga (or Merkussan), which is visible from Gellala in a broad valley to the S. of the Rowanduz Chai. A track leads NE. from Gellala to the Kurdish district of Rust, 64 hrs. distant. Gellala has a good water supply from a mountain stream. Figs, pears, mulberries, and oaks grow round the village, and there are vines on the side of the valley. 一一一一一一一 ​一 ​一一一一一一一一 ​ ROUTE 61 d Miles from Rowan- duz 204? (ii) SOUTHERN ROUTE TO GELLALA (For general description from local information of 1910 see p. 93) Rowanduz. Follow Route (i) above, for 32 m., by l. bank of the Rowanduz Chai. Northern route crosses river by bridge. Southern route continues along 1. bank. Cross a spur. Ascend valley of a tributary stream to SE. Head of valley. Begin steep zigzag ascent. Soil is a soft shale. Summit (alt. 4,500 ft.). Descend by r. bank of stream. Pass Dergala, with ruined castle (alt. 3,300 ft.). The hill. slopes are wooded and steep. The track turns E., and passes through well-grown oak woods. Cross large tributary of the Rowanduz Chai, flowing from the Qāndil Dāgh. Pass Chokai. Cross spur and reach 'Omerava, a few huts on the Rowanduz Chai. Skirt the r. bank by a path which in many places is built on an almost precipitous hill-side. (It is difficult to trace the relation between routes (i) and (ii) here: it appears that route (i) lies somewhat further away from the Rowanduz Chai.) Rayān, 25 huts, 'just beyond a splendid gorge'. Authority says, 'Slopes very precipitous, but having several small villages with cultivation and vineyards : by fording the stream a more level route could be taken along the sole of the valley, and a passable route for guns made'. It is not clear whether this description applies to the river valley below or above Rayān. Apparently in this neighbourhood is Gellala (see Route (i), m. 231). The place is not mentioned by the authority of 1881. (Mileage continued from Route (i) to Gellala.) The route from Gellala to Rāyāt was described in 1910 by the hereditary chief of Rowanduz as 6 hrs.' pretty easy going. It is not certain whether this description refers to the track described in detail below, which was followed by an authority of 1902. 241 96 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan- duz 252 293 Gellala. From the village join main road (see p. 94) and ascend the valley. Cross some spurs, the road keeping about 1 m. from the river. Pass Napurdand, a small village up a ravine to r. (apparently on the opposite side of the river). Reach a projecting spur, which runs down to the river bank and terminates in cliffs. It is difficult for animals to climb its rocky sides, and when the water is low an easier way can be found by following the stream-bed and rounding the base of the cliffs. Beyond the spur, at its foot, ford to opposite bank. The river is here 15 yds. wide and not more than 21 ft. of water was found here (end of November). The bottom is covered with boulders. (At this ford the route would appear to cross to the left bank, the track from Gellala having hitherto been on the right, so far as can be gathered from the description. The Military Report, however, has ‘ford to the right bank'; compare m. 351 below.) Cross an open space and climb over a projecting spur similar to the last. Beyond this second spur the cliffs recede, leaving a flat space on either side of the river, where there is a little cultivation. Ascend from river-bed and cross a very stony spur. Halgor is passed on a plateau, high up on the r. bank. Valley opens out a little. Pass Derbend at the mouth of a ravine on the r. bank. The path now runs above the l. bank. (From an account based on a report of 1881 it would appear that another track runs along the r. bank; but the description is obscure.) Cross the Rowanduz Chai (here called Binustān Su by authority of 1902, and apparently the Chiwa Sheikh on the Turco-Persian Boundary Commission Map of 1914). In 1902 there was here a bridge 10 yds. long and 3 ft. wide, made of branches laid crosswise on baulks and covered with earth ; passable for horses in single file. The banks are steep and the river is a mountain torrent in a rocky bed. In November the bridge was 15 ft. above the water level. 321 352 373 ROUTE 61 d Miles from Rowan- duz 392 (In the map of 1914 a crossing-not a bridge-is marked on the Chiwa Sheikh about 1 m, below Baba Kerrawa, at the point where it is joined on its northern bank by the stream which flows past the W. side of Rāyāt. Rāyāt lies about m. NE. of this junction. One track is marked as running up r. bank of the Chiwa Sheikh from the crossing, passing Baba Kerrawa on 1. bank and leaving Rāyāt less than 1 m. to N.) Rāyāt, small village of Balak Kurds. In 1910 there was here a Turkish frontier post containing a quarantine station, a telegraph office (line from Rowanduz ?), and a zaptieh post. From Rāyāt a track leads in a general NNE, direction to Jildigān on the Passova-Ushnu road (see Route 60 a, under m. 931). This track passes Alanen village (m. 2), the Pirmān Galan col (m. 31), and the Barzineh Pass (m. 7, where the Persian frontier is crossed. It seems that from the Barzineh Pass the route con- tinues to Zevka (m. 12). Apparently from Zevka a track runs N. leading direct to Ushnu via Garanga. The track to Jildigan runs by Girda Kaotan. Jildigān is reached about m. 213. 401 427 Between Rāyāt and Shināwa the passes are sometimes blocked by snow in winter for one, two, or even three -- months. The natives then use a kind of snow-shoe. The road from Rāyāt to Shināwa proceeds E. on the N. side of the Chiwa Sheikh, or Binustān Su. Pass Alatan (Alaneh ?) up valley to l., bearing NNW. (3409). Sheikh Kemāl, small hamlet of Mamash Kurds which in 1902 belonged to Haji Sheikh Seyyid Kemal ed-Din, a a man of great local influence. He had a mosque here, and the place was much visited, though no accommoda- tion or supplies' could be obtained in the village. A mountain stream supplied water. (On Boundary Commission Map of 1914 the only village marked in the neighbourhood is Dār el-Amān on the N. side of the Chiwa Sheikh valley, about 1 m. from the stream.) Descend over open downs with some cultivation. 443 | Valley closes in. Enter a rocky gorge with bare hills on either hand. On the r. these rise to snow-covered heights, among which a hog-backed eminence with steep cliffs is conspicuous. MES. IV 98 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan duz 457 453 ? 464 Ziyāret of Sheikh Mohammed Balak with graveyard and grove of oaks, through which the track runs. Watershed (alt. 6,050 ft.). This appears to be the Garau Shinkeh col marked on Boundary Commission Map of 1914, a point on the Turco-Persian frontier. From the Garau Shinkeh pass a track runs SE. past Zera to the Badinawa valley, which runs into the Lesser Zāb valley near the southern end of the Lahjān plain (see Route 60 a, m. 65ả). The pass is reported as one of the easiest between Qasr-i-Shīrīn and Mt. Ararat, and with a little labour carts and artillery could be taken over it. Cross stream flowing from rocky gorge on l. ; the road winds considerably. Walls of rock on either side. Alt. 5,800 ft. Fairly easy ascent towards Giru-i-Sheikh, only į m. of it being steep. Path narrow and stony. The ground to r. slopes away to a wide rocky valley. Top of pass called Giru-i-Sheikh. Descent at first steep, then easier : track very winding. Passova (Route 60 a, m. 934) visible to NE. Khāneh, small village (ruined in 1914). Descent now gradual. Shināwa, in Lahjān plain : residence of the chief of the Pīrān section of the Bilbās Kurds. According to information obtained in Rowanduz in 1910 the caravan route from Shināwa to Sūj Bulāq is as follows: 524 544 Hrs. 0 561 602 ? 654 Shināwa. Easy road over plain to Lagbal (3-4 hrs. from Passova). Easy road through hills to Maidān Bulāq. Easy hill-road to Sūj Bulāq. This may be approximately the route described below. A lower but longer route runs by Passova and Mohammed Shāh. Proceed over plain. Kaplisan, large village. Route 60 a is now followed from m. 721 to m. 764. Leave Route 60 a and ford headwaters of Lesser Zāb. Enter some low hills, and cross a saddle. Khalissar (alt. 4,700 ft.), village on a collection of low mounds. General direction from Khalissar to Sūj Bulāq ENE. Cross a small rivulet and follow its r. bank, skirting the village of Kuranga. Ground fairly open. ROUTES 61 d, 62 a Miles from Rowan duz 701 731 784 801 827 Pass Sagman village. Somewhat steep ascent up bed of mountain stream. Country wild and treeless; road on the whole easy when not covered with snow. Sagman crest (Maidān Gedik ?). Alt. 7,200 ft. Descend ravine of a tributary of the Sūj Bulāq Chai. Several patches of cultivation. Valley of Sūj Bulāq Chai. Some vineyards and orchards. Cross to r. bank of river a little farther down stream and follow river to neighbourhood of the town. The road here is easy except at one difficult crossing over a mill- stream. Cross a spur and descend to Sūj Bulaq, about 1,200 houses. T.O. The town lies on route from Sakiz to Urmia (Routes in Persia, vol. ii, No. 105). For routes to Miyānduāb and Ushnu, see Routes in Persia, vol. ii, nos. 108, 109. 894 ROUTE 62 a ROWANDUZ-AMADIYEH (1121 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 118 (report of 1888). A stony, difficult mule-track over rugged, wooded country. Miles from Rowan. duz Rowanduz. The route follows the 'Aqreh road as far as Begil, crossing the Zāb at the Qandil Ferry. See vol. iii, Route 45 a, m. 891-49%. 40 Begil, 300 houses of stone and mud, with flat roofs. The place is divided into two by a great ravine in which is a waterfall. The bulk of the inhabitants are Serchi Kurds. There are some houses of Jews. On a spur NW. of the village is a masonry building over- looking the ravine, 100 yds. square, with walls loop- holed and 4 ft. thick. | Rice cultivation on terraces irrigated by canals on the slopes G 2 100 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan- duz 402 413 421 DIWAW 431 44 441 near. To SW. the valley is well wooded for 4 m. and then turns towards the Zāb through a country of bare gravelly undulations. To SW. and W. lie the 'Aqreh and Navkur plains, producing quantities of wheat and rice. There are also numerous large springs in the bare rocky ridge 1 m. N. These unite and form large streams running into the 'Aqreh Su. The route now leaves the 'Aqreh road, and crosses the hills to the N. Wind round a rocky spur to 1. through brushwood and low oaks. Alt. 2,115 ft. Broad track ascending thickly wooded slope. Alt. 2,715 ft. Some long zigzags in the hill-side. Track stony in places. Alt. 3,330 ft. Broad summit of ridge at Zabar pass. Alt. 3,940 ft. Pass a large spring and some Kurdish encampments. Oaks and junipers with a few hawthorns: Gradual descent through thick undergrowth and low shrubs. Good grass. Descend a 12-15 ft. track, following a spur with a wooded rayine to l. A little clearing would make this track fit for wheels. Seam of coal outcropping in some shaley strata. It is bituminous on the surface, hut of hard quality about 2 ft. down. Descend a broad spur along a good track, through some fine oaks with thick undergrowth. Alt. 3,330 ft. Steeper slope, with short zigzags for 300 yds. Emerge into Amadi valley by broad track through trees, following stream 20 ft. wide and 6 in. deep in a gravelly bed. Alt. 2,635 ft. The valley is 2-3 m. broad, running WNW. for about 20 m. and E. for about 6 m., when the hills close in. It is crossed by numerous rocky spurs, well wooded and with good grass in spring. Track level and swampy in places across the valley. Some cultivation. Oak and walnut groves. Alt. 1,850 ft. Āmadi, 150 good stone houses on a rocky knoll i m. to l. (alt. 2,500 ft.). The inhabitants are Jews. Kurdish camp may be seen near. Water from several large springs at the foot of the hills. 45 464 46 48 ROUTE 62 a 101 49 53 Miles from Rowan duz 491 | Reach foot of Piris Dāgh and enter mouth of stony ravine, 20 yds. broad. Track very steep over loose jagged stones, with short zigzags anong boulders. Alt. 3,005 ft. Easier gradient to summit following 2-ft. ledge in grassy slope, with deep ravine to r. 504 Summit of Piris Dāgh, 3,500 ft. Track bifurcates, one branch going towards Rizān. Present track turns l. Cross narrow ridge and begin descent immediately, following a 1-2 ft. ledge in clay and stones. Wind 3 m. round a deep basin immediately to r. Enter small valley cultivated in terraces. Narrow stony track through trees and brushwood. 534 Pass Zawā, 20 huts to l., near a spring, with a grove of fine walnut trees. 531 Narrow track by a stream. Banks well wooded with sycamores, oaks, mulberries, and undergrowth. Valley 150-200 yds. wide, with steep rocky slopes. Cross to 1. of ravine. Cliffs close in gradually. Difficult track with zigzags among boulders. Alt. 1,810 ft. 541 | Cross to l. bank. Valley widens. Track trends gradually away from stream. 542 Zubbāt, 30 houses. Orchards in terraces on the hill-side. Alt. 1,840 ft. 561 Several isolated groves of oaks. 577 Zibār, or Bireh Kafra, 50 huts, alt. 1,470 ft. Stone fort, 80 yds. square, with loopholed walls and round towers at the corners, the residence of the Kaimmakam in 1888 ; partly dismantled. Water from several small wells 6-8 ft. below the surface. From Zibār the route proceeds over the Galashinea Pass (m. 68), and then along the r. bank of the Zāb to Pir-i- Kalani (m. 78). This track is difficult in parts, and if the Zāb could be crossed near Zibār an easier way could probably be found along the l. bank to the Pir-i-Kalani. The ruined bridge at that point would have to be restored, and the track described below rejoined. Broad track NW. up the valley, which is 1-11 m. broad. 592 Herin, 200 houses ; 30 houses of Christians and a few Jews. Masonry church, 50 by 20 yds., walls 4 ft. thick. A few loopholes at the top. 102 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rowan duz 601 613 Two strongly built forts, 60 yds. by 60 yds., now dis- mantled, in the village. Walls 4 ft. thick. Vineyards on the slopes to l. Some wheat and barley cultivation. Ascend low ridge with brushwood by a rough track over sheets of rock in places. Cross dry stream bed through a thicket of low shrubs near Bāri, 30 huts on a knoll. Water from surface wells. Barley, wheat, and tobacco cultivation. Hills { m. to r, covered with oaks and shrubs. Valley narrow after Bāri is passed. Qal'ah Hukher, square stone fort with corner towers, now dismantled, in a strong position. Track turns sharply N., entering a gorge in the range to r. through Galashinea pass. An alternative pass goes by Qal'ah Hukher, but is steeper and more difficult. Pass a karez. Water bad. Alt. 1,650 ft. Huqq, small village in a ravine behind a spur. Another karez. Narrow stony track among small terraces. Follow r. side of a V-shaped valley. Alt. 2,185 ft. 623 Another track, equally stony and difficult, leads to Amadiyeh more directly over the Gelleh Polunja pass, without descending into the river valley. It traverses a rugged, woody valley. 653 667 67 672 Track rises among terraces. 9 pools or wells, some open, others fenced round. The largest is about 30 ft. across; the water stagnant. Alt. 2,400 ft. Track ascends a steep stony slope. Pass Shinea, 60 houses. There is one large stone building, 20 yds. square, of three storeys, the lowest being a reservoir. Water from a small perennial spring above the village, and open shallow wells. Track runs up a valley # m. wide, bordered by cliffs, over a loose mass of large jagged stones. Steep gradient. Summit of Galashinea pass, 3,155 ft. Small dip in range about im. wide, bordered by cliffs. Graveyard with small grove of oaks here. Descend by stony narrow ravine. Gradient 1 in 4 to 1 in 6. Several vineyards under cliffs to l. 68 ROUTE 62 a 103 Miles from Rowan. duz 683 Follow ravine by steep difficult track. Alt. 2,825 ft. 691 Spring. Difficult track to foot of descent, scarcely passable for mules. Alt. 2,045 ft. Greater Zāb river (r. bank). From the top of the pass to the river there is a descent of 1,730 ft. River here at the end of May was a torrent 50-60 yds. broad, 8-10 ft. deep. Valley 150-300 yds. broad. Flat grassy basin, 100 yds. broad, along bank for Lm. The opposite bank is steep. Ruined stone building near and another on the opposite bank. Some mulberries and oaks. Route follows the grassy basin for m., then along narrow track through brushwood and low trees, skirting foot of a steep slope to l. Track stony and difficult in places. River narrows, with deep, rapid current. Track follows ledge barely 1 ft. wide in a sloping sheet of rock overhanging the water. It could be improved into a fairly good mule-track. Along easy 3-ft. ledge through brushwood; undulating over low spurs from l. River narrows to 40 yds. Deep rapid stream. Track, stony, passes between 2 large boulders with no more than passage room for mules. River now barely 30 yds. broad. Track narrow and difficult. Round rocky spur from 1. for 40 yds. Pass over sheet of rock having a trough cut about 2 ft. wide, with steps to give a foothold. 77 Valley opens and road improves. Large spring and ruins of a mill. 78 Ruins of masonry bridge, Pīr-i-Kalani, only the piers remaining. One span of 90 ft. crossed the main channel. Two smaller spans on the l. bank—30 and 15 ft. For possible route along 1. bank of the Zāb from Zibār, see above under m. 577. Easy clay track through oak and undergrowth. 782 / Slopes to l. now more rounded and thickly wooded. Valley opens out to 3 m. in width. 104 LAND ROUTES 811 Miles from Rowan- duz Lower slopes of Shīrindāri Dāgh to r. also wooded, with several small streams. Rice fields by the river. 802 Alura, 30 Kurdish huts, near a ruined church. Pass grove of fine oaks. Some cultivation. Grassy plain, 1 m. broad, bordering the Zāb. Some rocky wooded spurs from l. The range on the NE. is pierced by a huge rift called the Tang-i-Belindeh, through which the Rudbār-i-Shīn, 30 yds. broad, flows to join the Zāb. Ashkufa, 40 houses on the further side of the Zāb (also apparently called the Ashkufa Su) at its junction with the Rudbār-i-Shin. Here the present track joins Route 62 b. For continuation, see Route 62 b, m. 28-0. 1121 ) Amadiyeh. ROUTE 62 b AMADIYEH-ORAMAR (738 M.) Via LATKEH AND SURIN Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Routes 118 (report of 1888) and 124 (reports of 1889 and 1901), and recent information. General direction, E. and NE. The route follows the Qara Su valley by an easy track, through fairly cultivated country to the Great Zāb river, which it crosses by a kelek ferry. From this point the track becomes extremely bad as it goes up the valley of the Rudbār-i-Shin past tremendous precipices. The moun- tainous area in the neighbourhood of that river is extraordinarily rugged and difficult. The country is desolate and thinly populated. Fuel is scarce ; little cultivation exists ; grazing is poor. There is plenty of water. Miles from Ama- diyen Amadiyeh. A steep descent leads to the Qara Su, which is followed 21 Kwaneh (alt. 2,775 ft.), Christian village of 50 houses, lying ROUTES 62 a, b 105 Miles from Ama- diyeh in a cultivated valley which is irrigated from a large spring. A good easy track leads hence over a large stream from r., across several ravines in bare hills, and down a steep slope to the Qara Su, the l. bank of which is followed, the track crossing several small ravines, and being swampy in places. Farther on the track is broad and follows a stream lined with poplars, trending away from the Qara Su. The N. watershed of the valley consists of a high range of jagged hills, quite im- passable, whose lower slopes are thickly wooded and broken up by precipitous ravines containing springs and small streams. 82? In this neighbourhood the track again passes over swampy ground, crosses a ravine, traverses a grassy terrace dotted with trees, descends steeply, and rejoins the Qara Su, following the l. bank by a broad, grassy track, crossed by several irrigation channels, and passing through a sparsely populated country with little cultivation. 111 Ford (alt. 1,850 ft.) to r. bank, over a pebbly bottom 80 yds. wide, the stream flowing in several channels at the beginning of June, and the water being 1 ft. or less deep. The valley here is 21 to 3 m. broad, and the route, passing the piers of an old masonry bridge, turns S. to the valley of the Rabāt Su, which contains a good deal of terraced cultivation, the large Kurdish village of Sercheh lying at the mouth of a broad rift in the hills to r., through which the stream passes. 123 | Ford (alt. 1,570 ft.), 30 ft. wide and 18 in. deep in June, with a pebbly bottom. Kurdish village of 10 houses. Ruined bridge over the Zāb called the Pir-i-Firai is passed 1 m. to l., where the river flows in a rocky bed, so narrow that in one place a rough bridge, 60 ft. long, impassable for mules, has been made by throwing tree-trunks across it. Track enters a district where silk is produced. 151 Firai, Kurdish village of 60 houses. Leave the river, going SE, and crossing a craggy wooded ravine. 173 Beon (alt. 1,780 ft.), Kurdish village of 20 houses in a small ravine to l., surrounded by walnut, poplar, and mulberry trees. 106 LAND ROUTES Miles from Ama- diyoh 211 251 Cross a ravine, pass a stream in a rocky ravine containing some fine oaks, sycamores and ash trees, and follow a narrow valley by a broad road leading through oak woods. Leaving the valley, cross a ridge and enter a narrow ravine. Serukāni (alt. 1,565 ft.), 30 houses, 1 m. to l, down the ravine, where banks are well wooded and the upper slopes have terraced cultivation of wheat. Cross a stream 20 ft. wide. The route ascends the ravine to an altitude of 1,765 ft., and follows a broad track over clay soil. It passes a well-wooded range 3 m. to r., and turns E. down a thickly-wooded valley, 200 yds. wide ; it then ascends gradually, passes over a stony spur covered with oaks and shrubs, leaving to l. a belt of rice land, 600 yds. wide, along the river, crosses a flat by the river and ascends steeply to Latkeh (alt. 1,615 ft.) with a small stone fort, on a rocky spur, overlooking the Zāb. Residence (apparently in 1901) of Futta Ala, an influential Kurd. Route now passes through a well-watered, cultivated flat, 1 m. wide, lying between the river to l. and the hills to r. ; crosses a low spur, and goes parallel to the Zāb, here a rapid stream, 100 to 150 yds. wide in June, with a gravelly bed. About here route meets the road from Rowanduz (see Route 62 a, m. 827). It goes down to a kelek ferry by which the river is crossed to Surin, on r. bank of the Rudbār-i-Shin at its junction with the Zāb, Ashkufa, 40 houses, being on the opposite side of the stream, here 30 yds. wide and containing much snow-water in May. From this point the Heriki tribes, bringing their flocks in the spring to the Tergavvār plain near Urmia, follow the route to Oramar and thence via Dīzeh: this constitutes the shortest route from Mosul to Urmia, and is passable for mules. The road now crosses the Zāb valley and enters Tang-i-Belindeh, a great gorge in the Muzeran district, through which the Rudbār-i-Shin passes between the Gurājar Dāgh on N., and the Shirindāri Dāgh on S. The road is extraordinarily bad, ascending and descending over precipitous places, and hardly distinguishable as a 28? 282 - - -- - --- ROUTE 62 b 107 Miles from Ama- diyeh 2 57 591 track, although laden horses get along it. The stream is 25-30 yds. wide, flowing swiftly. The scarp on the 1. bank is sheer, nowhere supporting even a foot- track. Abrupt ascent leads over a low neck to the valley of the Yahūdi Chai. The river is reached and apparently crossed just above the pathless chasm through which it runs to join the Rudbār-i-Shin. Track leads along 1. bank high up above the stream. Renjbraka. Pass Jemajehu (alt. 3,500 ft.), across the valley on r. bank. The stream is crossed several times as the track ascends a gorge, narrow in the lower part and gradually becoming more open. Hamlet near some rock-chambers ; scattered houses become numerous. Pır Hasan. Beyond this the stream makes a deep bend to E., and an easy ascent leads to the top of a spur from which a fairly easy descent leads to the N. boundary of the Reikan nahiye. Nerva (alt. 4,050 ft.). The stream is met again. From Nerva the road ascends steeply by a fairly easy track. Tutun Yāilā (alt. 6,000 ft.), descends by an easy track to a rill, which is followed until it meets a larger stream from N. which it descends for 1 m. to Bīri. Some distance below this the valley narrows to a rift 6 to 8 ft. wide: track here consists of steps cut in the rock. Track again meets the Rudbār-i-Shin and follows its r. bank for 11 m. to Shatunis, descends to the stream by a short length of stone staircase, and crosses it by a wicker- bridge, the water, 20 yds. broad in September, being a deep powerful torrent. From the bridge the route descends the l. bank for a short distance and then turns up the valley of a small water- course to NE., crosses its watershed, descends to the headwaters of another stream, ascends steeply, rounds the head of a valley and descends by a steep but fairly broad track, with rock-cut steps at intervals, to a brook, from which an ascent, which gradually becomes steep, leads to Oramar. 681 733 108 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 63 a NERI-KOCHANNES (100 m.) Via ORAMAR Authorities :---See p. 459. The route in Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii (no. 124 a), has been supplemented by more recent information. Neri General direction, NW. This is an extremely rough and difficult path, hardly practicable for laden mules. It passes through a sparsely inhabited country where supplies are obtainable only on a very small scale. There is fair grazing, not very much fuel, and plenty of water. On the Nestorian population, see p. 32. Miles from Neri. Route ascends a steep hill-side, following a narrow winding path, and leaving the Rudbār-i-Begirdi to S. Kerkītan. Hence ascend gradually up a well-wooded hill-side. Then descend steeply to the Khūmara Su, which is crossed by a wicker-bridge. Follow a rocky watercourse by a steep stony track, which becomes more difficult; it leads through wooded hills. Mezri. Mezri Yailā. Track becomes little better than a goat- path, very difficult for mules. Beginning of steep ascent. Pass (alt. 7,100 ft.), over a ridge from the Sati Dāgh (alt. 14,000 ft.) to N., which rises S. of the Gavvār plain and SE. of Ishtāzin. Along its slopes a track goes to Oramar and Ishtāzin. From the pass the track, much exposed to avalanches, goes sheer down for 11 hr. to a hamlet with some rice fields. Naqeilān Chai is crossed by a wicker-bridge. Gradual ascent by a bad track. Beizel, a village of the Heriki Kurds in the Beitkār valley. Beyond this place the track becomes much steeper. Cross a knife-edge ridge (alt. 6,500 ft.), and descend very steeply over rocky ground. Heriki stream. The valley, between high, bare ridges is 300 to 400 yds. wide, and is dotted with villages and 161 ROUTE 63 a 109 Miles from Neri 26 trees. The stream is crossed three times by wicker- bridges. Leave yalley by a very steep ascent over rocks. 30 Summit of a ridge. The descent is easier. Deh, Kurdish village in which are a few Nestorian houses, situated on a tributary of the Rudbār-i-Shin. After crossing a minor ridge the route reaches a fairly well wooded valley, coming from the Sati Dāgh. 351 Sati, Kurdish village of 60 houses, some of which are Nestorian. Enter another valley, also coming from the Sati Dāgh. Ascend this valley for 1 m., and then turn W. over the hill-side by a very steep path. An exceedingly steep descent leads to : 48 | Oramar (alt. 5,500 ft.), an important village of 200 houses, surrounded by gardens and vineyards, where the track from Amadiyeh is met (see Route 62 b): The route now descends very steeply through vineyards and cultivation to the deep gorge of the Rudbār-i-Shin, and passes under limestone cliffs by a steep path. 57? Wicker-bridge where route meets on r. bank a track (Route 63 b) leading N. to Dīzeh. 59 About 2 m. beyond the bridge the route turns l. (N.) through Gelli-i-Paghra, a rift 8 ft. wide through which flows a small tributary stream coming from lower Jelu to N. The stream is followed up the rift. 60 Rift opens out into a very steep stony valley containing some walnut and palm trees. It is left by a zigzag to N. up a stony ledge 2 ft. broad leading to a wide basin, whence an easier but extremely steep track ascends. Summit of a sharp spur from which a very steep zigzag follows a stony clay slope along a ravine on r. to Zir (alt. 5,040 ft.), Nestorian village of 100 houses, the principal village of lower (or lesser) Jelu. The r. side of a ravine is ascended by a very steep track, over a clay slope with scattered trees. Summit (alt. 6,526 ft.) of a sharp clay spur overlooking the upper Jelu district, and the spur is followed to NW. for a short way until (alt. 6,940 ft.) the track turning 1. descends steeply into the Jelu valley. 702 | Cross the stony bed of a stream flowing from N. Track I now winds along a slope, passes through Umwath, 60 661 682 110 LAND ROUTES Miles from Neri Nestorian houses, and winding round the foot of a spur to r. reaches Marta Marzaia (alt. 5,540 ft.), a Nestorian village of 150 houses, seat of the bishop of Jelu. ALTERNATIVE Route via ZERĀNI. From Marta Marzaia a track passable for mules goes W. across some spurs to the Zerāni valley, up which it ascends to the Nestorian village of Zerāni (3 m.), whence a steep ascent of 6 m. leads by a difficult track to the top of a pass (alt. 10,425 ft.), the last 150 ft. consisting of a natural staircase in the rocks. The main route is joined at the pass (m, 823 below). 74 773 A track also leads SW. through the Baz district to the Hāni pass (see Route 68 b, m. 534). The road to Kochannes goes very steeply up the stream to N., gradually trending E. over a spur into the Umwuth valley. Follow a spur, descend slightly, and then following a 2-ft. ledge towards a gap between the peaks of Tura Daouil on W. and Nakira Shirka on E., ascend a very steep stairway, and cross some grassy slopes which the people of Marzaia use for summer grazing-grounds, and where the slope is easier. From this point a short but steep and very difficult track leads down to Orisha and the Gavvār plain. Summit of a spur (alt. 10,425 ft.), coming from Geliashin, to N. The peak of Geliashin (alt. 13,500 ft.) is said to be accessible by only one path leading from here up the SE. side of the crest. Descend slightly on the other side N. of Tura Daouil, and then follow by a fairly easy 2-ft. ledge, a contour round the heads of some ravines leading to the Zerāni valley. Kilisseh Punār; large springs. Ascend rather steeply. Spur (alt. 10,400 ft.) overlooking the Tkhuma district to SW. From here an easy track over clay and stones leads NW. Broad grassy col (alt. 10,425 ft.) overlooking the Des Chai valley to N. Track from Zerāni is met. An easy clay track leads down a gradual descent past some yāilās. 792 801 821 ROUTE 63 a 111 Miles from Neri 86 89 Track becomes extremely steep as the church of Mar Gir. gis is reached, beyond which the r. bank of a stream is followed, the track being in steep zigzags, but fairly easy, and some meadows and cultivation being passed. Suwa (alt. 5,820 ft.), Nestorian village of 10 houses, at the junction of the stream with another stream coming from Geliashin. This point is a mile below the village of Kolusa, situated at the head of the Des Chai valley. A track leads N. over a sharp spur to the Maidān-i-Bulāq and so to Hais, where it joins the Dizeh-Kochannes track (see Route 64, m. 174). From Suwa a rough, stony track is followed down l. bank of the Des Chai to a bridge, beyond which is Kursīn, a village of 20 scattered Nestorian houses. The river is again crossed by a small bridge to l. bank; a large stream from the Khisāreh peak is crossed, and the r. bank is again followed. Chumba Chiri Chiraia, the lower part of the Nestorian village of Chiri Chiraia. The track becomes easier, and the mouth of a large stream on 1. bank, the Uri Dereh, is passed, and also the church of Mar Shalīta high up on l. bank, Akusi, a large Nestorian village, high up in a valley on r., and Chumba di Kasha ; beyond which the valley widens. Ma Des, Nestorian village of 15 houses. A ford leads to 1. bank, and the track then passes below Rabban d'Audishu, a few houses and a church on I., and Saramus, a large village on r., both Nestorian. Kirisseh, Nestorian village. Cross by a ford to r. bank and pass through the Kurdish village of Kerassagh, and beneath the ruined Kurdish stronghold of Mudebbir Qal'ah on r. Kermi de Des or Rezān de Des, Kurdish village, on 1. bank at the junction with the Zāb river. Ascend l. bank of the Zāb to a deep ford below a bridge in bad repair. Road to Julāmerk and Amadiyeh leads down the Zāb valley to l. (see Route 69, m. 93). The track, which is extremely steep, leads up a stony clay slope, dotted with trees, crosses a spur, and descends steeply into a ravine by sharp zigzags. The l. bank of this ravine is followed by a very steep ascent among low oaks and brushwood. 901 91 112 LAND ROUTES Miles from Neri 94ả 962 Kegar, 10 Nestorian houses. Ascend by a very steep zigzag. Summit of a broad spur (alt. 7,825 ft.), and part of the S. watershed of Kochannes Chai, on which is met a track following the T. L. from Băsh Qal'ah to Terkhunis and Julāmerk. Route turns N. to cross the deep valley of the Kochannes Chai, descending very steeply and rising on the other side. | Kochannes (alt. 6,400 ft.). (See Route 70, m. 11.) 98 100 Oramar. ROUTE 63 b ORAMAR-DĪZEH (331 m.) Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 124. General direction, NE. This route appears not to be much used; it is rough and difficult. Fuel appears to be scarce. Miles from Oramar. Route 63 a is followed (from m. 48) for 8 or 9 m. to the wicker-bridge (m. 57 ?) whence the track turns E. up the bank of the stream. It winds between high cliffs. 102 Rift, 6 to 8 ft. wide. Thence through a pass called Kāni. i-gis or Aineh de Gezi. 14 Wicker-bridge to l. bank. Ascend a narrow rift with huge limestone crags on both sides, winding along a fairly easy ledge above the stream. Pass Bubāwa on r. bank. 152 Shemsiki (alt. 4,700 ft.), one of several large Nestorian villages grouped together with much cultivation and many gardens and trees. There used to be generally at Shemsiki a post of 20 Nizam infantry from Gavvār. For 11 m. the stream is followed along a rough track, passing a large stream from Mergan, a large Kurdish village, until the road ascends a steep, stony spur to l., leaving Eira, 30 Kurd houses, i m. to r. across side stream, beyond which the spur becomes less steep as it passes over clay ground. ROUTES 63 a, b, 64 113 Miles from Oramar 19 21 261 Bāsh Tazyin, 30 Nestorian houses on a cultivated plateau m. to l., across the stream. Easy ascent to Rīshi Hawashta pass (alt. 8,610 ft.), where are two small ponds. From the pass one track goes NW. to Orisha and Shawutha (see Route 64, m, 27x), and another goes SW. towards Mergan. From the pass the track, although steep in places, is fairly easy as it descends past stony clay hills. ‘Ali Khaneh, village of 20 Nestorian houses, on the edge of the Gavvār plain. Two thriving villages, Qadiyān and Khaldara, of the Doshki Kurds, 2 m. to 1. (N.). An easy track leads over the plain past cultivation and marshes. Ford the Nihail Chai, 40 yds. wide and 22 ft. deep in September, with a gravelly bottom. Gagarran (alt. 6,080 ft.), Nestorian village, residence of the Nestorian Bishop of Gavvār. Dīzeh. (See Route 61 a,?m. 90.) 283 30 334 ROUTE 64 DĪZEH-KOCHANNES (341 m.) Via GAGARRAN AND SHAWUTHA Authority :-Recent information, General direction, NW. This is a somewhat rough track, passable for laden mules, but little used, since there is not much traffic between Dizeh and Kochannes and since the Gavvār plain is closed by snow quite late in the spring. Fuel, grass, and water are available, but there is little cultivation along the route. Miles from Dizeb 31 121 Dīzeh. Follow Route 63 b (m. 332-30) for 31 m. Gagarran. Track leads hence across the Gavvār plain. Darāweh, on the edge of the plain. Ascent to Hais, Nestorian village. Track now rises very steeply. H 171 MES. IV 114 LAND ROUTES 271 Miles from Dizeh 241 Kundal pass (alt. 8,700 ft.), beyond which there is an equally steep descent. Shawutha (alt. 7,500 ft.), Nestorian village. A still steeper descent of about 2,500 ft. follows to the Zāb river, which is crossed by a ford impassable in spring, and also, but some distance lower down the river, by a bridge in two spans built on to a great rock in the river as a central pier. Beyond the ford the r. bank of the Zāb is descended to the Kochannes Chai, up which the track leads as described in Route 69, m. 147. 341 | Kochannes. ROUTE 65 DĪZEH-BASH QAL'AH (478 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E. T. A., vol. ii, Route 93 (reports of 1888 and 1890). General direction, NNW. This route follows the Gayvār plain and then crosses some low hills into the Great Zāb valley. It is more or less practicable for wheeled traffic except between m. 137 and m. 331, over which distance it could only be made so with considerable difficulty : but it is a good mule road and there is fair grazing along it as late as June. Miles from Dizeh Dīzeh. Route starts W. and just beyond the town crosses a stream, 20 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in July, from which much water is taken for irrigation. Route then skirts the E. side Gavvār plain. There is an alternative track from Dizeh to Chār Dereh, at m. 31, which follows Route 61 a for about 14 m. to NE. of the town and then branches N. via Goweh and Peraunis, 10 m. It is 20 m. in length as compared with 31 m., the length of the main route to Chār Dereh, but is much rougher, although good enough for riding horses. It goes through the country of the Pinianishli Kurds. The Gavvār plain (alt. 6,500 ft.), is a flat, treeless area, dotted with villages, mostly Nestorian, with Kurdish villages lying round its edges in the low hills. The soil ROUTES 64, 65 115 Miles from Dizeh is a rich, black loam, which grows fine corn: it is exposed to inundations in the spring and autumn from the Nihail Chai, a winding stream some 40-60 yds. wide and 3 to 4 ft. deep or less in September. In winter the plain is deep in snow, which has been known to render it im- passable to laden animals as late as April. The village of Bajirka is passed m. to I., the residence of the chief of the Derili Kurds, and the road, a broad track, then passes over a low spur. 111 T.L. to Bāsh Qal'ah branches off to l. as the valley of the Nihail Chai leaves the plain. The track, 30 ft. broad, skirts low hills to NE., passes Shakita (? Shaikitan; 150 houses), 3 m. to l. and follows a flat, grassy valley 2 m. wide, down which the river flows, a broad, sluggish stream, not fordable. 133 Mohammed Agha Köprü. A 10-ft. planked bridge, built on masonry piers, crosses to 1. bank below the junction of a stream coming from the villages of the Beliji Kurds on W., of which Hawusta (Harwaseh ?) is the residence of the chief. 141 Route continues along the r. bank, 100 ft. above the river, there being a very steep bank on r. 14. After a gradual ascent past numerous small streams the valley widens and the hills become more rounded. 151 | Steep rocky spur, crossed by a zigzag road, 3 to 4 ft. wide, among stones and loose clay, the river below being a rapid torrent, and impassable. From this point the road winds over some small rocky spurs, goes over a spur along a rocky ledge only 2 ft. wide, still following the valley, which makes a sharp bend to W., and then goes along the foot of the slope among boulders, the river almost filling the valley and having willows, pear, apple, and ash trees along its banks. The road skirts a steep, rocky ridge by a ledge 6 to 8 ft. wide. Cross a small stream from r. by a rough bridge, and at an altitude of 6,000 ft. leave the valley, ascending steeply to 6,700 ft. by a series of short zigzags, gradient 1 in 4 to to 1 in 6, cut in a slope of clay and shale. From this point, following a narrow ravine, the track ascends easily the edge of a steep spur, and is a 4.ft. to 6-ft. ledge cut in the gravelly hill-side (alt. 6,790 ft.). 204 | Manis, 60 houses, 1 m. to r. 173 ; Cro H2 116 LAND ROUTES Miles from Dizeh 213 23 Skirt the edge of a cultivated plateau and, going through the country of the Pinianishli Kurds, cross the head of a flat, fertile valley, well cultivated. Disbereh, a village of 150 houses, 1 m. to l. Route then ascends gradually by a small ravine and crosses a ridge, the divide between the Nihail Chai and the Menel Chai, a large stream which drains the slopes of the Mūr Dāgh. On the N. side a miserable village of 30 huts, į m. to I., is passed. Takurava. Route follows a broad easy track, over gravelly soil, passing small springs and streams, and descends the valley of a small ravine (alt. 7,300 ft.), wide at the head and with a succession of fertile grassy terraces, on which are several small villages, surrounded by poplars and inhabited by Shekak Kurds, who have a lawless reputation. The gradient gets steep, and the ravine gets narrower at the bottom where it meets Messel Chai (alt. 6,120 ft.), a rapid stream, 30 yds, broad and 2 ft. deep in July, running over a pebbly bottom, through a narrow valley bordered by high, rounded hills, covered with grass. Route then ascends a V-shaped stony ravine, with some pollarded willows in it, by a steep rough track, which leads to a valley 200 to 300 yds. wide bounded by rounded undulations on which good hay is grown. From the head of this valley a broad easy track skirts some low gravelly hills, descending gradually to Chār Dereh (alt. 6,820 ft.), a village of 60 Kurd houses, with some vegetable and tobacco fields, but no trees. Water from a well 6 ft. deep. The horse-track from Dizeh joins here. From Chār Dereh the road descends gradually, crossing numerous swampy valleys in which fine hay is grown, and passing over undulating spurs, Bawis, 80 houses, in a small valley. Route follows a good gravelly track by a gradual descent, then crosses some swampy ground. Cross the river Zāb (alt. 6,180 ft.), by a ford with a gravel bottom, the river here being 50 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep in July, with a strong current. Ozaia, a village of 20 huts, is passed on the opposite (1.) bank of the Zāb. Track is broad and easy. 31 332 341 ROUTES 65, 66 a 117 Miles from Dīzeh 351 | Join Julāmerk-Bash Qal'ah road (see Route 69, m. 361) and follow it to | Bash Qal'ah. 47 ROUTE 66 a Urmia . URMIA-DILMAN (51 m.) Authority :- Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iii, Route 135 (report of 1886). General direction, N. by W. This is a driving road which goes across the plain of Lake Urmia. It forms part of a main route between Julfa, Urmia, and Sūj Bulāq which is passable for all arms. It passes through a well-cultivated country, and fuel, grass, and water are plentiful throughout.. Miles from Urmia. Go N., crossing numerous small canals, and passing many villages with gardens, orchards, and vine- yards. 102 Shungarlu (alt. 4,300 ft.) where the Nazlu Chai is crossed by a brick four-arched bridge, 35 yds. long 111 Large canal is crossed by a wooden bridge and a rich country is entered where there is much cultivation and many poplars are seen. Skirt rocky ridge: here is very good grazing for camels. Zernābād. Branch track to Nazlu. Dilman customs post. Road continues to skirt the hills, passing some large springs on r. Gavālan, Nestorian village of 50 houses, on the bank of a stream. From the village, route ascends by an easy track. Salmās Gedik (alt. 5,980 ft.), crossing a low range of rugged bare hills, the E. end of the Aghwān Dāgh, which divides the Urmia plain from that of Salmās, and has an old Kurdish castle as its E. extremity, above the lake. There are three tracks over this range which cross the summit within a short distance, the central track being the easiest. Descend on the N. side by a gradient which is easy except on two stretches of 100 yds. each, where it is 1 in 6. Enter a valley (alt. 4,800 ft.), and skirt hills by a good track. 51 Dilman (alt. 4,400 ft.), situated in the Salmās plain. 43 118 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 66 b URMIA-QOTUR 0 Authority :— Report of 1886. Little is known of this route: it may perhaps be practicable in parts for wheeled traffic. It provides an alternative to the route via Dilman (Routes 66 a and 76 a, m. 0-584). Only approximate times (actual travelling) can be given. Hours. Urmia. Gundervan. Sarna. Ula. Salmās plain. Nazirova monastery. Khānik. Jeranik. Qotur (see Route 76 a, m, 584). ROUTES 66 b, 67 a 119 ROUTE 67 a MOSUL-AMADIYEH (624 m.) Via BA IDRI AND SHEIKH ADI Authorities : -See p. 459. Main authority, Bachmann, journey of 1911. Of the two routes, 67 a and 67 b, this is the shorter by 42 m. The longer route, 67 b, is more generally used by local caravans, being easier and perhaps less exposed to attacks by marauding Kurds. The general direction of the present route is N. The W.0. map shows that it is a cart road up to some 5 m. beyond Khorsābād (m. 101): it then becomes a mule-track. It is not used by ordinary pack-caravans. It is well supplied with water when once the hills are entered beyond Ba Idri (m. 213). There is wheat cultivation in the plain as far as Ba Idri, but beyond that point the soil, though very fertile in the valleys, is comparatively little cultivated until the neighbourhood of Amadiyeh, owing to the insecurity caused by Kurdish raids. Grazing is good in spring, and there is a good deal of wood in the hills, mostly oak, but poplars are also found with a considerable amount of juniper. The line described in detail below was taken by Bachmann in 1911. In 1886 Bell followed a mule-track, passing the villages of - Miles from Mosul 41 15 | Khorsābād. 35 Tsipinni. Sheikh Adi (off route to 1.). 43 Shuftundu. 45 Hassaski. 479 Bustowa (Bustān?). Atrush (1 m. to r.). 55 Hasnukeh (1 m. to r.). 63 | Spindari (see route below, m. 43!). 55 Miles from Mosul Mosul. Leave by the boat-bridge. Easy track over open plain following the general course of the Khozer valley. There is an alternative track over more broken ground 120 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 101 213 262 from Mosul to Sheikh Adi (m. 264 below) via Ba Sheikha (15 m.), to which place the W.0. map shows that there is a cart-road. From it there is only a mule-track : total distance 304 m. | Khorsābād, 30 Kurdish houses near ruin-mounds marking the site of an ancient Assyrian city. Strong springs a short distance beyond form streams which run into the Khizir. Ba Idri (alt. 2,000 ft.), large Yezidi village on the slopes of the foot-hills. The high priest of the Yezidis, 'Ali Beg, who was murdered in the spring of 1912, used to live here. The village is said to be 5 hrs.' ride from Bairan. Behind rise limestone hills. Low oaks and junipers here and there on the slopes. Track now enters the hills and ascends by a very stony path to the top of a ridge (alt. 3,400 ft.). Cross the head of a small stream and follow a zigzag over a spur to another stream dominated by Sheikh Adi (alt. 2,950 ft.), small village in a narrow valley. There is here the shrine of Sheikh Adi, the founder of the Yezidi faith. It was partly destroyed by the Turks in 1892, and has been converted into a mosque. Round the shrine are mulberry trees and springs, mostly covered in. The place is said to be 4 hrs. from Alkosh (see Route 67 b, m. 29). The valley is shut in by low rocky hills, which are well wooded, and the numerous springs form a considerable tributary of the Gomel Su (see m. 311 below). Continue down the valley to E. and turn up a tributary to N. Mirāreh, a Yezidi village pleasantly situated among vine- yards and mulberry plantations, is passed a short distance on r. Cross a saddle. Trees become more numerous. Cross a ridge running E. and W., and descend a ravine. Gomel Su (alt. 2,100 ft.), which runs E. in a broad open valley. Ford the stream, which was 40-50 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep when crossed in 1886 (apparently in summer). Bed of boulders 30-40 yds. wide. Bank steep and gravelly. Ascend stream by I. bank. | Ford stream. Good grass in spring; some cultivation. Ascend on to a wooded limestone plateau (alt. 3,770 ft.) by a winding track. The plateau is covered with oaks. 271 311 33 ROUTE 67 a 121 Miles from Mosul 381 Leave plateau. Descend to a small stream, beyond which to l. lies the village of Garbega, skirting the W. slopes of a hill. Cross a small ridge into a broad valley which descends to E., and cross the stream. Go up its r. bank and then ascend steeply over a wooded ridge. 431 Spindari (alt. 4,100 ft.), 50 houses of Kurds. Vine and tobacco cultivation. Poplars in the valley. Descend slightly and cross a narrow valley. Then over a steep spur in a NW. direction. Cross a small stream. Ascend a narrow ravine by a stony track 471 Summit of the Tura Qara (Qara Dāgh; alt. 5,050 ft.). The saddle over which the track passes is the lowest point of the chain, which rises high on both sides. The N. slopes of the range are drained by many streams which flow into the Qara Su (see below under m. 532). Track now winds up and down over bare rounded hills of conglomerate and sandstone passing deep wooded ravines. Zigzag path down a stony hill-side. Cross a minor outlier. Country wooded. 532 | Cross a stream (alt. 2,950 ft.) running towards the Qara Su which flows E. to the Great Zāb in a winding course through a valley bounded on the S. by the Tura Qara and on the N. by the Ser Amadiyeh. The slopes to the N. are bare, but the valley itself is extraordinarily fertile and well cultivated. Continue over extremely broken bare hills of conglomerate sandstone. 573 / Track joins that from Mosul via Dohuk. For the rest of the route, see Route 67 b, m. 100-1041. 621 | Amadiyeh. 122 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 67 b MOSUL-AMADIYEH (1044 m.) Via DoHUK Authorities : -See p. 459. Main authority, Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iii, Route 120 (report of 1888). General direction. NW. and N. This is a fairly easy track, passable for wheeled traffic for the first 492 m. and for the last 29 m. according to the W.O. map, which may be correct. Probably it could be made passable for wheels all the way by some levelling, widening, and clear- ing, but there is no recent evidence regarding it. As far as Alkosh (m. 29) it lies over an undulating plain liable to be very heavy after rain. Beyond Alkosh the country becomes hilly, but the track remains generally broad and fairly easy. There was a narrow rough path in 1888 through the gorge of the Butaq Su (m. 334), the track becoming broad and easy again beyond the gorge. It was reported that through the Tang-i-Darya Bada (m. 634) the track might by levelling be made passable for artillery. Other narrow or stony parts (e.g. m. 514) apparently could all be made passable for guns without much difficulty. There are at different places steep ascents and descents, none of which appears to be long, and at others bridges would require to be improved in order to carry guns. In June 1888 the streams were all fordable, but it was reported that the Dohuk Su through the Dorg Boghaz (m. 511) appeared to rise 10 ft. in flood. Water is rather scarce, and often bad, for the first 20-25 m. After that it becomes more plentiful, but is frequently brackish or bad owing to the presence of sulphur. The country generally is fertile and well cultivated, particularly in the plain as far as Alkosh (m. 29), but the valleys beyond also produce a good deal of wheat, rice, and fruit. The villages, however, are small, and large supplies could not be looked for. Wood and fuel are generally plentiful, at any rate after the hills are entered. Grazing appears to be good in the earlier part of the year, but is burnt up, at any rate in places, by the beginning of June. Miles from Mosul Mosul. Cross the bridge and follow the road to Jezīret. ibn-'Omar (Route 90 a). | Route leaves the road to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. 3 ROUTE 67 b 123 Miles from Mosul 10} 133 Pass the Yezidi and Shabakh village of Shabakh, 300 houses, . 3 m. to r., on a mound. Continue over a rolling plain. Tel Kaif, 300-400 houses, inhabited by Chaldeans and New Chaldeans; well-water brackish ; rain-water ponds. Pass Batinai, a Chaldean village of 250 houses; water supply from 3 wells, slightly brackish, and also from ponds. Continue over the rolling plain by a broad track. Tel Usquf (alt. 1,400 ft.), large village of 1,000 houses, mostly inhabited by New Chaldeans; some Chaldeans. Bad water-supply from 3 wells 20 ft. deep and 6 ft. in diameter, only 1 containing water fit for drinking ; ponds used for the main supply. Beyond the village the undulating country continues. Cross a stream. Alt. 1,535 ft. Pass Serafiyeh, a Yezidi village of 50 huts on a low mound. Soil now very rich ; wheat (harvested in the beginning of June), Indian corn, and melons cultivated. Monastery of Alkosh, a comparatively new structure, in the plain, built to replace the ancient Nestorian monastery of Rabbān Hormuz, which lies in the hills 11 m. away. Both monasteries are now Chaldean. A short distance farther on is Alkosh (alt. 1,800 ft.), a town of 7,000 inhabitants, mostly Chaldeans; stone houses, narrow streets, small straggling bazaar, good water. 281 29 An alternative track branches to r., going to the Tang-i-Haitut (m. 651) via Zawitha. It is 20 m, shorter than the route followed, but is only a mule-track, and there are few villages along it. Track now broad and undulating, crosses stony spurs from the N. and passes 1 m. to S. 331 Shināwa, 40 Yezidi houses, with a few trees and gardens, on the opposite bank of a stream, the Butaq Su. Enter the gorge of the Butaq Su; 2 mills at its S. end. Follow a narrow ledge 3 to 4 ft. wide; rock a soft limestone. 341 Ford the Butaq Su, a large stream, tributary of the Tigris, and ascend steeply out of the gorge. Pass Maraski, a Yezidi village of 50 huts, in the plain 2 m. to r. 361 Pass Seniyeh, 60 Yezidi houses near the road and lying to N. 38 Cross a small stream, 20 ft. wide in June, muddy channel (alt. 1,600 ft.). Follow a broad track across the plain. 124 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 421 45 461 492 Zahoa (alt. 1,500 ft.), 100 houses, where there is spring water, brackish but drinkable. The village lies at the foot of the Dohuk Dāgh, a bare rocky ridge which rises steeply to the N. Skirt the S. slopes of the Dohuk ridge. Broad track joins on l. leading from Mosul via Hattara. Reach the Dohuk Su and turn r., to N., up the valley by 1. bank. Pass Ekmara, a small village on the r. bank of the Dohuk Su. A short distance beyond there is a large spring near the road, which then enters a 20.ft. cutting 50 yds. long, rounding a spur to r. Ford to r. bank with a pebbly bottom; water 50 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in June (alt. here 1,500 ft.). Road now through cultivation. Figs, pomegranates, mulberries, apples, pears, and apricots, and vegetables grown here. Dohuk, on the l. bank of the stream, a place of 300 houses (1888), of which 225 belong to Kurds, 45 to Chaldeans, and 30 to Jews. Water from the stream said to be bad; is strongly impregnated with sulphur. The best water is from springs some distance to N. See below, m. 502. There is a masonry stronghold, 100 yds. square, which was rather ruinous in 1888. The neighbouring hill-sides are steep, but are covered with brushwood: in June the grass was burnt up. E. of the town is a valley 3 m. wide filled with vineyards and fig orchards. There is a con- siderable grain market here, and a large bazaar where all kinds of fruits and vegetables are sold, and whence the Kurds obtain cotton goods, leather, and ironwork. The place is the seat of a Kaim makam under Mosul. The track follows the r. bank of the Dohuk Su, and descends a low spur through wheat fields. Ford the stream to the l. bank, 30 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in June, with gravelly bottom. Above this ford are the remains of an old bridge, only the piers remaining in 1888 ; there had been 1 span of 30 ft. Several large springs on the bank, from which the best water for Dohuk is obtained. Dorg Boghaz, a rift in a steep rocky ridge. It could be made practicable for wheels by removing some stones. Track 10-15 ft, broad. Marks on the cliff show that the stream rises 10 ft. in the flood season. Large rock-cut chambers and tombs to r. 511 ROUTE 67 b 125 Miles from Mosul 53] · 581 Emerge from the pass. “The track is 20 ft. wide for some distance. Ascend by a zigzag path to an altitude of 2,225 ft. Pass Pīr 'Omāreh, a village of 150 Kurd houses, 2 m. away to l. in a valley. Farther on, along the banks of the stream 4 m. l., are some mineral springs with jets of sulphuretted hydrogen. No trees visible here." Zewa and Chista, two small Kurdish villages, are seen on the l. on the opposite slope. Altitude here 2,510 ft. The road winds round a steep hill to r. by a 6-ſt. ledge and enters a ravine. Pass Guntak, a Kurdish village of 30 houses, 1 m. to the l. on a bare spur. Follow the ravine by an easy track, crossing and recrossing the stream, and skirting on the r. a rounded hill whose upper slopes are bare and rocky, while the lower are covered with vineyards. Emerge from the ravine and ascend steeply to 2,550 ft., then follow the hill-side. Sundur, on the opposite slope of the ravine, a m. to l., a Jewish village of 80 houses. Track now winds round a ridge to the r., along a broad ledge in the shale, by an easy ascent. Broad gravelly ascent up a valley, through gardens and vineyards, leaving a steep rocky ridge { m. to the r. Pass Bada, 100 Kurd houses (alt. 3,085 ft.), with some small springs of inferior water. Ascend gradually. No trees on the slopes. Summit of col known as Tang-i-Darya Bada, or“ door of the winds'. Descend between high cliffs for 300 yds. among stones and boulders, the rayine broadening and the track becoming easier. This road is 8 to 10 ft. wide, and was once paved. It is now very slippery, but it has a fairly easy gradient and could be made passable for artillery without much labour. Continue down a steep ridge to the valley of the Butaq Su, here running N.-S., meeting the stream at The Tang-i-Haitut (alt. 2,600 ft.). It is a narrow rift in a rocky ridge through which runs the stream. At this point the alternative route from Alkosh (m. 29) joins. To l., extending for 6 or 7 m., is a grassy plateau dotted with a few trees and cut up by ravines. From here the road, although rough, could be improved easily. It 601 632 651 126 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 673 681 702 crosses several small ravines through oakwood and shrubs, and a low spur from 1. (alt. 2,975 ft.). Pass lower end of a well-wooded valley running up ESE. (110º). Some vineyards at the head. Rich soil, a reddish loam. Track now through oak forest with thick under- growth. Follow a narrow ledge above the stream for 100 yds. This might be avoided by fording the stream twice. Pass lower end of a narrow valley which runs up W. by N. (280°). Hills close in on track. The stream passes through a deep fissure in sandstone strata to r., while the road goes through a rocky gap about 40 yds. wide by a ledge 12 ft. wide cut out of thę rock; here it could be made passable for guns by clearing away loose stones. Alt. 2,615 ft. ; the valley here is 100 yds. wide. Pass a steep bluff of soft rock on 1. bank. Valley widens to 300 yds. Cross a stream. Badi, in the valley of this stream, 1 m. to l., a village of 40 houses on a wooded grassy terrace. Pass on the opposite or l. bank of the Butaq Su, the lower end of a valley running NE., 7 m. long and 2 m. wide, 3 m. up which is Barasiyeh, a village of 50 Kurd houses, with a few trees and orchards. Alt. 2,965 ft. Valley running up E., in which is situated Behsifka, a village surrounded by terraces and orchards. Serkun, 2 m. distant up a valley to r., a village of 50 Kurd houses, with terraced cultivation and orchards. Wood in short lengths is exported to Mosul from this valley. Track, 10 to 12 ft. wide and well defined, still ascending the stream through an oak forest with undergrowth ; fine sycamores along the banks. Ascend gradually by a broad 20 ft. track. Summit at a gap 300 yds. wide, in the Qara Dāgh (alt. 3,235 ft.). Pass a Kurd village of 30 houses, 11 m. to r., surrounded by a grove of oaks. Pass another Kurd village, 40 houses, 1 m. to r. ; the ridge to the NW. thickly covered with vineyards. Track now across level plateau dotted with large oaks and brushwood. Pass several ravines running towards the Sarka Su. 72 731 ROUTE 67 b 127 Miles from Mosul Round the head of a deep wooded ravine to r. (alt. 3,735 ft.). Descend a 15 ft. ledge and pass 761 Zaūka (alt. 3,395 ft.), a Kurdish village of 50 houses on a wooded plateau. From a point somewhat to S. of the village the W.O. map shows the road to be passable for wheeled traffic. An alternative track, reported in June 1888 to be better than that detailed here, branches off more to the W., rejoining at the Pir-i-Dāwūd (see m. 801). Follow a zigzag track down a spur to a V-shaped ravine. Cross and recross the stream-bed in the ravine (alt. 2,480 ft.); then along a narrow ledge in a clay slope, the track going through hills covered with low oaks and brush. wood. 794 | Pass Guzlin, à m. to r., a Kurdish village of 50 houses, surrounded by cornfields. Low oaks and brushwood on the hill-sides. Descend a gravelly spur covered with brushwood, passing a stream in a deep narrow ravine to l. Alt. 2,530 ft. Descend a 3-ft. ledge in sandstone for 200 yards. 804 Cross the Sipneh Chai (alt. 2,715 ft.). This stream is a tributary of the Khabür Su, which it joins above Zakho. It is crossed by a bridge, the Pīr-i-Dāwūd, 58 yds. long, with a planked centre span, 4 ft. wide and 27 ft. long, and 4 masonry arches with a 6-ft. roadway. This bridge is untrustworthy, and it is best to ford the stream, which was 20 ft. wide and 6 ins. deep in June. Here the better alternative track from Zaūka (m. 761 above) rejoins. From the bridge the road consists of a broad gravelly track, with an easy gradient, which follows a grassy slope among low shrubs and vineyards and then winds up to 821 Dāūdiyeh (alt. 3,015 ft.), village of 40 Chaldean and 20 Kurdish houses, overlooking a deep valley to the SE. It is the head-quarters of a Kaimmakam under Mosul. A mud fort, 100 yds. square, loopholed, with walls 3 to 4 ft. thick at the bottom, built in the earlier half of last century, but long dismantled, lies i m. to the E. The road runs E. across a broad plateau. For the route connecting Dāūdiyeh with Zakho see Route 90 c. 841 Pass Keni, a Christian village of 50 houses, in a grove on r., 128 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 871 902 921 and descend a short stony track into a valley ; then rise gradually to 3,330 ft., skirting a flat-topped spur, with a broad spur, well watered and cultivated, on r. Pass Bamurni, 2 m. to l. among trees, a Kurdish village, the home of Sheikh Mohammed, a man of influence among the local Kurds (1888). Track now through undulating country, dotted with low oaks and shrubs. Aradīneh (alt. 3,560 ft.), a Nestorian village of 150 well. built houses, with good water, lying in a rice-growing country, which also produces tobacco, wheat, and silk. There is a Moslem village of 30 houses a m. away. Round a low wooded spur by an easy stony track. Cross -a stream which flows to r., skirt a conical mound 1 m. to r., and ascend past the Christian village of Anishik (alt. 3,210 ft.), 100 houses surrounded by orchards and vineyards, 1 m. to l. under a spur of the Ser Ama- diyeh, a rocky range of hills rising to 8,500 ft., whose upper slopes are of clay strewn with boulders, from which several flat-topped spurs jut out to S., the Berwari district lying on its N. side. On r. is the valley of the Sipneh Chai, 6 m. wide, covered with vineyards and low trees. Kedisik, 50 houses, surrounded by a thick grove of poplars, sycamores, and oaks. Soil here a red loam ; a good deal of wheat is grown. Two villages about 1 m. to r., situated in the valley of the Qara Su, a tributary of the Zāb river. Country to r. much cut up by small ravines. The road descends, and a small ravine is crossed at 3,200 ft. The head of the ravine to l. is well wooded. Some distance on, a short descent following a sandstone ridge, and then across a small well-wooded valley (alt. 3,075 ft.) with a stream and several springs in it; track good, over clay with scattered boulders. Round the S. end of a plateau an outlier from the Ser Amadiyeh. Cross a stream by a 20 ft. single-arch stone bridge, 8 yds. long and 6 ft. wide ; # m. up a valley to l. is Biriazan (alt. 3,100 ft.), 40 houses on a knoll, with orchards and terraced fields of rice and wheat. From here a well- frequented broad track, passing over fertile soil covered with grass ; some brushwood and a few scattered patches of cultivation. 941 97 973 ROUTES 67 b, 68 a 129 Miles from Mosul 991 100 Steep descent in zigzags for 100 yds. to a small stream ; 1 m. to l. is Bebat or Bibaidi, a small village situated among orchards and cultivation. There is an Anglican mission-station here. A very steep and difficult road, almost impassable for mules, leads from Bebat, over well-wooded hills, to the Berwari district, crossing the Ser Amadiyeh range some distance W. of the Amadiyeh-Julāmerk road, see Routes 68 a, and 68 b, m. 5. It reaches Heyis, Route 68 b, m. 82, a distance of about 12 m. Route 67 a joins here. Descend by an easy track down a small spur. Cross a stone bridge (alt. 2,635 ft.) 23 yds. long and 8 ft. wide, of 2 arches of roughly squared stones. The stream, a tributary of the Qara Su, flows along the W. side of the plateau on which Amadiyeh lies. The stream valley is deep and narrow, with sides thickly wooded and cultivated in terraces of rice, wheat, and Indian corn. Some fine poplar, ash, and sycamore trees. Track now steep up to the plateau. Ground cut up by ravines. Amadiyeh (alt. 2,760 ft.). 101 1042 ROUTE 68 a AMADIYEH_JULĀMERK (64 m.) Via DEIR MARSOVA Authorities : - Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 120 (report of 1901), sup- plemented by more recent information. General direction, NE. The road passes over the Ser Amadiyeh, a ridge rising to an altitude of about 10,000 ft., and descends through the well-wooded Berwari district, to the Great Zāb river. It crosses this at 13 m , goes E. for a short distance into the Tkhuma district, at m. 21 crosses Route 68 b (about m. 36), and then, turning N., crosses a ridge and again descends to the Zāb (m. 312). It follows the 1. bank of the river, at m. 55 meets Route 68 b, and crosses the river again at m. 602. Beyond this it turns up a ravine to Julāmerk. The track is extremely bad, hardly fit for laden mules, which, in fact, have to be unloaded at certain places. Many small villages are MES. IV. 130 LAND ROUTES passed, but they possess little cultivation, only sufficient for their own use. Fuel is scarce throughout the route, and grazing is poor; water is plentiful. On the inhabitants, compare p. 32. Miles from Ama. diyeh Amadiyeh. Cross the plateau (i m.) and descend by a steep zigzag. Route then winds round the foot of the Amadiyeh plateau, follows a valley and crosses a large stream by a masonry arch with a 15-ft. span and a 4-ft. roadway. This stream runs through the Amadiyeh Gardens, owned by Kurds. Ascend a rocky gorge by a difficult track. Ser Amadiyeh, yāilā, or summer camping-ground. Alt. 5,900 ft. Alternative Route 68 b (Amadiyeh--Julāmerk, via Lizān) branches off here, and is preferred by travellers ; it might have to be used if the Zāb were impassable at m. 13, or at the l.w. ford 11 m. below that point. See below under m. 12. A track branches off here through Malakdeh to the Zāb bridge (m, 13). Cross an outlying ridge, the Matineh Dāgh, with a small plateau just beyond the summit. Descend by steep zigzags: difficult track which gets worse as it proceeds. Terwanish (alt. 3,500 ft.). Beyond the village the track becomes more difficult, crosses a spur, and turns down a side valley to N. Track enters a valley 2 m. wide, down which flows a stream, a tributary of the Zāb. The slopes become more rocky as the Zāb is approached. Junction of the stream above mentioned with the Zāb. Below this point there is an impassable gorge, through which the Zāb flows for 10 m. until it reaches the Sipena valley. There is a ford at 'Aqri, apparently about į m. down-stream, 100 yds. wide, passable in early autumn. If the bridge at m. 13 has not been rebuilt, it might be necessary to use this ford. Route now turns 1., following r. bank of the Zāb. Site of a bridge over the Zāb. This was formerly a rough structure of timber, 87 yds, long with 5 spans. It was 13 ROUTE 68 a 131 Miles from Ama. diyeh 14 19 carried away by a flood of 1911, and possibly has not been replaced owing to a dispute between two local Aghas. The valley is here about 100 yds. wide (varying above the bridge from 100 to 40 yds.) and has cliffs rising 1,000 ft. on both sides. Track from Zeri joins here (see Roule 68 b, m. 202). Route crosses to l. bank. Leave the river-valley and enter country cut up by numerous rocky ravines covered with brushwood. The road gradually ascends a' narrow side-valley to a plateau. Chal village (alt. 4,700 ft.), 70 Kurdish houses, governed by the Kurdish Agha of Pinianish as Mudir. From the village descend and cross a deep ravine (alt. 3,900 ft.) running W. to the Zāb. Badri is 3 m. down it. Route after crossing ravine ascends a rocky track among trees. Steps are cut in the rocks at some points. Summit of a ridge (alt. 5,000 ft.). Descend, passing Sufsidon, and thence continue down a steep zigzag in a ravine. Salebekkan, a long, straggling village at the bottom of the descent in the Tkhuma valley, which is some 2 m. wide and contains some cultivation. Its stream, which is of considerable size, joins the Zāb below Lizān. Here the alternative route from Amadiyeh via Lizān is met and crossed. (Route 60 b, about m. 36.) After leaving Salebekkan follow a steep ascent, sometimes with gradients of 1 in 3, and sometimes with steps cut in the rock. The track goes up through a forest of oaks, juniper, and shrubs, and over some undulating spur ground. Pass above Berawola (alt. 2,950 ft.), a village of 40 houses. Continue ascending by a gradient of 1 in 5 to 1 in 3. Direction NW. Gargarri Dāgh (alt. 5,600 ft.). Descend through some good grass land, direction WNW. Qasrāni or Marha de Qasreh, surrounded by some cultivation, is passed on the other side of the valley. Road passes through some oak scrub along r. bank of a narrow ravine with steep shaly slopes. It crosses its N. watershed and turns down to the 254 27 292 12 132 LAND ROUTES Miles from Ama- diyeh 311 321 352 Zāb river. Here a track from the Lizān bridge meets it (see Route 68 b, under m. 28, ii). Road now goes up the 1. bank of the Zāb and for more than 20 m. is extremely difficult for laden mules, ascending and descending stanga in many places. A very bad stanga is crossed, 300 yds. long. Chumbi de Umara, a Nestorian village. Route crosses a slope of debris and boulders, and goes over some open ground. Bridge, built on 3 piers. On the opposite or r. bank, Kurdish village of Chumbi de Kurdai. From this village a track goes down the r. bank for 1 m. and then turns up the hill to W. to Ashita, the capital of Tiari, 9 m, distant. Route continues up l. bank. Deir Marsova (alt. 3,100 ft.), Nestorian village. Here is a well-kuown place of pilgrimage. The valley is 100 yds wide. Cross a stream coming from Rumta, and a slope of debris. Chumbi de Immah. Cross another slope of débris and a small stanga. Pass on r. bank the Maidāni stream. Pass Chumbi de Malik, on r, bank, a Nestorian village of some importance, whose houses and cultivation are on both sides of the river. Here is the residence of Malik Ishmaer), the Chief of the Upper Tiari Nestorians. There is a wicker bridge over the Zāb. Bedel Yertha, Nestorian village on I. bank. Bridge, of the cantilever type. Cross a succession of three stanga and four slopes of debris. Pass a small stream on r. bank in whose valley lies the important Nestorian village of Malāta. Chumbi de Haso, on r. bank. Proceed through the cultivation of Khān Dadush. Cross a large stream in whose valley lies Dadush, a Nestorian village, and pass a succession of slopes of débris and stanga, one of which, 11 m. from Khan Dadush, is par- ticularly difficult to cross. Enter a great cañon, which winds considerably and along which there is a fairly good causeway accessible only when the river is low in the late summer and autumn; at other seasons of the 401 I 452 ROUTE 68 a 133 Miles from Ama. diyeh year a track has to be followed which goes high up the hill above the river. The road all the way up this cañon is extremely bad, and the r. bank is said by one authority to be impassable, and although one traveller has been down the river along the r. bank it may be that he covered this part of the journey by a track going high above the river. Berdazawi Chai, a considerable stream, joins the Zab on the r. bank coming from the Lewin, a grrat open basin sur- rounded by bare, lofty hills, situated on the W. edge of the Zāb watershed. Gurkha village, surrounded by oaks situated on r. bank. Track here is extreme!y bad, several of the stanga being so narrow as to be almost impassable for mules. Chemla Mörik village. Here is a rough bridge across the Zāb. Walto Chai, a stream of considerable size flowing down a ravine from SE., near whose junction with the Zāh are the villages of Walto and (on the r. bank) Dirawa. See Route 68 b, under m. 28, i. Cross the Walto Chai. Track to Kochannes. This track is passable for laden mules in the summer and autumn: it is cooler and perhaps easier, as well as shorter, than the main route via Julāmerk and Route 70. Cross the Zāb by a wooden bridge built on two stone piers, and then go over a high pass and descend to Kochannes in one long day, perhaps about 17 m. in distance. Route ascends a ridge and descends the other side by a 5-ft. ledge in a 40° slope to the river bank. Zorāwa village of 10 huts. Ford here with good bottom. A track leads to the Lewin district (12 hrs.) and on to the Nurduz district (16 hrs.), in which is Marwānen (see Route 79, m. 130). Continue along l. bank, route being somewhat easier. Follow a 1.ft. ledge. Rabāt Su or Tal, a large stream from SE. (The distance from the Walto Chai may have been under-estimated.) Route 68 b (m. 61) joins here. Follow a narrow ledge 200 to 300 ft. above the river bed. Valley is less than 100 ft. wide, and cliffs rise 1,000 ft. on both sides. Track is so narrow in many places that laden mules cannot pass along it. 55 134 LAND ROUTES Miles from Ama. diyeh 601 | Cross the Zāb by a bridge (alt. 4,000 ft.), 50 ft. long and 4 ft. wide. Track from Lizān and Dirawa joins here. (See Route 68 b under m. 28, i). Follow r. bank, up-stream. 61 Cross a ravine (alt. 4,600 ft.). Ascend l. bank of ravine by a steep path, at one point a stairway cut in the rock for 300 ft. Go through a cutting 20 ft. long and 5 ft. wide, and then along a ledge 4 ft. wide winding round a rocky slope. Ascent gradually becomes less steep. Enter a basin some 3 m. wide in which lies Julāmerk (alt. 5,600 ft.), 200 houses, a place of small im. portance inhabited chiefly by Kurds. Head-quarters of a Kaimmakam, and the terminus of the T.L. to Van. Conglomerate ridges enclose the basin, with deep valleys between them. 64 ROUTE 68 b AMADIYEH-JULĀMERK (70 m.) Via LIZĀN Authorities : -See p. 459. Bachmann, 1911, &c. General direction, NE. This route leaves Route 68 a at the Ser Amadiyeh yāilā (m. 5), and goes N. to Lizān, an important Nestorian village on the SE. edge of the Nestorian Ashiret country. It then turns E., crossing the Zāb and proceeding up the Tkhuma valley, the other most important Nestorian Ashiret country. In this valley about m. 36 it crosses Route 68 a, m. 21. From the head of the valley it turns N. across the Hāni pass and descends the Tal valley to the Zāb, where it meets Route 68 a, m. 55. Up to Zeri at m. 202 the track is comparatively easy: beyond that it is very similar to Route 68 a as regards the nature and difficulties of the track, water supply, &c. S. of Lizān there is plenty of fuel, and in the vicinity of the Hāni pass there is good grazing. This route is preferred by travellers to Route 68 a, since, although 6 m. longer, it is on the whole easier and cooler. The Hāni pass is closed, however, by snow for some 4 months during the winter. On the Nestorian population, see p. 32. ROUTES 68 a, b 135 Miles from Ama- diyeh Amadiyeh. Route 68 a is followed to Ser Amadiyeh yāilā. Descend steeply through oak scrub into the broad depression of the Berwari district. This district is traversed by some low limestone ridges : the slopes as well as the bottoms of the valleys are covered with a rich growth of oaks, larch and poplars. | Some 2 m. beyond the yāilā enter a ravine down which flows a tributary of the Khabūr Su. Follow this to Heyis, and shortly beyond it Merak Haji, large Nestorian villages. For summer route to Van via Marwānen see Route 79. See also Route 68 a, m. 991. From Heyis a summer mule-track to Kochannes branches off to l. It apparently goes by Ashita in the Berwāri district, and thence rises to the divide between the Zāb and Khabūr rivers (alt. up to 10,000 ft.). The divide is followed until a turn to E. leads to the head waters of the Selai and Khānanis (about 30 hrs.' march- ing from Heyis). From Khānanis to Kochannes the distance is 9-10 m., over a bad track. A branch from this route apparently leads down E. from the divide into Lewin valley, and eventually reaches Julāmerk. 131 Follow r. bank until stream meets a small tributary flowing from E. (alt. 3,900 ft.). Ascend to a stony plateau, with an oak forest on it farther E. Track leaves the watershed of the Khabûr Su and a zigzag descends to the headwaters of a stream flowing into the Zāb, crosses it, and also crosses a low spur. Duri (alt. about 4,600 ft.). This is the residence of the Nestorian bishop of the Berwari district: it lies in a fertile valley down which is the large Jewish village of Shimarīleh Road goes up a side valley past vineyards on l, and a wooded hill on r., rising by a steep, narrow zigzag path over a wooded range of heights, sometimes impassable for laden animals as late as March, on account of snow. This range forms the N. boundary of the Berwari district. Pass through Maidāni, situated at the head of a tributary of the Zāb and follow the stream for 11 m. 202 | Zeri (alt. 3,300 ft.), an important Nestorian village on the 1 S. edge of the Ashiret country. N. of this the country 136 LAND ROUTES Miles from Ama- diyeh becomes much more rugged and contains little timber or cultivation. From this point a track leads to a ford across the Zab, at a point where it is 100 yds. wide (November). This ford is about 2 m. below the point where the main route leaves the Zab for Berawola (m. 324). Another track leads to Julāmerk going E. down to the Zāb where it joins Route 68 a at m. 13. The track now becomes very difficult, and continues to be so as far as Julāmerk: it is passable only for lightly laden animals. Ascend to N. through a forest, cross å steep, stony ridge (alt. 4,050 ft.), by a zigzag, and descend a hill-side, passing through a wood, to the Zāb. Follow r. bank of the river up-stream. Lizān (alt. 2,900 ft.), Nestorian village of 200 houses, situated on a wooded hill-side just above the Zāb and surrounded by much terraced cultivation. Route crosses the Zāb by a ford, or by a badly-constructed bridge of wooden beams laid on stone piers, impassable for laden mules in 1911. From Lizān two tracks branch to N., both being fit for foot travellers only:- 28 (i) To Julūmerk along r. bank of the Zāb. This is a footpath, passable by porters only. For a 4-hrs.' march follow the r, bank of the Zāb by a very dangerous track to Már Siwa, a small village of scattered houses, near which the hill-sides are clothed with some fine walnut trees. From here continue along the river, which has to be crossed occasionally by bridges. It is an 8-hrs.' march to the village of Dirawa. The country traversed on these two marches is very thinly populated : only millets are produced. The path is so narrow that, in most places, two men cannot walk abreast. During the winter and spring this part of the route is rendered unsafe by snow avalanches, and another track has to be followed, which lies some three or four thousand feet above the river. From Dirawa to Julāmerk, a 10-hrs.' march, the track is much better and is practicable for lightly laden mules : it follows the r. bank of the Zăb, here about 60 yds. wide in April, until it meets Route 68 a at m. 602. (ii) To Route 68 a at m. 312. After crossing the Lizan bridge the track follows the 1. bank of the Zāb up-stream, the river being 120 yds. wide in the summer, at this part of the route. About 3 m. beyond the bridge a cañon is entered which is 20 yds. wide at the narrowest point and about ROUTE 68 b 137 Miles from Ama- diyeh 322 m. long: here the track follows a causeway a few feet above the water level. It then ascends a stanga 100 yds. in length, follows the edge of a ravine to E. along a narrow ledge of rock for about 400 yds., crosses the ravine and follows its other or r. bank back to the river. Beyond this it goes along the edge of the precipice by a very narrow and dangerous path, crosses a spur and descends again to the Zāb at the Nestorian village of Bitoannis (Bes Ionnis?), at 4 m. It then crosses the Qara Su, crosses a ridge and descends to a wicker-bridge over the Zāb at 5 m. From this bridge it ascends by a badly-defined track, crosses a flat-topped spur, descends by zig- zags a débris-covered slope to the village of Chumbi de Susina, at 62 m. ; 20 houses with good cultivation. From here the track, passing a valley from WSW., crosses a very difficult stanga 300 yds. long, and at 7 m. meets Route 68 a at m. 312. After crossing the Lizān bridge descend 1. bank of the Zāb; follow the W. foot of the Gargarri Dāgh and turn up the valley of the Tkhuma stream. There is no defined track, and the sides of the valley are so steep that in many places the bed of the stream has to be followed. Going very bad, a traveller finding it necessary, in 1911, to unload his mules in places, possibly because they were too heavily laden for this rough country. Berawola (alt. 2,950 ft.), 40 houses to N. Continue to ascend the Tkhuma valley, direction NE. Salebekkan, a long, straggling village (see Route 68a, m. 21). Cross Route 68 a. The stream is of considerable size, and the valley, here about 200 yds, wide, produces a good deal of wheat, rice, and millet, containing moreover many fruit and poplar trees. This is the Tkhuma district of the Ashiret country, the other part being Tiari, N. of Lizān. The Tkhuma men are said to be more reliable and less quarrelsome than those of Tiari, although these last have the better manners. The valley has a bad reputation for brigandage, according to one authority ; and the inhabitants have a standing feud with the Kurdish residents of the Chal valley, to S. Continue up the valley along the bottom. Malik Belcho, a large village. Continue up the valley, which widens as it turns N. Cross to l. bank of the stream. Road becomes easier. Cross the stream again. Beridjai village, beyond which the valley bends sharply to E. 351 ? 37 404 138 LAND ROUTES Miles from Ama- diyeh 46 511 531 Road becomes very bad as it follows the bed of the stream over stones and boulders. Pass several villages, of which the most important is Tkhuma Gawaia, situated above the r. bank, the residence of Malik Belcho, the local head of the Nestorians in 1904. The valley is broad, and both sides are cultivated, with fields, vine. yards, and mulberry trees on them. Gundiktha (alt. 5,500 ft.). Valley again turns N. Follow the bed of the stream through a deep rocky valley with the Qara Dāgh on the E. and the Walto Dāgh on the W. On the former snow lies late in summer, from which numerous small streams descend, some of which are bridged with single arches of loose stone masonry. Track turns N. following the stream for some 4 m., beyond which it goes up the hill to r. Hāni (alt. about 8,500 ft.), a small village whose inhabitants are occupied mainly in the neighbouring lead mines. Ascend steeply. Hāni pass, or Koch Gedik (alt, about 10,800 ft.), whence, to NE., are seen the Jelu peaks (alt, about 13,000 ft.), some of the highest mountains in central Kurdistan. Continue to N. across a broad conglomerate ridge, then descend steeply by a narrow path into a broad valley. Rabāt, Kurdish village, on the Rabāt Su, a tributary of the Zāb: this is the main stream of the Tal district. The valley is wide and well cultivated; there are trees. Continue down the valley. Bekūrat. Valley narrows. Road crosses to r. bank of the stream. Between this place and the Zāb the road was carried away in 1904-5, and Julāmerk had to be reached via Badali, high up on the r. bank, by a most difficult path, impass- able for animals. Continue down the valley by a very bad track, running generally at some height above the stream, the stream being crossed more than once. Zāb valley. Meet Route 68 a (at m. 55), and follow it to Julāmerk. 56 577 70 ROUTES 68 b, 69 139 ROUTE 69 JULĀMERK-BASH QALAH (49 m.) Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 120, supplemented from other information. General direction, NNE. The road follows the r. bank of the Great Zāb river, fairly low down the hill-side. This is the main route from Julāmerk to Bāsh Qal'ah, and is that generally followed' by travellers, although the road via Kochannes and the Harefta Gedik (Routes 70 and 71 a), 1 m. shorter but having many more severe ascents and descents, is sometimes used. For the first 36 miles it is a fairly good mule-road, passable at all times of the year, except for the stretch between m. 202 and m. 32, which is not used during the winter when a lower road, 4 m. longer, is followed. Beyond m. 36 it is shown on the W.O. map as a cart-track, and probably could be used by wheeled traffic without much difficulty. There is some difficulty about fuel along this route, and for a large body of men it would be necessary to cut down fruit trees, of which a fair number is available. On the population, compare p. 32. Miles from Jula merk 0 21 Julāmerk. The route crosses the Julāmerk basin and descends into a valley partly along a ledge in loose shale and partly over rock: the track is revetted in places. Erik Hald, Kurdish village of a few huts with some rice fields lying on the r. bank of the Zāb. Follow a narrow, rocky track along the river. Marora, small tributary of the Zāb. . From this point up to Rezān de Zāb (m. 21), the intermediate distances must be accepted with caution as there is clearly some confusion in the principal authority. The track, follow- ing the river, becomes bad. Des Chai, a large stream flowing into the Zāb on the 1. bank. It comes from the Jelu district. Near its junction with the Zāb lies the village of Kermi de Des or Rezān (de Des) dominated by the ruins of an old Kurdish stronghold, Mudebbir Qal'ah. Down this valley comes a route from Neri (see Route 63 a, m. 91)) which crosses 140 LAND ROUTES Miles from Julā. merk 141 201 the Zāb here both by a bridge and a ford, going up the hill to 1. to Kochannes. The track becomes so bad that in June when the river was about 21 ft. deep mules crossed and re-crossed the stream in order to avoid a narrow ledge along the r. bank which, in 1901, had fallen away in places. Kochannes Chai, a large stream flowing into the Záb on r. bank. A very rough track, passable for laden mules, leads up the Kochannes Chai for about 1 m. until it meets Roule 71 a (Kcchannes-Bāsh Qal'al). For the importance of this track in winter see Route 71 a, introduction. Continue along the river bank or sometimes in the river itself, which is here 40 ft. to 50 ft. wide, not fordable in March. Leaving the Zāb at an altitude of 4,650 ft. the road ascends a narrow stony ravine. Alternative route to Zerāni (m. 32, below). About here the winter route to Bāsh Qal'ah branches off to r. follow- ing the river bank past Hezekian and rejoining the main route at Zerāni (see m. 32), being about 4 m. longer than the main route and an extremely rough and difficult track. In the spring this route is sometimes so much exposed to avalanches between here and Hezekian that another track is followed through Rezān which crosses a ridge some 7,000 ft. high before reaching Hezekian. About 1 m. beyond the bifurcation of the winter and summer routes there is a ford over the Zāb leading to Dizeh via Shawutha, where it joins Route 64. Rezān (de Zāb), a Nestorian village of 10 houses. From Rezān on to Bāsh Qal'ah the hills are bare for the most part, and are torn into deep gorges by snow-water torrents, villages standing on any little shelves there may be. The rock is usually a slatey limestone, splitting readily into flakes and tilted at every conceivable angle. N. of the Qāra Su a good deal of rather poor grazing can be had in the spring. After leaving Rezān a small stream from 1. is crossed, at the head of which are the Nestorian villages of Napetka and Pirrianis lying among trees and cultivation. The small Kurdish villages of Erdal, Weisik, and Nato- lanis are seen across the Zāb. The road ascends rather steeply. ROUTE 69 141 Miles front Julā. merk Kharābeh village high up to 1. The distance (24 m.) given here between Rezān and Kharābeh is that in the Military Report. The time taken, however, was only 1 hr. The route then descends gradually towards the Zāb, where there is some cultivation, passing the Kurdish village of Geznak, 30 houses, among trees and gardens, i m. to r. Beriman, small village i m. to 1. Route passes Shirtinis, 1 m. down to r., and Givil, à m. up to l., finally reaching Qadhi Khān situated on a small stream, where a road branches l. to Sekunis. BRANCH ROUTE TO SEKūnis via SikyĀNIS. 251 Miles from Qadhi hān. Eco Oreo 5 41 0 | Qadhi Khān. The road ascends tom Qumārtāhān (alt. 7,430 ft.). Korom. Kānikesz. Hence it crosses a ridge into the Qāra Su basin. Sharunis. Sikyānis. Cross the Kochannes—Bāsh Qal'ah route (see Route - 71 a, m.211). Cross the Qara Su (alt. 6,540 ft.) and, following its 1. bank, ascend the valley. Akiniz, some 1,500 ft. above the stream. A rough steep ascent leads to a pass in the Chukh Dāgh (about 10,000 ft) beyond which the basin of the Bontan Su is entered, and a fairly easy track leads across highlands. 33 Pagan. Cross a ridge of the Qöl Dāgh and descend. Rikāva. 43 Sekunis. (See Route 72, m. 32.) Near Qādbi Khān the track is good and well worn into the clay soil : it passes through extensive terraced cultivation and ascends a steep basin, with streams draining to the Zāb, and scattered Kurdish villages dotted about, each with gardens and trees. Cross a spur (alt. 7,430 ft.), impassable owing to snow in winter. Descending from this spur to N. the track crosses the valley of a stream flowing from W. Korom, Kurdish village 1 m. up valley to W. The route from the other side of the Korom valley descends steeply following a small stream. The Masero stream 30 142 LAND ROUTES Miles from Julā. merk 32 351 361 coming from the Mür Dāgh is visible across the Zāb, with several Kurdish villages in its valley. Zerāni (alt. 5,850 ft.), a village of 15 houses where good spring water, fuel, and some supplies are available. For alternative winter route which joins here from Julāmerk, see m. 202, above. Leaving Zerāni the road crosses two small streams. Route traverses a basin surrounded by clay spurs, one of which it crosses, and, passing some chalybeate springs (from which it is 45 min. to Zerāni), goes by an easy track over a high rounded spur. Qara Su, a large stream in a deep gorge, which is crossed. Reach the banks of the Zāb (alt. 5,550 ft.), here 30 to 40 yds. wide and 27 ft. deep in September, the r. bank being followed by a fairly good track above the Zāb, here a deep sluggish stream winding through a grassy valley. The track now ascends gradually. Cross a broad spur coming down from the W., and jutting out into a bend of the Zāb. From the bottom of the descent from the spur the road is shown on the W.0. map as being practicable for wheeled traffic, forming part of the Dizeh-Bāsh Qal'ah-Van cart-road (see Route 65, m. 351). Menghurawa, å m. to l., on the hill-side. Zāb valley opens out. Omarawa, also å m. to l., a Kurdish village of 30 houses situated among trees, where in 1901 was the residence of Kurshid Bey of the Pinianishli Kurds. On the opposite side of the Zāb Atis, 100 houses, and Argi, a Nestorian village of 80 houses, are seen, villages situated on a wide cultivated plateau at the foot of the Mūr Dāgh (Surian Dāgh ?). A small grassy valley with a stream in it is passed, leaving Sinawa 1 m. to l. | Cross the Seriskān Su, a stream 30 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep in September, with a gravel bottom, flowing through a valley sunk in the plateau. On its N. bank to r. are some sulphur springs. Kātib Agha, 60 houses, is į m. to l., and Rekān, a larger Kurdish village, 2 m. to l. On the far side of the Zāb are open plateaux with villages on them. 382 401 ROUTES 69, 70 143 Miles from Julā. merk 43 442 Kirakam, Armenian village of 20 houses, 1 m. to r. on r. bank of the Zāb. Route then follows an easy well-defined track through cultivation. Valley with steep sides is crossed by an easy track. In the valley is a stream 30 ft. wide and 18 in. deep in September. An easy track in the clay leads up a grassy valley. Beyond this cross a small ravine, 30 to 50 yds, wide, with sloping, gravelly sides, and a small stream with swampy banks. Road skirts a deep valley 1 m. to l. Rassilanis, a Kurdish village of 40 houses, among which was reported in 1901 to be that of Sheikh Hamid, a Kurdish sheikh of some celebrity in the district. Road goes NW. over an open well-cultivated plain. Bāsh Qal'ah (alt. 7,200 ft.). 49 ROUTE 70 JULĀMERK-KOCHANNES (11 m.) Authority :-Recent information. General direction, N. and E. From Julāmerk (alt. 5,600 ft.) the road goes N. to a pass (m. 53), which it crosses, and then, turning E., descends to Kochannes. The pass is closed to mules during part of the winter, but pedestrians use it throughout the year. There is good grazing along it. Water-supply fair. Miles from Julā- merk Julāmerk. Route passes under the N. side of the Castle Rock, ascends by an easy clay track into the cultivated basin in a NE. direction, following the telegraph line, crosses a large stream on E. side of the basin, and passes the small village of Karan on r. Qādhi Köi, 11 m. to 1. Descend fairly easily, crossing small streams and rough moorlands. 111 144 LAND ROUTES Miles from Julā. merk Broad level summit of a pass (alt. 8,755 ft.), beyond which track descends slightly over open downs and then turns sharply to E. Berchilăn Yailā. Entering the Kochannes Chai valley, descend very steeply to Kochannes (alt. 6,400 ft.), situated on a well-cultivated plateau 2 m. long and im. wide between two deep ravines, at the upper end of a deep valley wooded on its upper slopes with juniper and arbor vitae. This village, access to which is extremely difficult in winter, contained before the war the residence of Mar Shimum, the head of the Nestorians. In 1915 he escaped to Salmās: see p. 32. ROUTE 71 a KOCHANNES-BASH QAL'AH (37 m.) Authority : - Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 120 A (report of 1900'. General direction, NNE. The route descends towards the banks of the Great Zāb, and then strikes NE. to the Harefta Gedik (alt. 10,210 ft.), which it crosses. It keeps along the W. side of the Great Zāb at some distance from the river. This road is often used by travellers going in the summer from Bāsh Qalah to Julāmerk, being cool and fairly easy, with plenty of water along it. It passes through a fair number of villages. It is closed by snow during the winter, when it is necessary to descend to the Zāb valley by the track men- tioned under m. 5, and reach Bāsh Qal'ah by Route 69 (m. 141-end). On the Nestorian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Kochan- nes Kochannes. The Kochannes Chai is descended by a steep zigzag track, fairly easy for mules in the summer and autumn, but too much exposed to snow avalanches at other times for them to be used. Berwari Chai (alt. 4,230 ft.), a large stream easily fordable in October coming from the NW. While one track ROUTES 70, 71 a 145 Miles from Kochan- Des continues down the ravine to the Julāmerk-Băsh Qalah road (see Route 69, under m. 143), the route followed turns E. | Ascend a spur very steeply by zigzags, from the top of which route continues by a broad clay track, fairly steep, leaving a ravine on r. Gurānis, Nestorian village of 22 houses, near which is a chrome mine. Route continues to ascend. Andanis (alt. 7,485 ft.). Ascend steadily, crossing open uplands on which there is good grazing in spring. Broad summit of the Harefta Gedik (alt. 10,210 ft.), a pass in the Harefta Dāgh, which to W. rises to 12,500 ft. Route meets Route 71 b, m. 152. The Harefta Dāgh slopes very steeply to E. down to the Zāb. The route now enters the basin of the Qara Su, a large tribu- tary of the Zāb which meets that river at m. 35% on Route 69, and from this point to Bāsh Qal'ah crosses a series of small streams, most of which are tribu- taries of the Qara Su, and are separated one from another by steep ridges. Here the Zāb valley contains a good deal of thinly covered grass land. The track descends a broad, grassy valley rather steeply, and passes a group of four large ponds, the slope gradually becoming easier. Cross a large stream at a point where some minor streams join it from the SW. Route follows a fairly wide valley, with a good deal of cultivation and pasture, leaving Mandara, a Kurd village, 21 m. to 1. Sivik, a small Kurd village, à m. to r. Suroa on the l., i m. distant. Route now crosses the Qara Su, which at this point is 30 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in October, by a bridge (alt. 8,000 ft.), and passes through a cultivated basin. Sikyānis, Kurd village of 30 houses, the principal place in the Shivelān district. Here route to Sekunis is crossed (Route 69, under m. 257, branch track, at m. 13). Cross another stream, 30 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep, by a ford, the stream being crossed by a fascine bridge, à m. lower down, when in flood. The route goes up a broad culti- 201 221 MES. IV к 146 LAND ROUTES Miles from Kochan nes vated valley N., leaving Ileh, a village of 20 houses, à m. to l., and then by a short, steep ascent to Summit of a ridge whose altitude has been given as 8,500 and 6,710 ft. by different travellers, 'Omarkara being 1 m. to l. along the ridge. A short, steep descent takes this route to another tributary of the Qara Su with a good deal of cultivation along it, beyond which a wide flat- topped spur is crossed, from which the road descends to a large valley approached by a smaller valley, Pirisan Village in the smaller valley. Seriskān Su, stream in the large valley, a tributary of the Zab. Cross by a bridge (alt. 7,200 ft.), and traverse a long table-land, running E.-W., from 2 m. to 3 m. wide, on which are situated Pizan, Anzāb, and several other villages, the whole plateau being cultivated with wheat and barley and containing not a few thickets of trees. From this table-land the road descends easily. Stream in a deep ravine. On the cultivated ridge beyond it the track from Sekunis to Bash Qal'ah (see Route 73, m. 343) is joined, and is followed to Bāsh Qal'ah (see Route 69, m. 49). 32 37 ROUTE 71 b KOCHANNES—HAREFTA DĀGH (154 m.) General direction, NE. This is an alternative route to the first 14 m. of Route 71 a, Kochannes to Bāsh Qal'ah. It is 12 m. longer, and rises to a greater elevation, but it is easier for mules in the summer and autumn. Miles from Kochan- te nes Kochannes. Track goes up the ). bank of the Kochannes Chai and crossing to r. bank rises steeply through a yäilā (alt. 9,500 ft.), passing beneath Chaila and Beri Chaila, two high, snow-covered peaks, whence it descends a steep hillside by a zigzag path. ROUTES 71 a, b, 72 147 Miles from Kochan. nes 7 Kamoilar. Cross a tributary of the Zāb (alt. 6,900 ft.), and then following the ). bank of a cultivated valley, and leaving the village of Shimanis on l., cross the stream and follow its r. bank until a tributary from NE. is crossed. Beyond this ascend to Angol. From Angol route turns E., re-crosses this tribu- tary stream and ascends an easy slope, passing a yāilă on 1., crosses a stream, passes a yāilā on r., and then crosses the head-waters of two streams flowing to the Zăb' and follows a fairly easy slope to Harefta Dāgh, where the main route from Kochannes to Bāsh Qal'ah is met (Route 71 a, m. 14). 151 ROUTE 72 KOCHANNES-VAN (841 m.) Via SEKUNIS AND QASRIQ Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Routes 120 B and 132 (report of 1899). General direction, NW. The route leads across the head-waters of the Berwari Chai and goes across a high down-country, well watered, treeless, and uninhabited, where there is excellent grazing in the sum. mer, when it is occupied by nomad Kurds. From this highland the route passes into the basin of the Bohtan Su, whose head-waters it traverses over country similar but of lower elevation, and crosses the Gauragan pass (alt. 7,285 ft.) into the basin of Lake Van. Laden mules can use the route, and grazing and water are plentiful. There is very little fuel. The route is impassable during the winter. On the Nestorian and Armenian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Kochan. nes 2* Kochannes. Route goes up the valley to the NW. passing through irrigated cultivation, continues up a fairly easy slope and turns NE. | Berchilān Yāilā, undulating plateau. From its E. edge route zigzags steeply up a stony clay spur from N., which it crosses at an altitude of 9,680 ft. K 2 148 LAND ROUTES Miles from 1 Kochan- Des 81 104 12 16 182 Enter basin of the Berwari Chai. Descend by extremely steep zigzags. Lake, 300 yds. by 100 yds., to a torrent on whose far side an ascent over cultivated terraces leads past Qotranis, a Nestorian village 12 m. to r., to Kardalānis (alt. 8,115 ft.), 10 Nestorian houses. A very steep ascent by a stony, clay track. Lake, 300 yds. in diameter, beyond which the route turns N. across the valley, ascends a steep spur by a narrow zigzag path, crosses a narrow spur and enters valley of another tributary of the Berwari Chai: it crosses the stream and steeply ascends a narrow valley. Meladreizsh pass (alt. 9,790 ft.), where a track from Bash Qal'ah via Shivelān is met. Route descends into the basin of the Bohtan Su by a short, steep track to the long upland plain of the Nebinor Yāilā (alt. 9,450 ft.), whose N. edge it follows for 12 m. by an easy path, passing several springs and small streams. Narrow rift on r., through which the united streams of the plain flow to N. At the end of the yūilā cross some open downs. Easy descent over a broad upland in the basin of the Qol Dereh, a tributary, flowing N., of the Bohtan Su. A mountain torrent, 20 ft. wide in September, is crossed. Cross a stream and continue to descend over easy outliers until the end of a broad spur is reached, where a much steeper descent leads past | Salpank Dāgh, a stony ridge to SW., forming with the Georesh Dāgh the boundary of the Tuzaila Yāilā, the chief pasture ground of Haji Agha, the Hartoshi Chief. Girik Chevruk Dāgh, a rocky crag, is passed 1 m. to N. and the route continues to descend easily over rolling downs. . Urt Tāsh, high bluff to l. Descending the r. flank of a rocky valley in which flows a tributary of the Qoll Dereh, the route becomes steeper. Shemaker (alt. 6,915 ft.). Small village 1 m. to l. Rikāva, small village 1 m. to l. at the junction of a stream from Tuzaila. . Sekunis, Nestorian village (pop. 500), situated on r. bank 27 29 30 ROUTE 72 149 Miles from Kochan. nes 361 39 41 at the junction of the Bohtan Su, a large stream from SW. Route 73 and branch route from Route 69, m. 251 (via Sikyānis), join here. Route crosses an open basin and enters the narrow valley of the Bohtan Su, which it follows by a track easy for mules but too rough and narrow for carts. Cross a steep spur to N. Stream coming from Shah- mannus is crossed by a ford 30 ft. wide and 27 ft. deep in July, with a gravelly bed : route then follows an easy track in clay soil up a broad valley to N. Broad col. By short, steep ascents and descents the heads of some minor valleys draining to SW. are skirted. Route then goes over another broad col and descending into the valley of a stream flowing SW. follows a narrow but easy track up that stream. Flat summit of a broad spur (alt. 7,460 ft.), running SW. Here route meets Route 79 (at m. 139) from Amadiyeh, which is shown in the W.0. map of 1901 as practicable for wheeled traffic. A steep descent from the spur leads to the gravelly bed of a stream, where l. bank is followed by an easy track with steep, rather stony slopes on both sides, the road being passable for carts. Stream from NE. Track becomes open and easy. A wide cultivated basin is passed high up to I., in which stands the Armenian village of Beshan. Road ascends an open, grassy basin. Broad summit of the Merga Gedik (alt. 7,810 ft.), E. of the ‘Arābi Dāgh. From the pass the route descends easily in a grassy open valley going N., passing some small springs, and then ascends steeply over a grassy spur following the r, side of the valley. Stream here enters a rocky gorge, the track being rough but passable for guns. A descent over easy, open slopes, 4 m. to r. of stream, leads past the Kurdish village of Aros in a gorge to l. Cross a small stream from a valley to r., 12 m. up which is the small Kurdish village of Erenni. Beyond this stream the Bohtan Su trends to W. through a very deep, rocky gorge, and a difficult mule-track leads along it down to Shattakh, while the road goes N., gradually ascending. 44 46 150 LAND ROUTES Miles from Kochan- nes 52 531 581 643 Broad, easy pass (alt. 6,820 ft.). Route leads to W. of two landmarks, first the Keli Spi (White Peak) and then the Keli Resh (Black Peak), leaves the Kurdish village of Gengevver (30 houses) å m. to r., and descends into an extensive cultivated basin in which lies Qasriq or Aqcheh Qal'ah (alt. 6,615 ft.), 30 Kurd houses, the residence of Amer Agha, a Kurdish Bey. From the village a mule-track leads over grassy uplands to Sekunis (see m. 32, above), passing E. of the route followed, but no details about it are known. Route, after following for 11 m. the broad cultivated valley of a stream coming from NE., ascends easily over open downs. Gauragan pass (alt. 7,285 ft.). Equally easy descent over a valley which route follows as it turns sharply to W., leaving on r. a rough track leading via Gurik to Khoshāb up a valley to ESE., and widens to 1 m. Demgosim (alt. 6,105 ft.), 15 Kurdish houses, where the valley is 11 m. wide, and whence a mule-track goes to Qasriq over the Chilichap pass, a much shorter route than the cart-road. Beyond the village the broad valley is followed as it passes through bare hills, its stream being on its W. edge and dry in September. Engustanz, large Armenian village on the edge of the fertile Havatzor plain. Cross an irrigation canal coming from E. Ermarut, large Armenian village. An easy track con- tinues across the plain. Khoshāb Su, dry in September owing to the water being taken for irrigation. The large Armenian village of Keghzi, residence of the Mudir of Havatzor, is passed a short distance to l. Gradual ascent from the stream. Vekchuranz, Armenian village, 1 m. to r., beyond which a steeper ascent of 2 m. leads to the summit of the rounded hills forming the S. boundary of the plain of Van, whence route descends easily by a broad, grassy valley, past a good spring. Qurubăsh, Armenian village. Ford over the Qurubāsh Chai. Route meets the road from Bāsh Qal'ah (see Route 74 a, m. 541), and follows it to Van. 58 792 184 ROUTES 72, 73 151 ROUTE 73 SEKUNIS—BĀSH QAL'AH (392 m.) Authority :— Military Report on E.T.A., Route 134 (report of 1888). General direction, ENE. The road goes from the basin of the Bohtan Su to that of the Great Zāb, crossing the Geshkalin pass (alt. 11,550 ft.) at the divide of these two rivers. It passes through a treeless, fairly well-watered country, almost uninhabited save by nomad Kurds in the spring and summer, when there is excellent grazing. It is passable for laden mules in the summer, but is closed to all traffic by snow during the winter. On the Nestorian and Armenian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Sekunis 6 Sekunis. A broad track leads by an easy ascent between low rounded hills over good, well-cultivated clay soil, across a pass (alt. 7,970 ft.), and down a narrow valley. | Ford over the Tūn Dereh, a swift stream, 40 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep in July, tributary of the Bohtan Su, running through a valley & m. wide. Beyond the ford a steep ascent over a rough clay track for i m. leads to a level terrace which skirts the W. flank of the Nishkava Dāgh. Pass Shahmannus (Nestorian village), 1 m. to l. Route dips slightly, winds round the head of a stream running towards Shahmannus, crosses a clay spur sloping from r., gradually descends into a broad valley to l., down which flows a large stream coming from the Nishkava Dāgh. Kurkhurrut (alt. 8,275 ft.), nomads' camping-ground. Route continues winding round the lower slopes of Nishkava Dāgh, which now lies to S., and whose upper slopes are covered with good grass and contain numerous springs. The route ascends a broad valley passing low rolling hills covered with long grass, crosses a rounded undulation, descends a narrow ravine, and enters Akhola (alt. 8,850 ft.), a circular basin, the source of two large streams. A stream 10 ft. wide is crossed (alt. 8,490 ft.), then a wide, grassy plateau, then another stream (alt. 8,655 ft.) in a grassy valley i m. wide. - . 13 152 LAND ROUTES Miles from Sokunis 153 Cross a stream 30 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep in July, coming from a snow.covered plateau to SSW. An easy clay track ascends a broad plateau, passes Shīdān, a Kurdish village only inhabited during the winter, and then gradually ascending a long rounded spur crosses a pass (alt. 9,635 ft.), and descends diagonally the steep slope of the l. side of a narrow valley, following a ledge 3 to 4 ft. wide by an easy path. A long steep gradient, followed by a steep zigzag ascent, leads to 211 Geshkalin pass (alt. 11,550 ft.), on either side of which rounded hills, Bārajūl Dāgh, rise 1,000 ft. higher, form- ing the divide between the Zāb and the Bohtan Su. Route descends a grassy valley 200 to 300 yds. wide, with numerous springs, which narrow to about 50 yds. 1 m. farther down, the track becoming rough and stony, and the hill-sides getting steeper and more bare. 25. Valley of Seriskān Dereh, coming from NW., is entered, down which flows a torrent among huge boulders. The track becomes more stony until, a small valley on 1. (alt. 9,805 ft.) being passed, an easy clay road is followed. 273 Narrow gorge (alt. 9,560 ft.). The stream is left, and the track, narrowing to a 2-ft. stony ledge as it rounds a steep slope to l., turns sharply over a spur, and continues on a contour. From this place another but longer track goes down the valley to Băsh Qal'ah. Cross a steep narrow col. Descend gradually a narrow ravine from NW., following a ledge 3 to 4 ft. wide. Pass Körik (alt. 9,325 ft.), a village of 30 houses, m. to l. Turn sharply down a steep slope into valley to l. by steep zigzags, reach a stream, and follow it by a rough track. 311 Ford, 15 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep in July, over a rapid stream. Pass some mineral springs (alt. 7,880 ft.). Valley opens out and patches of cultivation are passed, beyond which the track, leaving the valley, winds round to l. 343 Wide plateau stretching down to the Zāb, where Route 71 a is met at m. 32. A range of steep hills rises to l., and is skirted. A ravine 100 ft. wide is crossed, the water from whose stream is all used for irrigating fields. 374 | Surān, 50 houses, on l. 303 ROUTES 73, 74 a 153 Miles from Sekunis Another ravine, 150 ft. deep, is crossed, and some short, steep zigzags lead to a ford, 20 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep, beyond which numerous irrigation canals are crossed. 393 | Bāsh Qal'ah. ROUTE 74 a BASH QAL'AH–VAN (594 m.) Via CHUKH AND KHOSHĀB Authorities : -See p. 459. Main authority, Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 93 (reports of 1887, 1890, 1900): some more recent information. General direction, NW. This route goes from the valley of the Great Zāb over Chukh Dāgh into the basin of Lake Van, following the Khoshāb Su to Van. It is more or less practicable for wheeled traffic throughout. Near Bash Qal'ah, Khoshāb and Van there is a good deal of cultivation, but fuel is very scarce throughout, and grazing is poor: for 10 m. W. of Chukh there is no grazing at all. The Chukh Gedik is a particularly dangerous pass from the climatic point of view, and is impassable for animals during the winter and often till late in the spring. On the Nestorian and Armenian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Bash Qalah 0 Bāsh Qal'ah (alt. 7,275 ft.). After leaving the town the foot of the Valitan Dāgh is skirted by a broad easy track to N., trending to E., which passes Kharābeh, a village 11 m. to r., situated on the edge of a ravine, and Alaniyeh (50 Armenian and Kurdish houses, formerly a Nestorian village), in a basin among the hills m. to l., where in June there is good pasture for mules. (It is about 50 min. from Alaniyeh to Básh Qal'ah.) The route then crosses a small stream, skirts the foot of some steep hills { m. to l., passes a ruined fort on a spur to l., crosses a shallow dip forming the head of a ravine going to the Zāb, and leaves Erisan, a large village, with the castle of a Kurdish Bey, 1 m. to r. 154 LAND ROUTES Miles from Bash Qal'ah Junction of the road from Dilman to Bash Qal'ah which comes in from the NE. (See Route 75.) Proceed round the shoulder of a hill, a spur from the Valitan Dāgh. From here the road, continuing to be easy as it passes through clay, leaves the Bash Qalah plain and descends some rounded spurs of the Valitan Dāgh on 1. Another track leads to Chukh (m. 10). Route crosses a stream by a shingly ford, and goes up 1. bank by an easy clay track. A good track runs down 1. bank to Deir, 12 m. distant. 8 Bevrashen, 20 Kurd houses, close by on r. Some cultivation. Alternative route to Khoshāb. Over the Güzel Dereh pass (alt. about 9,500 ft.), to which there is a very difficult ascent, quite impassable for horses, followed by an easy descent to Seil Kilissa, where it meets the alternative route from Bāsh Qa'lah to Khoshab. (See Route 74 b, m. 143.) 10 Pass Chukh, 50 Armenian houses on l., on the S. bank of the stream. The valley opens out, with bare rounded hills on either side. The track, which goes over stony clay, continues to be easy, until a steep ascent is made by zigzags. Small khan at summit of steep ascent. There is here an outpost of zuptiehs. Beyond this khan an easy ascent by a small stream in a shallow valley leads to 14 Chukh Gedik (alt. 9,100 ft.), a pass over the Chukh Dāgh, a range of hills running NE.-SW. This range, bare of all vegetation, is noted for the severity of its cold blizzards and for the depth of its snowfall: the snow lies so late on it that the pass is never open for laden animals until the middle of April, and has actually been closed to them so late as the end of May. Tracks lead to Shushlamerg down the Güzel Dereh. The cart-road, partly remetalled in 1900, descends easily, but is rather steep in places. It follows a broad clay spur between two deep ravines. 161 Khan (alt. about 7,000 ft.) at the junction of several small streams. Gradual descent by a gravelly track. 19 Ravine (alt. 7,500 ft.) in gravel and shale on r. at the foot of the Chukh Gedik. 191 | The broad valley of a stream is crossed, and the route 132 ROUTE 74 a 155 Miles from Bash Qal'ah 23 bis atem. Soute Route the 25 continues over open gravelly downs. It goes down a small stream to l. into a wide valley, where it is joined by the track from Shushlamerg, which lies below and to l. of the route. (See Route 74 b, m. 201.) Skeftan, small Kurd village, out of sight 2 m. to l., situated on a large stream flowing from the SE. which emerges through' a narrow gorge and joins the stream flowing down the valley followed by the road. This stream now runs in a broad gravelly channel easily fordable except in the spring. There is a mule-track on the l. bank. Route follows this stream and leaves on the E. some ravines, and on the W. some rough tracks leading up a side valley to Qasriq. (See Route 72, m. 532.) Khoshāb, situated on both sides of the stream. T.O. Head-quarters of the Kaimmakam of the Hamidiyeh or Khoshāb Kaza. Fine ruins of an old castle on the r. bank, and a good masonry bridge of one 12-ft. and two 25.ft. spans. In June the drinking water is bad. (For other routes from Khoshāb, see Routes 74 b and 78.) Route crosses to the l. bank, which it follows by a somewhat rough track, winding past several small ravines and passing above a gorge at the junction of a large stream coming from Kolan to NE. Route now lies some å m. above the Khoshāb Su, whose valley is open with steep clay slopes traversed by numerous ravines. Ascend by an easy track and pass over a broad col whence a good view is obtained of Khoshāb and its valley. Turn down a broad side valley in which is met a road from Serai to Qasriq. Enter the main valley, bounded on the N. by uncultivated treeless hills with numerous ravines. Pass the mouth of a rough valley, going S., up which runs a mule-track to join the Serai-Qasriq road. Farther on track follows a stony ledge for 300 yds. close above a bend of the stream. To avoid this, and unless the track be widened, carts must ford the river. Here the valley is about 1 m. wide with low rounded hills on either hand. The track is easy and continues along 1. bank, through clay. Gölen Katun, where there is a ruined khan. Cross the stream by a bridge consisting of a single 40-ft. stone 30 343 156 LAND ROUTES Miles from Bash Qal'ah 371 arch, over which it seems that flood-water passes, the roadway being much worn in 1900, when the bridge was in bad repair. Its use can be avoided, when the river is not in flood, by an easy ford with good approaches, some 50 yds. above it. Beyond the bridge a short and rather steep ascent leads to a rocky ledge, which to fit it for wheeled traffic requires widening and levelling in places. Hence there is a descent leading to a rocky defile 50 ft. lower, the stream passing through a gorge on 1. Zernak, Kurdish village of some 30 houses, on l. bank, dominated by remains of a castle, situated at the mouth of a rocky ravine and surrounded by a few trees and gardens. A mule-track runs up the Zernak valley to the road leading from Serai to Pagha Gedik and Qasriq. Farther on the valley is 400 yds. wide with 200 yds. of shingle and shrubs and brushwood along its banks, through which flows the Khoshab Chai, easily fordable except in the spring, when the rush of water is very great. Route leads past low hills closing in from N. and crossing the wide shingly bed of a stream at the mouth of a deep valley running NE., whose sides are intersected with numerous small ravines. Pass Āri Khān, an Armenian village of 40 houses, 13 m. to r. From this place mule-tracks lead N. over the hills to Toni and Kashīsh Göl. Track begins to leave the valley trending NW. Pass Hindustān, Armenian village of 50 houses, 1 m. to 1. on the Khoshāb Chai. Cross to r. the mouth of a large ravine from Toni and Kashish Göl and follow a good clay track. Norkeugh, Armenian village of 60 houses with good springs, situated on the edge of a well-cultivated plain. Following outliers of the Varaq Dāgh (alt. 10,195 ft.), which lies to the N., by an easy ascent overlooking the Havatzor plain, the slope becomes steeper until, trend- ing round the hill-side to W., it becomes easier; then it follows a small ravine and ascends steeply. Norkeugh Gedik (alt. 7,635 ft.), on which in April 1904 there was so much snow that horses had to be unloaded 41 45 49 ROUTES 74 a, b 157 Miles from Bāsh Qal'ah 511 541 on three occasions before they could get over the pass. From the ridge the road descends by a well-worn track, steep but easily passable for wheeled traffic, which leads to a long, steady descent through low rounded hills of clay and conglomerate, a monotonous country, to the plains of Van. Cross a stream and follow a broad, easy track down r. bank of the Qurubāsh Chai, a small stream in a shingly channel, which is generally dry, the water being used for irrigation. Pass Qurubāsh, an Armenian village of 50 houses, lying among gardens, on the far bank of the stream. Route 72 (at m. 791) joins here, and a good road fit for wheeled traffic goes S. across the Havatzor plain to Keghzi (see Route 72, at m. 71). The route, a broad clay track, continues down r. bank of the Qurubāsh Chai, crosses à col, passes the mouth of a karez or underground water-channel, and enters an open undulating plain, in which are numerous villages half hidden in thickets. Erek, with market-place. Follow a good metalled track 25 to 30 ft. wide along the SE. avenue leading from Erek to Van, through gardens. Van. 594 ROUTE 74 b BASH QAL'AH-KHOSHĀB (252 m.) Via Tozo GEDIK Authorities : -See p. 459. Main authority, Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 93 A (report of 1900). General direction, NW. and N. This is an alternative route to the first 25 m. of Route 74 a. It is not passable in winter and spring. The track is extremely difficult for the first 17 m. or so, and although horses can go over it, it would certainly take much longer than the main route. At about 17 m. the track becomes much easier, and perhaps is passable for wheeled traffic. It passes through excellent grazing grounds, much frequented by Kurds, and there is plenty of water 158 LAND ROUTES throughout. There is some fuel to be had, especially near the Tozo Gedik. The track, leaving the Valitan Dāgh on the N., goes up the valley of the Nadruk Dereh, crosses the Chukh Dāgh S. of the main route, and then descends the valley of the Tozo Dereh to the Khoshāb Su, and to Khoshāb. Miles from ! Bash Qal'ah 64 Bāsh Qal'ah. Leaving the outskirts of the town the track crosses the open plain of Bāsh Qal'ah, winds along a narrow track over a steep spur of shale on r., enters the valley of the Nadruk Dereh. Nadruk, a Kurdish village of 6 houses with a mill. Route crosses to the r. bank of the stream. There are some patches of cultivation in the valley, which narrows as the road ascends it, until it becomes a gorge above which the road passes high up on r. bank. Beyond this place the stream is crossed and another gorge is avoided by the road ascending high up the hill-side on 1. bank, above which the road again crosses to r. bank. Narrow, stony valley coming down from NW. A narrow track alongside the stream is followed, with steep clay slopes on either hand, the volume of water in the stream decreasing rapidly as its bed is ascended. Valley opens out to an open, grassy basin, with numerous small springs, splendid grass, and plenty of firewood, the place being much used by the Kurds of Bāsh Qal'ah in the early summer before the grass dries up. Tozo Gedik (alt. 11,010 ft.). Very steep, winding descent is followed into the valley of the Tozo Dereh, the slope becoming easier, over shaly clay, until, crossing the heads of small ravines to l., it skirts round the head of a deep ravine to I. and reaches a col. There is a sharp descent from this, after which a very steep and narrow track leads over a hill-side of shaly clay to Seil Kilissa (alt. 7,800 ft.), 40 houses of Kurds and Nestorians. The Kurds are of the Araban division of Shemseki, from the neighbourhood of Silk Khāneh. In the spring and early summer there is excellent grazing about here, and even in September good grass is found along the streams. At this place the alternative route from Chukh meets the 101 147 ROUTES 74 b, 75 159 Miles from Bäsh Qal'ah track (see Route 74 a, at m. 8}). Sel, a Nestorian village of 40 houses, is 2 m. away to SE. (SSW. on W.0. map). The track, which the W.0. map of 1902 shows as practicable for wheeled traffic from this point, now descends past steep spurs on r., leaving the small village of Sheikhān in a deep ravine 1 m. to l. : it passes the steep lower slopes of the Chukh Dāgh m. to r., continues over a gravelly upland through which run shallow, grassy valleys draining fanwise to the Khoshāb Su, passes several small springs, meeting an alternative track to the Chukh Gedik (see Route 74 a, m. 14), and enters a broad grassy valley. 202 Shushlamerg (alt. 6,820 ft.), Kurdish village of 30 houses, situated near to the main route (74 a, W. of m. 191). 252 Khoshāb (see Route 74 a, m. 25). ROUTE 75 BASH QAL'AH-DILMAN (52 m.) Via NERZINGI AND KHĀN-1-Sūr Authorities : - Military Report on E.T.A., vol, ii, Route 94 (report of 1886). Turco- Persian Boundary Commission Map, 1914. General direction, E. by N. This route is practicable for wheeled traffic except at points, noted below, where the gradient is too steep for any but the lightest vehicles. It leads from the Zāb valley to the watershed of Lake Urmia. Nothing is known about the fuel, grass, &c., to be found along it. The distances are somewhat uncertain. Miles from Bash Qal'ah 0 114 124 Bāsh Qal'ah. The road goes NE. and descends gradually towards the Zāb. Steep slope of 1 in 6, 200 yds. long, from which route continues over undulating hills. Kharatun, snjall village on l., the valley of the Zāb (here called the Albak Su) being 14 m. wide, and getting narrower as the road leads NE. 160 LAND ROUTES 141 Miles from Bash Qal'ah Haspistān, 30 houses of Armenians and Kurds, a short distance beyond which the river runs through a flat tract about 1 m. wide. Ford over the Zāb. Route now crosses some canals and ascends the l. bank by an easy track, the valley narrow- ing and numerous side-streams joining it on either hand. 17 Pass Kanda Kilissa or Deir (alt. 6,850 ft.), on the far (r.) bank. This place contains a strong military frontier post maintained here to keep order among the Shekak Kurds, whose territory lies to N. on both sides of the frontier. There is a fine Armenian monastery of St. Bartholomew. Route leaves the river flat i m. farther on, ascends a gradient 1 in 6 to 1 in 10 for 3 m., and continues over open undulating upland country. Pass Nerzingi (? Qara Chiyan). Pass Taghik, a castellated rock, 2 m. to N. Cross a basin, from which route ascends a winding ravine, where it is 20 ft. wide. Khān-i-Sūr (alt. 7.900 ft.), Kurdish village of 20 houses, close to the road. An undulating hilly country is crossed, forming the broad back of a spur running E. from the Lake Urmia watershed. 28 Persian frontier. Divide between the basins of the Great Zāb and Lake Urmia is crossed (alt. 8,100 ft.), and a ravine is descended to an undulating plateau between Haravil Dāgh to N. and Beleko Dāgh to S., whose sides are covered with grass in the spring and summer, and are used by the Shekak Kurds for grazing-grounds. Several small valleys draining S. are crossed, and the road keeps along a ridge lying between the Dishevan Dereh on the N. and the Zola Dereh on the S. 291 | Track descends to a deep valley by a road with a gradient of 1 in 8 in some places and ascends by a gradient of 1 in 12 to 301 Ridge (alt. 7,650 ft.). Route passes over a gravelly, clay soil through rounded hills, descending. 341 Alt. 6,700 ft., beyond which a somewhat steep descent, at a gradient of 1 in 12 in places, leads to the Dishevan 1 Dereh, the S. side of whose valley is skirted. ROUTES 75, 76 a 161 Miles from Bash Qal'ah 38 Direk Qal'ah, 3 m. to N. behind some hills. A level plateau is then crossed. Dishevan Dereh. Here a large stream is followed. Steep descent at the end of a spur leading to Salmās plain (see Route 66 a, m, 51). The plain is now traversed. Kuhneh Shehr-i-Salmās, 1,000 houses, of which 200 are of Jews and 50 of Armenians. The plain is followed past many gardens, and across numerous small canals. Haftawān, Armenian village (pop. 2,000). Dilman ROUTE 76 a DILMAN-VAN (120 m.) Via Khor, QOTUR, RĀZI, AND ARCHAG Authorities :-See p. 459. Main authorities are route reports of 1886 and 1899. General direction, NE. to Khoi and then W. This road leads from the plain of Lake Urmia to the plain of Lake Van, crossing the watershed a short distance W. of Rāzi (m. 64) on the Turco-Persian frontier. It is called a driving road, and from Dilman to Khoi it is passable for all arms, but elsewhere to make it easily passable for wheeled traffic much work would be required (if not yet carried out), especially in the vicinity of Qotur and Rāzi. The country traversed is easy, and fuel, grass, and water are plentiful throughout. On the Armenian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Dilman Dilman. Road to Khoi is practically level the whole way. It leaves Dilman in a NE. direction, passes through various villages and gardens, and crosses some small streams and irrigation canals. Pass Qiziljeh on 1. Begin ascent of a ridge 150 ft. high, the watershed between Lake Urmia and the Aras, an upland plateau rising to the hills on the W. Ascent leads by an easy track at gradient of 1 in 16. 91 | Summit (alt. 4,950 ft.) of a rounded col, whence a valley 6 MES. IV 162 LAND ROUTES Miles from Dilman 111 204 22 * 26 11 m. broad is followed by an easy track, past a shorter but less good track leading on 1. to Khoi. Enter the plain, where a direct track, practicable for wheeled traffic, is met on r. coming direct from Urmia. The plain is very similar to that of Salmās, and contains numerous villages, fields, and gardens. Kurukh village. Cross numerous streams and irrigation cuts, and pass over some swampy ground. Branch from Khoi--Tabriz road joins on r. Continue by a track which is always easy. Qotur Chai, over which is a 14-arch bridge, 75 yds. long, with a 12-ft. roadway. In 1905 this bridge was unusable, and the river had to be forded ; a procedure which is always feasible save when the river is in flood. A canal is crossed close to Khoi. Khoi (alt. 3,600 ft.). The distance below to Qotur may be 5 or 6 miles too little. From the town the road, muddy in winter and spring, goes W. across the plain, skirting low hills to N., leaves Vur on r., and reaches the Qotur Chai. Valley narrows to 100 yds. in width. Route follows a narrow path, which could easily be widened, through soft shale. Valley then opens out to 400 yds. in width. Qayaliq (alt. 4,450 ft.), a hamlet of the Khorāsānli Kurds, who are said to number 700 or 800 families. The road follows the valley across a plain among low hills. Ascent up the valley by an easy gradient over soft shale and along the stream. The valley, whose slopes are steep, is only 40 to 50 yds. wide in some places, and the stream washes much of the road away, leaving only a narrow track. Gurjut. Beyond this the valley continues narrow, and the road becomes very rough, almost impracticable for driving purposes. Pass Deru up a ravine to l. Mahineh. The hills become steeper and more broken and rocky, but have some grass and scrub on them, and in the valley some low shrubs. Gāv Āshi Ashāghi is passed. Gāv Āshi Yuqāri, Armenian village, 1 m. up a valley to r. The track becomes broader. 341 392 471 491 52 54 - - ROUTE 76 a 163 56 581 69 Miles from Dilman Enter a gorge, 150 yds. wide, at which point the roadway is very narrow. Cross to r. bank of the stream and follow the valley, here 2 m. wide. Qotur (alt. 6,200 ft.), a village of 80 houses, mostly Kurds, but some Armenians, where is the head-quarters of the Persian Governor of the district, and where there were usually some Persian troops. Route 66 b from Urmia joins here, and there is also a rough track to Deir, not passable for wheels. Continuing up the valley of the Qotur Chai, a stream which joins from W. is passed. 64 Rāzi, village on l. in a ravine : Turkish frontier post (1914). An alternative route leads to Van (see Route 76 b). Beyond Rāzi the valley is 200 yds. wide, with steep, rocky slopes, and the road, a good hard track, going through good sheep- grazing ground, gradually ascends above the stream through a yellow shaly clay, enters a short steep ravine, and passes a lake called the Qaz Göl, which lies 1 m. to l. Top of a pass (7,955 ft.). From this pass a valley is descended to the Chul Chemen basin, an open undulating plain running E.-W., 7-8 m. long by 3 to 4 m. wide, the E. edge of which is skirted. Pass Sharāb Khāneh, 1 m. away under hills to N. Road continues over the plain. 741 Cross a low pass, 7,200 ft. The track descends by a narrow ravine, and traverses an open undulating plateau, fertile but uncultivated, 4 m. wide. Ascend slightly. Serai (alt. 7,205 ft.), an important frontier village, formerly the summer head-quarters of a regiment stationed at Van and the residence of the Kaimmakam of the Mahmūdiyeh Kaza. There are 120 houses in the village, mostly inhabited by Nestorians, and a telegraph office on the Van line. Serai is situated on the E. edge of the Mah. mūdiyeh plain, across which to the S. a cart-track leads to Khoshāb (see Route 74 a, m. 29). The route described goes due W., passing Mehmed Alān, 21 m. 'to N., and leaving to l., on S., a low range of rounded hills, an outlier from the Chul Chemen, on which stands 845 | Astaji, 30 houses, i m. to S. The valley of the Mehmedik Chai is now entered, and the stream is crossed by a ford, 20 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in 79 L 2 164 LAND ROUTES 95 964 98 Miles from Dilman October, the r. bank being followed above the stream, which runs through a rocky gorge, and an open basin is entered from which a small pass leads past the mouth of a rough valley into a shut gorge. 873 Pass Garigari, village of 40 houses on the l. bank of the stream. Another rough valley from the NE. is crossed, up which goes a track, probably passable for guns, to Shems ed-Dīn. 911 Pass Mullā Hasan, 30 houses, m. to l., on l. bank, and on the same bank a broad valley from the S., 3 m. up which is Yugāri Mullā Hasan, near whose junction with the Mehmedik Chai a track, passable for guns, comes from Chul Chemen by a short cut, descending from the upland by broad easy spurs. On the N. the hills are steep ; Dibekli, a small village higher up to r., is passed. | Cross river to l. bank by a gravelly ford, 40 yds. wide and 18 in. deep in October. Mehmedik Boghaz, a defile much exposed to blizzards, is traversed and the valley opens out. Pass Mendil, 13 m. to r. An easy track is now followed. Seivān Su, 80 yds. wide; dry shingle in October. An easy track leads up this valley to Seivān. Road, a well- defined gravelly track, follows a level track trending away from the stream to S., meets a short cut on 1. leading to Archag, crosses a stream from the Erkat Dāgh, dry in October, and passes through gardens and groves of poplars. Archag (alt. 5,830 ft.), 150 Armenian houses, the residence of a Mudir, and the junction of the T. L. from Erzerum. Road now follows an undulating track above the lake, crossing three small streams, and skirts the lake. 1071 Pass Khānu, 14 m. to l., from which a fairly easy track leads to Ermanis, on the Van-Seivān road, and farther on goes over a broad easy col to 110 Adiaman, a Kurd village, 13 m. to l. Pass several villages. Springs (alt. 6,120 ft.) on l., where a track is met leading N. to Kurdzot by the W. shore of L. Archag. From this point a track goes S. to Van, which is not passable for guns, going down a steep ravine and entering the town E. of Toprāq Qal'ah. The route followed goes down Į a short easy gorge, winds down a ravine by an easy 99 103 ROUTES 76 a, b 165 Miles from Dilman gradient, enters a rocky ravine, goes round the Zemzem Dāgh, passing Shāh Bāgh, 50 Armenian houses, i m. to r., and through Āq Köprü, a suburb of Van. | Van. 120 ROUTE 76 b RĀZI–VAN (41 m.) Via SEIVĀN Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 90 (report of 1900 here sum- marized). W.0. Map (E.T.A., sheet 19). General direction, W. This is shown on the W.0. map as passable for wheeled traffic, and it may be that light vehicles could be taken over it before the war. It goes W. from the pass which lies W. of Rāzi (see Route 76 a at m. 69) and crosses the Chul Chemen plain to Seivān and Van. It is 41 m. in length as compared with 56 m., the length of the driving road (Route 76 a). There is good grazing along it, and water is plentiful. The distances are taken from the W.O. route book, and differ considerably from those given on the W.O. map. After leaving the Chul Chemen (alt. 7,510 ft.) it traverses à col leading to an undulating country, skirting some rough hills to S. It crosses Route 78, passes some Kurd villages, and enters the Seivān basin, 164 m. (see Route 76 a at m. 992). Here it passes the village of Zaranis, 182 m., some 2 m. to S., and goes through Seivān, 211 m., 60 houses of Kurds and Armenians. Leaving the Seivān basin the road crosses a broad spur coming from S. and after going up a stream flowing S. from the Erkat Dāgh for a short distance, enters the plain of Ermanis, 251 m. This is a small oval plain (alt. 7,250 ft.), in which is the village of Ermanis. From the plain a short, steep track that needs improving leads to the top of a ridge (alt. 7,690 ft.), 28 m., beyond which is an open ravine which gradually becomes steep and rocky, the track for 11 m, at this place being impassable for carts. This ravine apparently leads SW. At about m. 30 another valley is entered, and is followed in a W. direction by a track fit for guns. Here a steep horse-track joins from Vozgipak and the Kashish Göl. At m. 303 the Van road passes Varukh, 1 m. to r. in an open valley to N., by which an easy cart-track leads to Lake Archag near Adiaman (see Route 76 a, 166 LAND ROUTES m. 110). The Van track continuing W. passes at m. 31. the 'Abdallah Pāsha Bund, a dam used for irrigation of the Van plain, and at m. 321 fords to the l. bank of the Quru Chai, the stream which flows down the valley to Van. Beyond this point (alt. 6,560 ft.) the valley becomes more open with easy slopes. Cherawanz is passed on the r. bank at 341 m., and the well-cultivated plain of Van is entered, the Quru Chai valley being followed to the Van gardens (alt. 5,600 ft.), 37 m., which are traversed to Van, 41 m. ROUTE 77 NERZINGI-SERAI (274 m.) Via QARA HisĀR DAGH Authorities :-See p. 459. Main authority, Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 92 (report of 1890). General direction, W. of N. From Nerzingi (see Route 75, m. 17) the road N. to Serai (see Route 76 a, m. 79) on the Dilman- Van road. It crosses a track shown on the W.0. map as passable for wheeled traffic, leading to Qotur (see Route 76 a, m. 584). No detailed description of the latter is available, but since it is said to pass over a succession of rolling downs probably it could be made into a cart-track without much difficulty, if it is not one now. The former road is described below: it is passable for wheeled traffic for the last 10 m. or less before reaching Serai. There is good grazing on the Chul Chemen, and probably over the rest of the route. Probably water is available throughout the year, but fuel is scarce almost everywhere. Distances from route-report, probably under-estimated. Miles from Nerzingi Nerzingi. There is some uncertainty about the opening stage but it is believed that after leaving Nerzingi it goes N. and crosses the Albak Su (Great Zāb) by a ford whence an ascent through cultivation leads to 3 Zerkuk (alt. 7,800 ft.), there being some 50 villages of the Shekak Kurds in this neighbourhood ; beyond which the road passes by an easy slope up a ravine. 5 | Pass (alt. 8,650 ft.), in a ridge running NE., an oụtlier of the Chukh Dāgh. There is an easy descent to a stream, ROUTES 76 b-78 167 Miles from Nerzingi 101 17 going E-W., past the village of Panamir to r. down the valley. From here a small stream is followed to a Pass (alt. 9,100 ft.), shut in by rocky slopes, which leads across the Qara Hisār Dāgh into the basin of the Qotur Chai, flowing into Lake Urmia. From the ridge the track is narrow and stony for a few hundred yards, and a very steep descent through a narrow gorge to a steep track down a slope to the Tup Chai, which is crossed. Setmanis (alt. 7,110 ft.). Near to the village is an old castle, the stronghold of the Chief of the Shemseki Kurds. A long, easy ascent is followed to the top of watershed between the Tup Chai and the Qotur Chai, and a narrow but fairly good track leads to the edge of Chul Chemen, a long grassy plain, mostly uncultivated, on which some 400 families of Milan Kurds usually camp in the summer. Across the Chul Chemen pass the Dil- man- Van road, on the N. (see Route 76 a at m. 69), and the Rāzi—Van road (see Route 76b). Route is now prac- ticable for carts. Enghiz. Continue over the plain to Serai, when route meets the Dilman-Khoi-Van road (Route 76 a, m. 79). 20 25 ! ROUTE 78 KHOSHAB-SERAI (29 m.) Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 92 a (report of 1900). W.0. Map (E. T. A., sheet 20). General direction, NE. This is an easy road, probably passable for wheeled vehicles. It goes quite close to Silk Khāneh, and into the Chul Chemen plain. The country passed through is used in the spring and summer for grazing purposes by Kurds : it contains few supplies and very little fuel. Together with the Rāzi -- Van road (Route 76 b) it enables the whole country to be traversed which lies between the Chukh Dagh on the SE. and Lake Archag on the NW. 168 LAND ROUTES Miles from Khoshab 73 ? 132 Khoshāb. An easy track fit for wheeled traffic leads over gravelly spurs, across a country easy to traverse in all directions. Seinis, a village of Kurds and Armenians, 30 houses in the centre of a wide basin, and on r. bank of Seinis Su. Easy track to Shushlamerg (see Route 74 a under m. 14). Leaving Seinis, a broad cultivated spur is crossed by an easy track, followed by a stony ravine dry in October. Krepitich, village of 30 Kurd houses near a spring. (This place is given as only 1 hr. 3 min. from Khoshāb.) A shallow valley trending SW. is crossed and the road enters the valley of a stream which winds through a rocky ravine į m. to l. Following the stream to NE. the valley becomes shallow and grassy. Ford to r. bank, the road passing through swampy ground on both sides of the stream. It then goes E. of some low hills. Enter a broad basin bounded on W. by steep, rugged hills. The road then crosses a broad, low col on the watershed between the Khoshāb Chai and the Qotur Chai. Pass Silk Khāneh, Kurdish village of 40 houses 11m. to W., situated on a stream, tributary of the Qotur Chai. Skirt the E. side of a rocky ridge as it follows a stream. Broad valley of the Silk Khāneh stream joins from I., a good track coming from that village. The route, a broad, easy track, continues down the valley, here 300 to 400 yds. wide, crosses to l. bank and passes through meadows and cultivation, with high steep hills on both sides, and turns to N. Valley opens, stream bends to E. Route continues N., a broad track diverging to Setmanis. Broad spur (alt. 7,510 ft.) is crossed. Beyond the spur Route 76 b is crossed, as it goes from Rāzi to Van, about one-third of the way between Rāzi and Seivān, according to the W.0. map. To the W. it is a cart-track, and it is believed to be a cart-track to the E. also: but there is considerable uncertainty about the details of these roads. Road descends from the spur to the Chul Chemen plain, an easy country passable for all arms. Road continues across the plain by a track firm in October, 141 192 193 ROUTE 78 169 Miles from Khoshab 251 passing a marsh on r., which is a lake in the spring, and leaving the village of Enghiz on some undulating ground 2 m. to r. Cross low undulating tract (alt. 7,620 ft.), which forms the watershed between lakes Urmia on E. and Archag on W. A marshy lake, the Enghiz Göl, is then passed i m. to r., and after crossing a broad undulation a wide plain is entered. | Serai, in the centre of the plain. 29 170 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 79 AMADIYEH–VAN (1823 m.) Via THE KHABŪR SU AND MARWĀNEN Authorities :-See p. 459. The main authority for the road to Marwånen is Military Report on E.T.A., Route 133 (report of 1890), and Route 130 (report of 1888). General direction, N. The track crossing the Ser Amadiyeh, leaves the valley of the Sipneh Chai and enters that of the Ser.i-Rūd, a tributary of the Khabūr Su, and following the valley of the latter stream crosses into the basin of the Bohtan Su close to Marwānen. It traverses a sparsely populated, rough country, and is only of local importance as regards military purposes: it is passable for lightly laden mules, and for carts from Marwānen at m. 130. Supplies and fuel are scarce save on the first 40 miles or so of the route. It is not passable in winter. On the Nestorian and Armenian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Ama- diyen 0 81 141 241 Amadiyeh. · Route 68 b is followed to Heyis, situated at the head-waters of the Ser-i-Rūd. Thence route crosses a low ridge (alt. 4,500 ft.) and goes NW. Derishki, Nestorian village, reached by a short, sharp descent. Continuing in a NW. direction, route crosses numerous ravines. Binervi, the country traversed containing many villages in which Kurds are more numerous than Nestorians. A narrow valley is ascended, Hadena is passed 1 m. farther on, a ridge is crossed and a stony path is descended to Deir Shish, in 1890 the residence of the chief of the Bad- wān Kurds. The track descends the ravine below Deir Shish, and turns up the hill-side to r. by a steep zigzag under 314 ROUTE 79 171 Miles from Ama- diyen 331 374 451 Kömrü Qal'ah, a ruined castle. Route now ascends to the top of a ridge, crosses ravines leading S. to the Ser-i- Rūd, and enters the valley of the Khabūr Su. A steep descent leads down a ravine to Challek (Chelki; alt. 3,000 ft.), a Nestorian village on the Khabūr Su, which is crossed by a wicker bridge, the stream being swift and deep with a difficult ford : there is a raft ferry at Begovi about 1 m. down-stream. An extremely steep ascent leads from the bridge to the site of an ancient city, Binyamīn Qal'ah, whence the road traverses an oak forest for 24 m., ascends a side ravine, crosses a spur and descends into a deep ravine at Rūsī, situated on the banks of the river. The valley is ascended by a track cut in the rock to the junction of the Vaktori Chai, and the track continues to follow the bank of the river by a difficult path to Nuzūr, whence a footpath is said to lead up the valley to Marwānen via Hadrish, a large Kurdish village. The route here followed leaves the river, and for the next 20 miles traverses the valley high up in a N. direction, along the Tannin Dāgh. It ascends a wooded side ravine, past some rice fields, by a track so narrow and bad that laden mules can scarcely pass along it, to Sūli (alt. 4,500 ft.). The track continues up the ravine, being very steep and rocky. From the top of the ascent it turns to E. over a high ridge, skirts another deep ravine, crosses a second ridge and descends steeply to Margī (4,050 ft.), situated in a more open valley. 473 511 From some point between Süli and Margi (or from Margi itself) a track to Shernakh branches W. by Belo (or Bejo, 61 m. from Süli according to W.0. map 26; alt. 4,200 ft.), passes Kerar (94 m.) to r., and follows valley of a considerable tributary of the Hazil Su to Zerawak (15 m., alt. 2,700 ft.) ; thence over two spurs and an intervening ravine to Segir (19 m.) in the valley of the Hazil Su, over which there is a wicker bridge. Thence it ascends W. over the Pishgevvar Dāgh to Gundukhta Melle (31 m.), reaching an altitude of about 5,000 ft., and in about 38 m. it joins the Jeziret-ibn-'Omar-Shattakh route at or in the neighbourhood of Shernakh or the Shernakh Gedik (Route 80, m. 314 and 34), and affords a connexion thence NW. to Sairt (see Route 84). The riding times given by a traveller in the reverse direction over this route are—from Gundukhta Melle to Segir, 5 hrs. ; thence to Zerawak, 2 hrs. ; thence to Belo, 6 hrs. ; thence to Sūli, 6 hrs. 172 LAND ROUTES Miles from Ama- diyeh 564 664 693 751 The track now ascends a very steep path to the top of a spur, and skirts the head-waters of another ravine. Cross a yāilā, and ascend a pathless slope, skirting a lime- stone cliff on l., to a gap (alt. 8,700 ft.) between the cliff and the precipice of the Tannin Dāgh. Beyond the gap the track descends over perennial snow, and follows a rough path down a brook. Testion, the village of Derbaz Agha (in 1890), where a large stream from W. is met whose r. bank is followed through a deep rocky ravine. Khabūr valley is reached again. The r. bank of the river is followed past Jelejeh, on the opposite side, and then up a bad path above a gorge in the river to Beit esh-Shebāb. From this place a foot-track is said to follow the Khabūr valley to Malak Kürreh at m. 113 below. The track followed leads up a side valley past the village of Ghaznak, beyond which it crosses the Nevshāilū Dāgh, and descending very steeply for 1,000 ft. or so joins the Jezīret-ibn-Omar-Marwānen road at or near the Shiv Shalil camp, where Route 82 from Maidan Jasūs joins the track. Ascend a small valley. Cross two spurs, enclosing grassy valleys. A difficult track leads W. to Shattakh via Kavalis. Turn E. Cross a pass (alt. 9,050 ft.) in a spur coming N. from Nēv Shāilū Dāgh. The track now ascends and crosses the S. slopes of the Momāmis Dāgh (alt. 11,000 ft.), an outlier from the Nēv Shāilū Dāgh; then after descend- ing slightly it crosses another col, beyond which a long, easy ascent leads to the Boshiq Gedik (alt. 9,300 ft.), over rich soil covered with excellent grass. An easy track leads down a narrow, grassy valley. Grassy basin, 2 m. wide, through which flows the Shābūr .Su (alt. 7,300 ft.), a head-water tributary of the Masīro Chai. An easy track leads out of the valley over some grassy spurs. Malak Kürreh (alt. 7,850 ft.), another open basin on the Shābūr Su, about 1 m. in diameter, bounded by low í hills. It contains excellent grass, and is used in 100 105 113 ROUTE 79 173 Miles foom Ama. diyeh 121 124 130 summer by the Hartoshi Kurds. The Shābūr Su is followed for 13 m. and then an easy track leads NE. up a small grassy valley E. of the fine pasture-ground of the Farrāshin yāilā. Summit of a rounded grassy range, the Chaila Gedik (alt. 9,465 ft.), part of the Awlaman Dāgh, which is circled to E. by the descent of a broad spur, S. of a deep valley containing a tributary of the Bohtan Su. Cross a grassy basin (alt. 8,500 ft.), followed by two more similar basins. The Nestorian villages of Makos and Awlaman are passed in the valley to l. : the track is easy with fairly gentle gradients, and passes over grassy spurs keeping S. of the tributary. Marwānen (alt. 7,895 ft.). Pop. 600, mostly Nestorians with a few Kurds and some 50 Armenians, the residence of a Mudir under Shattakh with a post of zaptiehs. From the village, the road, which is used by arabens, and therefore may be presumed to be practicable for army transport carts, descends gradually over a cultivated plateau. Pass Shilgil to l., cross a stream in a wide clay valley, and ascend to a broad col whence an easy clay track descends a spur, past grass and cultivation, the descent becoming steeper as the track approaches the Bohtan Su, which is crossed by an easy ford, 40 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep in September, over a gravelly bottom. Beyond the ford a steep ascent leads to a tributary stream, almost dry in September, whose valley is gradually ascended until the road, going by steep zigzags up the slope to r. Flat summit of a spur where Route 72 (m. 41) from Kochannes is met, and followed to Van. 1311 135 139 1821 174 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 80 JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-SHATTAKH (103 m.) Via SHERNAKH AND KHŪMARA Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Routes 130, 130 A (reports of 1888 and 1900). General direction, NE. This route ascends the E. divide of the Rohsur Su, rounds the S. end of the Shernakh Dāgh, crosses the head- waters of the Hazil Su, and then passes into the basin of the Bohtan Su. In combination with Route 81 a or Route 81 b, it furnishes through routes from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Van, 1381 and 1434 m. in length respectively. The first 72 m. combined with Routes 82 and 79 provide a route of 173 m. to Van : this last is more or less suitable for wheeled traffic, and is probably the easiest of the three. It was reported in 1888 that if this road could be made to carry wheeled traffic it would form a good line of communication between Jezīret-ibn-Omar and Van. It would, however, be liable to be blocked in places in spring. Although it traverses very rough country through mountains the whole way, it might be made passable for carts by widening and levelling in places. In 1888 and 1900 between Jezīret- ibn-'Omar and Khūmara (m. 94) it needed such improvement in places : it was quite impracticable for wheeled traffic beyond m. 94, but the construction of a cart-road had been spoken of. Blasting would be required, but in many cases the rock is loose shale, where cutting would be easy. The country traversed is sparsely populated, and most of the inhabitants are nomads. There is plenty of water, good grazing, and a fair amount of fuel, but hardly any other supplies. On the Nestorian and Armenian population, compare p. 32. Miles from Jezīret- ibn 'Omar 54 Jezīret-ibn-'Omar (alt. 1,120 ft.). Leaving the bridge, follow a broad gravelly path over undulating country with ravines. Serau (alt. 1,990 ft.), a few huts. Ascend a rocky outlier from the Judi Dāgh. The 1888 report states that a track leads direct to Sher- nach over this ridge, avoiding the Ghelli pass (m. 154), ROUTE 80 175 Miles from Jezīret- ibn- 'Omar and joining the main route at m. 22. The ascent at first is rough and stony, but after the summit is reached there is not much difficulty. It was said that a good road could be improvised in a short time on this line. It passes through fairly wooded country. The W.O. map of 1901 shows this track as practicable for wheeled traffic. 9 Nurdush Su (alt. 1,450 ft.), which emerges from a rocky gorge to N. Cross by a stone bridge of 40-ft. span and turn up the l. bank by a narrow track through irrigated cultivation and fruit gardens. Almonds, figs, walnuts, mulberries, olives, vines, and pomegranates are grown, and wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, melons, beans, cotton, and other crops on the higher slopes. The opposite bank of the Nurdush Su is a bare rocky cliff rising some 1,500 ft. 113 Shākh (alt. 1,960 ft.), 230 houses of Hartoshi Kurds, and 30 of Nestorians, situated at the end of a rocky spur 400 ft. above the stream. Continue up the valley follow- ing a 4-ft. ledge obstructed by jutting boulders and low cliffs. The stream here is a torrent in a narrow gorge. Gulijuna (alt. 1,900 ft.). A few huts at the mouth of a gorge on r. 134 Pīr-i-Ghelli (alt. 1,910 ft.). Ford the stream. In 1888 the bridge had lately been destroyed, and unless it has been rebuilt this route is practically impassable. Beyond the bridge the route follows a 2-ft. zigzag track up a stony hill-side. The valley bends sharply to E. and the track becomes easier, passing through a wood of oak, sycamore, and ash trees. A foot-track branches off here over the hill to the N. to join the alternative track from Serau (see note at m. 51 above). Qal'ah Baginuk on the hills to W. and Qal'ah Kelhuk on the E. are the remains of forts placed to bar the passage down the pass. They are now of little value. The valley narrows to 30 yds., and a narrow difficult ledge is followed round some jutting spurs. This is a pass known as the Tang-i- Ghelli. 184 | The valley opens out, the track becomes easy. To SE. the Judi Dāgh is visible, thickly covered with oaks. 12 154 176 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret- ibn 'Omar 22 Chemishan (alt. 2,400 ft.), an open space by the river, suitable for camping. The direct hill-track from Serau (see note under m. 58) joins the present track here. On the opposite side of the valley is a high ridge with bare cliffs. To SW. is the Tang-i-Qasr Ghelli, through which the Rohsur Su passes to the Tigris. A route which appears to be fairly easy and is much used by nomads leads up the Rohsur valley by Derguleh (see immediately below), then over a broad easy col in the Shernakh Dāgh (m. 34) and along the middle slope of the Harakol Dāgh (see under m. 40). To NW. is a broad wooded valley down which a large tributary comes to join the Rohsur from Khundukh. There is an extensive view in that direction and a track leads to the ruined fort and village of Derguleh, 4 m. distant. The district of Derguleh in 1888 was under- populated though fertile. The large Christian population had been exterminated in the earlier half of last century. To N. is the Chiraf Dāgh, a curious peak with steep pre- cipitous sides, overhanging the Rohsur and forming a western spur of the Shernakh Dāgh (see below, m. 34). Khundukh lies on the N. side of this peak. The route now follows an easy clay track along the r. bank of the stream, passing a few patches of cultivation. Leave the stream and skirt a conical mound on which stands the Nestorian village of Sigirik. The country is well wooded with oaks, hawthorns, and junipers. An out. crop of coal, probably of poor quality, is passed, and a long gradual ascent over wooded cultivated country leads to Shernakh (alt. 4,650 ft.), a Kurdish centre of some impor- tance, containing 400 Kurdish and 30 Nestorian houses, the residence of the Chief of the Shernakhi Kurds, who are ashiret, are not nomads, and are favourably disposed towards Christians. For cross-route from Margi, see p. 171. From Shernakh the track ascends a ridge diagonally, passing some cultivation. Shernakh Gedik (alt. 5,380 ft.). Wide view of the basin of the upper waters of the Hazil, extending some 25 m. 28 313 34 ROUTE .80 177 Miles from Jezīret- ibn. Omar 371 40 to E. E. and SE. is a mass of rounded summits with patches of snow, part of the Zawarra Mami and Qal'ah Mami, with the Tannin Dāgh (see m. 69 below). A track leads N. to the poor zozan or Kurdish summer grazing-grounds of the Harakol Dāgh (see m. 40 below), and to Awrakh on the Bohtan Su. For the route from the Shernakh Gedik to Sairt see Route 84. Follow a stream down a ravine ; the slope thickly wooded with oak, pear, juniper, pistachio, and hawthorn trees. Wild vines and shrubs in the valleys. The hill-side is scored with deep ravines in the shale soil, all trending towards the Hazil. Some well-grown oaks, 2-3 ft. in diameter, in the valley, but the majority are stunted. The Kurds call this wooded region Bestenji. Track fairly easy for mules (1888), with some narrow places and steep gradients. Path usually a 3-ft. ledge in soft shale. It could easily be widened and improved. Ascend a low spur to the l. (alt. 4,270 ft.). Wind among ravines and ascend to a col (alt. 4,310 ft.). To N., 10 m. distant, is the Harakol Dāgh, the lower slopes of which are cut up by numerous deep, wooded ravines running S. to the Hazil. Higher up the moun- tain is rounded and looks easy to traverse (see under m. 22 above), while towards the summit, on the S. and E. sides, is a precipitous wall of rock. The top is a plateau, roughly rectangular in shape, the SE. corner of which is tilted up higher than the rest. The grass on the plateau is poor. Descend steeply. Busta Beruseh, stream (alt. 3,310 ft.) flowing SSE. over gravelly bed to the Hazi). Cross the stream and begin a steep ascent in a bare shaley slope. Cross a bare ridge (alt. 3,380 ft.) and descend into another valley to Keni Mahwesik (alt. 3,430 ft.)., an open grassy space for camping. The narrow gorge of the Hazil, where it leaves Bestenjik, is visible some 12 m. to the S. The route here is used by nomads in their annual migrations towards the high ranges to the E. The track is broken into several paths worn by their flocks. Some of the valleys in this region are cultivated by people from Shernakh in the summer, but otherwise this large tract of fertile country is quite desolate. Ascend the 43. MES. IV 178 LAND ROUTES 502 Miles from Jezīret- ibn. 'Omar valley for a short distance, and cross a steep shaley ridge. 481 Summit (alt. 3,875 ft.). Continue along the ridge. Descend a narrow spur into the next valley by a very steep track in loose shale through which zigzags could easily be made to improve the descent. | Enter a valley 150 yds. wide with steep shale slopes, and cross a stream 30 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in June (alt. 3,670 ft.). The stream rises in a wooded hill with a rounded summit 4 m. to N. Hamidi Bashi is a flat-topped hill some 4 m. to SE. Follow the bank of the stream, crossing and recrossing. The valley seems to be entirely filled with water during floods. 54 Climb a spur (alt. 4,645 ft.) and keep along a path with deep valleys on either side, descending gradually through wooded country into a deep valley. 582 Cross a stream (alt. 3,890 ft.) 40 ft. wide and 18 in. deep in June, flowing in a bed of scattered boulders 300 yds. wide. It runs round the base of the flat-topped hill to SE. The track goes through groves of oaks and sycamores, following the bank of the stream, up which tracks also run to Chemikinianis Maidān (9 m. distant), the summer pasture of the Miran Kurds, and to Haishat at the junction of the Masīro Chai and Bohtan Su (16 m. distant). 60 Climb another ridge in soft shale (alt. 4,680 ft.). Descend easily to the Bustasar Chai (alt. 4,475 ft.), a stream flowing S. Near by is the junction of a small tributary which the track follows E. Pass an open camping-ground, called Bustasar (alt. 4,530 ft.), about į m. square, surrounded by trees. Follow the 1. bank of the tributary of the main stream : the valley narrows gradually ; several thickly wooded side-valleys are passed. Valley bifurcates, the track following the SE. branch. Summit of a spur (alt. 5,180 ft.). To the N., 11 m. distant, is the Awrakh or Evrak Dāgh, an isolated rocky peak which can be ascended only from the S. It lies at the NW. end of the Dahazir Dāgh (m.77 below), which in that direction is called Beriderria. ROUTE 80 179 Miles from Jeziret- ibn. Omar 72 To the S., 4 m, distant, is a high range called Kala Mami, the summits thickly covered with snow in July. The upper slopes are rounded and grassy, while the lower are steep cliffs overhanging a stream which flows along the N. face to join the Hazil. The southernmost peak is Zawarra Mami. The country SE. of Zawarra Mami with the Tannin Dāgh overlooks the Khabūr gorge. Between the Dahazir Dāgh and Kala Mami is a deep gap with a col forming the watershed between the Khabūr and the Hazil. A ruined castle marks the top of the col, and a track leads over it to Beit esh-Shebab (see Route 79, m. 752), but the descent on the E. side is very difficult and steep. Mahri Nar is another peak to the S. of Zawarra Mami overlooking the Hazil gorge. All these mountains rise to about 11,000 ft. They are the summer pastures of the Shir Nakhli, Goyan, and Zishiriki Kurds. Wind along a wooded spur with numerous V-shaped ravines on either side. Excellent grass in June; soil a rich black loam. Easy track with steady ascent. About half-way up the spur track bifurcates, the present route turning NE., the other branch going on to Shiv Shalīl (see Route 79, m. 88, and Route 82). Round the head of some valleys, watered by tributaries of the Bustasar stream. Soil a stony clay with a few scattered junipers high up. Track from Maidān Jāsās joins near here. Ascend. Col in the Dahazir Dāgh. Turn N. parallel to the general run of the ridge and in the watershed of the Bustasar Chai. Rough rocky hills on r. round which a track leads E. in the deep narrow valley of a tributary of the Masīro Chai. The stream which disappears into the hill in Māidān Jāsūs (see Route 82, m. 2) reappears at the head of this valley. The ridge broadens into an upland. Continue along an easy but stony track skirting a ravine which runs first N. and then turns off through a gap in the ridge. Mil-i-Hafīr, stream where there is a grazing-ground used by the Tayan Kurds, a section of the Miran. Grass withered in August, 1900. Good springs, and the streams which break through rocky openings in the ridge to l. and falling very steeply become tributaries of the Bustasar Chai. Follow an easy clay track, rounding the head of a ravine 77 78 M2 180 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret- ibn- 'Omar 802 through the ridge to 1. in a rocky gorge. Stony hills to r. easy to traverse. Extensive view to E. over the valley of the Masīro, showing the narrow rift through which it flows from the Ghelli-j. Bairan, an open pasture-ground E. of the gorge. Over- looking the gorge are the ruins of an old Kurdish stronghold known as Jengir Qal'ah. Track easy over undulating clay hills. On the rocky, wall-like ridge å m. to l. are the ruins of an old castle called Qal'ah Berkhi. In the valley to the W. are the ruins of Haishat, an Armenian village not to be confused with Haishat, a large thriving village (1900) further N. near the junction of the Masīro with the Bohtan Su (see under m. 94 below). Only rough difficult paths lead into the Bohtan valley about Haishat. Fine view to W., showing the whole of the Hazil basin, with the crags of Harakol (m. 40 above) to N., the Shernakh Dāgh to W. (see m. 34 above), and the Qal'ah Mami and Tannin Dāgh to S. (see m. 69 above). Mil-i-Margi camp, an open grassy basin, with some good springs draining E. It is occupied by the Tayan Kurds. Fine view to W. over all the Hazil basin, bounded by the lofty rounded masses of Qal'ah Mami and the Tannin Dāgh on the S. (see m. 69 above). A well-defined track, probably passable for wheels with little difficulty, leads NW. under the Awrakh Dāgh (see m. 69) near Chemi- kinianis, and is used as the main route by the Miran Kurds migrating to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar for the winter. To E. there is an extensive view over the Kavalis district and a sea of rounded mountains bordering the Masíro stream, known in its upper portion as the Shahbur. Present track now trends E. Path easy and well-defined among low hills. Descend rather more steeply into the wide basin of the Masīro stream, now below to the E. Track very rough and stony for 1 m. following a small ravine. It might be improved for wheels. Cross a broad, stony valley from the SE. with a dry stream- bed and wind along the base of a broad spur to r. Masīro Chai, ford at a point where the valley is open and easy; gravelly bed 50 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep in July 83] ROUTE 80 181 Miles from Jeziret- ibn. Omar (alt. 5,885 ft.). 3 m. up-stream is the rift in which is Jengir Qal'ah, a ruined Kurdish stronghold (see also under m. 78 above). Beyond the rift is the Ghelli-i-Bairan plain. Just below the ford the stream enters some lime- stone strata through which it winds in a narrow gorge with steep, wooded slopes, and further down it enters the Tang-i-Baliān, a huge rift with the sheer slope of Awrakh on one side and cliffs 1,500 ft. high on the other. Through this it makes its way to the Bohtan Su above Haishat. Only difficult paths lead down the ravine. The present track turns sharply NW. towards the gorge, ascends above the rocky level, and becomes an easy track used by nomads and well-worn. Soil a shaley clay. Wind round the head of a tributary ravine with stream from the r. The craggy gorge to l. is wooded with junipers and oaks. In the gorge under Awrakh are some patches of cultivation and the ruins of the small Armenian village of Hul. A few Armenian villages used to exist here, but by 1900 they had been destroyed by the Miran Kurds, and the country was depopulated except for their sheep pasturage in summer. Wind round another ravine from the r., track broad and easy for wheels. Leave the Masīro and follow a minor stream from the NE. in a narrow gorge to l. A broad, well-worn track branches over low hills E. towards the valley of the Yazdinān Su and Kavalis district, along the upper Masīro. From Yazdinān a hill-track leads to Nārduz and Merwānen. This is a much more difficult track than Routes 82 and 83. Upper slopes along the track now quite bare. A few junipers lower down. End of rocky gorge to l. Valley opens, with slopes of shaley clay. Track rough and stony in places, but could be made passable for wheels. Begin long gradual ascent of high ridge in front, dotted with a few huts of Tayan Kurds who are here from June to the middle of September. Some streams and springs. | Ghellizshinan pass (alt. 8,990 ft.), a rounded summit of solo. 853 864 89 182 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret- ibn. 'Omar ridge at an open col. Patches of snow in sheltered spots in August. To W. the ridge becomes a line of craggy cliffs, terminating in precipices overlooking the Tang-i-Baliān. To SE. the summit is grassy and rounded, forming the water- shed between the Masīro and the Yazdinān, and joining the Nürdüz hills above Merwānen. On the N. view to the Arnost Dāgh, on which the Miran Kurds graze their flocks in the summer, and to high ranges beyond the Bohtan. Descend by a steep but easy clay track towards the Bohtan valley in front. Several minor tracks join from Kavalis to the SE. Round a grassy valley (alt. 7,100 ft.), the head of a stream going N. to the Bohtan in a rocky gorge. A line of crags to W. of the valley. Some junipers now on the slopes. Cross a broad spur and descend into another valley, also running to the Bohtan, but smaller than the last, with easy grassy slopes. Descend more steeply but by broad, well-defined track. Khūmara (alt. 5,030 ft.), 15 Armenian houses in a small cultivated basin overlooking the deep, narrow valley of the Bohtan Su, which is here a rushing mountain torrent over a bed of boulders. The climate in this region is very equable and the soil extremely fertile, but the depredations of nomad Kurds prevent any development. A small post of soldiers is kept at Khūmara in summer (1900) to restrain the Khalılan Kurds who live down the valley on the l. bank. The Khalīlan are a small tribe, but noted robbers. On the far bank of the Bohtan, opposite Khūmara, the slopes are very precipitous, culminating in a cliff 1,500 ft. high and quite impassable. Lower down on the r. bank are very steep valleys in which are the small Armenian villages of Shakavientz, Ari, Sarkat, and Ermishat, with terraced cultivation on the mountain side. On the l. bank are the villages of the Khalīlan Kurds, and the country there is thickly wooded with low Oaks and crossed by several deep ravines. 94 ROUTE 80 183 954 Miles from Jezīret- ibn. 'Omar Haishat, a large Armenian village, is visible some distance down, with extensive orchards and gardens, near the junction of the Masīro with the Bohtan (see m. 78 above). A rough track leads down the 1. bank of the Bohtan to Sairt via Khoskheir. Present track winds round wooded spur and begins descent towards the river. From here to Shattakh it was quite impassable for wheels in 1900, but the construction of a cart-track was spoken of. Wind round wooded spur and commence descent towards river. Stony ravines down to the river, the slopes thickly wooded with oaks. Cross a sharp spur and begin steep descent of a stony, clay slope. Sheer cliff rising 1,000 ft. on the far bank. Qal'ah-i-Zirīl, high up to r. (? l.), is a remarkable tur- reted crag on which is a ruined castle. It commands the valley towards Shattakh (see m. 103). More small, wooded ravines. Reach the river-level close to 1. bank. Slopes very steep. River 50 yds. broad in August, and unfordable, a rapid torrent among boulders. Path is a stony mule-track close to the water among trees. 96 Junction of the Yazdinān Chai with the Bohtan Su. The Yazdinān Chai is a large stream from the S., its lower course being through a narrow gorge, through which runs a difficult path. Steep pinnacled cliffs on either side which form an immense rocky wall on the N. 600 yds. above the junction is a masonry bridge of one 25-ft. span. The abutment next the r. bank was in 1900 much worn away by floods. When the river is low the track follows the Bohtan, fording the Yazdinān at the junction; but to reach the bridge a steep, rough track over a wooded spur has to be followed. Present road follows the Bohtan by a narrow track, close to the stream, along a steep, wooded slope, sometimes a rocky ledge and at others across loose shale and stones from above. Avalanches are common when the snows are melting, and the track is partly swept away in spring. Track dangerous even in summer. Round a rocky spur, following a narrow ledge over the water for 30 yds. 963 | Gechid, high up to l., among terraces of cultivation with orchards, 30 Armenian houses scattered on the hill-side. 184 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret- ibn. 'Omar Water from several good springs near it. Steep paths from the river to the village. Wind round the face of a rocky cliff projecting into the stream by a narrow ledge cut in steps. Below the cliff is a deep ford over a gravelly bed, passable in late summer. There is also a rough, wicker footbridge, often washed away by floods. A track leads from Gechid high up along the hill-side to Lishān (see below under m. 97), thence to the Bohtan near Sakh Dereh (see below under m. 100), and so to Shattakh. 97 100 1 Cross mouth of a steep stony valley from r. with a small stream known as the Khiziz Dereh. At the head of the valley is a rocky impracticable country filling in the angle between the Bohtan and Yazdinān. After a short distance reach a place where the ledge in the loose shale had in 1900 been widened by cutting to 2 ft. A good track could be improvised. Pass mouth of steep rocky ravine to l., high up which is Lishān, 15 Armenian houses, among orchards and terraces. Follow a rocky ledge for 100 yds. and then a cutting 3 ft. wide in steep shale and stones. Slopes sparsely wooded with low oaks. Steep crags in places. Mouth of rocky ravine to r. Valley winds a great deal. Round a rocky crag. Valley opens out. Cross to r. bank of the Bohtan by the Gakurkhān Köprü (bridge), a single arch of 50-ft. masonry span in fair repair. A rugged mountain valley rising to the lofty peak of Arnost joins from the NW. Sakh is a village about 1 m. up on the r. bank of the stream which flows down this valley, while at the head, high up, is Kakbī. Both are Armenian villages. A bridle-track leads up the valley and over to Mukus by a foot-track. *Above the Gakurkhān Köprü the main valley widens to 200-250 yds., with a stony but fairly easy mule-track. There are only footpaths along the l. bank. Pass mouth of another rugged valley from the E. of the Arnost Dāgh called Piferan Dereh. The river here is a rapid torrent among boulders. ROUTES 80, 81 a 185 Miles from Jeziret- ibn- Omar 103 Mouth of another short gorge from the l., in which is Gahaspur, with cultivation in terraces 14 m. up. Marsekh village with trees and cultivated terraces up to 1. Virishin on the far bank to r. Track rounds a cliff for 100 yds. along a roughly made ledge close to the water. Round a rocky cliff, track ascending by stony ledge. Sharp turn bringing Shattakh into view. Teloran is at the mouth of a mountain valley from the Gilolokan Dāgh to SW. Shattakh, 250 houses, largely Armenian. T.L. to Van. The place is the seat of a Kaimmakam. There are several bridges here over the Bohtan, one of wooden trestle construction (1900) with 18 ft. roadway leading to the Government offices; another higher up, also of wood on stone piers, much older, of two spans, in poor repair. In the village is a good stone bridge, and there are other minor bridges over the stream from the N. The river is easily fordable in autumn. For the tracks to Van see Routes 81 a and 81 b. ROUTE 81 a SHATTAKH–VAN (381 m.) Via GURANDESHT Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 130 A (report of 1900). General direction, NNE. The road goes up the Shattakh stream to NE., crosses the high-lying plain of Gurandesht and thence descends into the Khoshāb Su valley. It crosses the stream and follows the shore of Lake Van to Van. This is a good road for mules and in parts is suitable for wheeled traffic, although it does not appear to be a cart-track throughout, as it is shown on the W.0. map of 1901. From m. 5 to m. 12 it is subject to avalanches in the spring. Fuel can be obtained on the first part of the route, but it is scarce farther towards the N. Water is available, but the supply may be small during the spring and early autumn. Grazing is probably scarce. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. 186 LAND ROUTES Miles from Shat- takh Shattakh. Follow the r. bank of the Shattakh stream by a metalled road, 24 to 30 ft. wide, ditched and with cul- verts ; easy gradient. The valley is 200 to 300 yds. wide, with steep slopes of stony clay dotted with a few trees. A few villages on terraces high up to W. At 14 m. pass a narrow valley with steep, craggy sides, coming from NW., up which there is a track to Mukus. Valley narrows. 3 Cross to l. bank by a 25-ft. bridge of wooden beams laid on fascines, near to which the stream is easily fordable except when the river is in high flood. Large springs on r. bank, where also there are steep cliffs. Ashgonz, an Armenian village of 15 houses, is passed near here : it appears to be on 1. bank. The stream is crossed and recrossed, and large springs are passed on both banks. Sevdigin, an Armenian village on r. bank, from which a stony, difficult track leads to Mukus. Above the village, on the r. bank of the stream, is a large spring called Kani Spi, of great volume in the early part of the year, but dry in autumn. Low oaks and scrub are passed, the well-constructed road following a steadily ascending gradient, exposed to avalanches in the spring. Pass an important valley from NW., up which runs the alternative track to Shattakh from Van (Route 81 b). Valley now opens out to a broad col 11 m. broad, the Gurandesht plain, bordered by steep, stony hills, which is crossed by an easy gradient: the Kurdish village of Gurandesht lies 11 m. to l., the residence (1900) of Sheikh Hasan, a man of much influence. 13 Pass Avzeni, i m. to l. Road enters the basin of Lake Van and descends easily over clay and stones through bare hills. Gurandesht Khān, a useful shelter in the winter. Descend more steeply by a fairly easy gradient into a narrow, stony valley, which gradually opens out. Havatzor plain. Road is here metalled throughout. Qizil Tāsh, Armenian village of 60 houses. Road from Bitlis to Van (Route 89 a, m. 75) is met. Engil bridge over the Khoshāb Su. 381 | Van. i ROUTES 81 a, b 187 ROUTE 81 b SHATTAKH-VAN (434 m.) Via PESAN DESHT AND VOSTAN Authority :— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 130 B (report of 1900). General direction, N., then NE. This is a mule-track alternative to Route 81 a, from which it branches at m. 81, turning N. over a pass (alt. 7,700 ft.) leading into the Pesan Desht plain. Thence it descends to Vostan, where it meets Route 89 a at m. 68. It is 5 m. longer than Route 81 a. It seems that there is a fair amount of water available, but little fuel, and probably not very much grazing. The route follows the Shattahk— Van T.L. Miles from Shat- takh 81 111 ste over stop descente bott Shattakh. Follow Route 81 a for 81 m. Turn up a valley to NW. and follow a narrow, stony track past very steep slopes. The T.L. goes high up a slope to r. Pass on 1. the main stream coming from a mountain basin on W., in which lies upper Darunis. Turn up valley of tributary to N.; a steep ascent over stony clay. Lower Darunis, Armenian village, close to l. Continue steep ascent up ravine. Rejoin T.L., which comes from r. over stony pass (alt. 7,700 ft.) between steep, bare hills ; easy descent to well-cultivated plain of Pesan Desht, lying at the bottom of a basin shut in by bare rocky hills. The water from this basin has no visible outlet. Ala Khān, 15 houses, near some large springs. Continue by an easy clay track skirting E. side of plain. Another track, somewhat longer, skirts the W. side of the plain, passing through the small Armenian villages of Haghaziz (which is passed by the route followed i m. to W.), Kāni Mirān, and Shīdān. Ascend the ridge forming N. boundary of the plain, easily at first, then more steeply. Stony pass, beyond which track branches, the branch to 1. going down a deep valley past Hillivank, a village and monastery, to Vostan. Follow the r. branch over a broad 182 188 LAND ROUTES Miles from Shat- takh clay spur to a broad pass. Descend gradually a stony valley to N., waterless except in spring, which narrows to a rocky gorge. Track is steep and stony. Beyond gorge, ascend slightly to r. over broad spur, and descend rather steeply a bare clay slope. Continue along a broad track through the extensive gardens of Vostan. Vostan. (See Route 89 a, m. 68.) 431 : Van. ROUTE 82 MAIDĂN JĀSŪS-SHIV SHALĪL (7 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 130 (report of 1888). General direction, E. This is shown in the W.O. map as practicable for wheeled vehicles, and probably is so. Miles This road starts from about m. 72 on Route 80 (Jezīret- ibn-'Omar-Shattakh, which goes N.) and ascends to E., easily and steadily. Gap in the Dahazir Dāgh (alt. 8,155 ft.), whence a descent leads to Maidān Jāsūs, a grassy plain 1 m. square, a summer grazing-ground of the nomads where tezek is generally used for fuel, there being no wood on this side of the ridge. A stream flowing across it disappears under- ground at its N. end, and reappears at m. 77, Route 80, whence it flows to the Bohtan Su. Route now follows the upper slopes of the Nevshăilā Dāgh, the S. watershed of the Masīro Chai in a NE, direction. It leaves the plain by a broad track, passable for wheels, leading up a grassy valley by a gradual ascent, reaching the summit of a grassy spur 8,250 ft., whence it descends gradually over a shaly slope into a deep basin. Cross Ru Qarān stream (alt. 7,455 ft.). The hills in this neighbourhood are rounded and treeless, but gavvan, a small prickly shrub, is available for fuel. The valley is ascended and the road turns NE., crossing a number of small ravines by a track which is broad and open but steep in places. 7 Shiv Shalil (alt. 8,070 ft.). (See Route 79, m. 88.) ROUTES 82, 83 189 ROUTE 83 MARWĀNEN-SHATTAKH (31 m.) Authorities : -- See p. 459. Main authority, Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 131 (report of 1900). General direction, WNW. This road goes NW. from Marwānen across some tributaries of the Bohtan Su, turns to W., and passing to the N. of the Gilolokan Dāgh, alt. 10,500 ft., it descends to Shattakh. It is a fairly good mule-track, but could only be made passable for wheeled traffic with much labour. The first half of it leads through a fairly populous country, while the latter part goes over high summer grazing.grounds as it descends to Shattakh. Miles from Mar. wänen 52 Marwānen. Descend over easy clay slopes towards N. Shilgil. Descend rather steeply over stony clay into the narrow valley of the Awlaman Chai ; ascend equally steeply over a ridge, and descend to a stream flowing N., which is crossed. Pirbadelān (alt. 6,880 ft.), Armenian village, the residence of Shakir Agha, an important Chief of Nürdüz of Giravian section of the Hartoshi Kurds. Crossing a broad spur, 7,576 ft., and descending a steep clay slope by short zigzags, the route crosses a large tributary of the Bohtan Su (alt. 6,340 ft.), and ascends by an easier track. Pass Muhr (alt. 7,260 ft.), a small village on the top of the ridge, from which there is a very steep descent to another but smaller tributary of the Bohtan Su. A spur is now crossed to another tributary, as is another spur (alt. 7,345 ft.) to the valley of the | Aghchurin Chai, which is forded. Ascend 1. bank and follow a side valley to Aghchurin village. Route continues to ascend this valley by an easy track. Gövan hamlet, beyond which a long, steep ascent in a clay slope leads over a broad col into a long upland valley. Dākur Yāila, which lies N. of the Gilolokan Dāgh. Cross a broad col (alt. 9,360 ft.). Long descent into Shattakh is begun, the road being easy, as it winds 24 190 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mar- wānen round the head of some deep ravines on N. until it reaches the summit of a spur from which steep zigzags lead between the Bohtan valley on r, and a tributary valley on 1. in which is Guvers, a large village. A difficult descent leads to the river which is crossed by a bridge. 31 | Shattakh. ROUTE 84 SHERNAKH GEDIK—SAIRT (53 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 129 (report of 1890). General direction, NW. This route leaves the Jezīret-ibn-'Omar- Shattakh route (Route 80, m. 34), crosses the headwaters of the Rohsur Su into that of the Zorāweh Chai, and thence enters the valley of the Bohtan Su. It passes through a well-watered, well- wooded, fertile country, very sparsely inhabited. It is a good mule-track, not passable for guns. Miles from Shernakh Gedik Shernakh Gedik (see Route 80, m. 34). Route goes over some undulating ground, crosses some spurs from the Shernakh Dāgh to NE. and descends to the Stoneshker Su, a tributary of the Rohsur Su, which it crosses at it gorge just above a ruined stone bridge, ascends on the far side to a thick forest of oaks which it traverses before ascending a ridge past the Chiraf Dāgh to W. The track descends to a small plain watered by the Rohsur Su, from which another track leads to Derguleh lower down the stream, and so to Jezīret-ibn- 'Omar. A gentle ascent follows. Gully going SSE., down which a track leads to Khundukh, Į a village whose position as shown on the W.0, map seems to be incompatible with this statement. Summit of ascent. Descend through an oak forest past Mamira to Torik, both villages lying in the same basin. A slight ascent leads to the top of a ridge, the Suliwa 12 23 ROUTES 83, 84 191 Miles from Shernakh Gedik Dāgh, steep and rocky at the top, from which the path descends to E. into the valley of the Newirān Su, a tributary of the Zorāweh Chai : it follows the former stream for some distance until it meets on l. a water- course which it follows to Deh, an Armenian village, the chief town of the kaza of Eiru, and the residence of a Kaimmakam. From the village an ascent leads to Summit of the Binazer (Belizair) Dāgh, whence an easy path leads to Zorāweh Chai, a broad shallow stream, which is crossed : the path then ascends to Terim, follows a level track, and passes some salt pools. Gundisha. Route then crosses the Binerva valley, about 2 m. wide, with a stream containing little water in August, a tributary of Zorāweh Chai. Cross a slight ridge, pass a village with a church, go down a gully to NW., ascend to a cliff forming the l. bank of Bohtan Su 150 ft. above the water, and follow the cliff down-stream and by a steep descent. Kiart ferry, where there was a boat in 1890, the river although only 15 to 18 yds. broad being too deep to be fordable. There is a ford about 1 m. lower down passable in October. From the ferry a steep ascent of 11 m. leads to a good mule-track which goes up a valley to | Sairt. 53 192 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 85 JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-BITLIS (118 m.) Via SAIRT AND ZIYĀRET WĀ'IZ EL-QUR'ĀNI Authorities :-Main authority, Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 125 (report of 1888); vol. iv, Route 188 (report of 1899): some recent information. The evidence for this route is very unsatisfactory. For the section Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Ziyāret the only detailed report available dates from 1888. For the section from Ziyāret Wa'iz el-Qur'āni to Bitlis the latest authority for details is an account of 1899. A recent report states that the route is somewhat easier now than it is repre- sented in these reports. The route, which lies through mountainous country, is one of the main lines of communication between Mesopotamia and the North. From Jezíret-ibn-'Omar to Sairt the route in 1888 was impassable for wheels. As far as m. 12 the road was easy, but beyond that point the track was often rocky and difficult and steep ascents and descents were encountered. At m. 53 the Bohtan Su has to be crossed. It is fordable only in the low-water season, and the bridge in the neighbourhood was in ruins in 1888. Beyond Sairt, a projected chaussée, completed for 3 m., was reported in 1888, and the route to Ziyāret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni seems to have then been passable for guns. At Ziyāret Wa'iz el-Qur'āni the Diarbekr-- Bitlis chaussée was struck. This, not yet metalled in 1888, was still incomplete in 1899. Work was apparently going on upon it in 1913. It ascends the r. bank of the Bitlis Su. The route described below does not follow the chaussée throughout, as for some distance above the Charpiran bridge it runs along the left bank. Several bridges were found in 1899 in the valley of the Bitlis Su, but most of them were in bad repair. The streams on the route are generally fordable in places except in flood-time. Water is generally plentiful, but at Sairt there is often a deficiency in summer, and some of the wells are contaminated and slightly brackish. Fuel is usually plentiful. No considerable quantity of supplies could be expected en route. ROUTE 85 193 Miles from Jeziret. iba. Omar Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. After crossing the boat bridge the route turns 1. by an indifferent track on the l. bank of the Tigris, skirting the shingly bed of the river and leading to Mansuriyeh, a Christian village of 20-40 houses. A high rocky ridge approaches to the E. Ford the Rohsur Su, a large stream, a torrent in spring, but in September only 30 ft. wide and 8 in. deep, in a gravelly bed 200 yds. wide. A track leads up its gorge to Derguleh and Shernakh, and up this valley, according to some authorities, Xenophon led the Ten Thousand Greeks after a successful action at Mansuriyeh. Continue to follow the Tigris. Deran, village with orchards. Shingle island in river at low water. Finuk, Kurd village, built round the mouth of a gorge in a rocky ridge, 1 m. to r. Cave dwellings ; extensive orchards; ruins of several castles overlooking the Tigris. Near Finuk are bas-reliefs of the Parthian period on the rocks. The track is easy, passing some water.courses. Leave the river (see below under Fanduq, m. 23). Steep descent into and ascent from a rocky ravine with a stream in it. . Passing the ruins of an old Kurd castle the path ascends a high ridge by a difficult rocky path. Alt. 2,010 ft. Ascent becomes steeper, up a sort of staircase of limestone strata, slippery and difficult for laden animals. Alt. 2,855 ft. Ascent easier along the summit of a wooded spur (alt. 3,000 ft.), the track leading over loose stones and rocky ledges. An upland plateau lies to the E., bordered by outliers from a rugged mass of hills in that direction. It is frequented by small tribes of predatory Kurds. Crossing a rocky spur into a small basin draining W. the path reaches Fanduq, a small Chaldaean hamlet (alt. 3,340 ft.), which has an extensive view to the W. The Tigris makes a semicircular sweep of about 8 m. to the W. At the S. end of this part of its course the river flows in a narrow gorge for 4 m. between cliffs 300 ft. high. Above this gorge the valley is more open and at the northern end of this section is a mile wide, 19* 201 Ascent 23 NES. IV 194 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jezīret- ibn 'Omar Route goes by Fanduq to avoid the steep side-valleys along the Tigris. Beyond the river is the Tur Abdin plateau. To E. of Fanduq is a steep ridge with a narrow, rocky summit. Rocky spur (alt. 3,440 ft.) is crossed and the descent to the Tigris begins along an easy track in a valley # m. wide. Poaran and Berivana, two small villages, are passed, but the country was described in 1888 as neglected and deserted. Descend easily by a firm track through oaks. The Tigris is reached, and a rough track followed along the bank. Pass Saidiyeh, a Kurd village high up on a rocky ravine to r., up which mule tracks lead towards Deh through very difficult country. Cross a stream. Isolated rock in Tigris channel, about 20 yds. from the r. bank. Cross some streams flowing from the ridge to the r. in deep narrow cuts. Path becomes narrow and difficult, straggling through boulders along a narrow track by a ledge barely 3 ft. wide under cliffs 300 ft. high. The path is obstructed by trees and undergrowth. Path leaves the river and strikes across a low but difficult spur. Path regains river. Challek, on the opposite bank, a Syrian and Kurd village of 40 houses, with one large stone building. This is a halting-place for rafts, and is a river.port for villages to the W., from which grain and firewood are shipped. A track runs from Challek to Midiat via Kerboran. Above Challek the river descends through a fine gorge with lofty limestone cliffs. The road is a badly defined track among fallen boulders and is impassable in flood, when the river may rise 30 ft. in the gorge. Cross large stream from a gorge in the ridge to r. Beyond this the path leaves the bank and zigzags up a steep rocky ascent, and descends gently on the other side towards the Bohtan. Some cultivation of corn, rice, and cotton was observed in 1888. Pass Wahzidi, i m. l., a village on a plateau which over- looks the junction of the Tigris and Bohtan, 13 m. to W. At the junction is Til, a place of great antiquity. From Til an easy road leads to Ridhwān on the Sairt-Diarbekr road (see Route 102 b). On the far bank of the Bohtan 40 42 ROUTE 85 · 195 Miles from Jeziret- ibn. 'Omar 45 471 50 the country is open, rising in a long glacis to terrace-like plateaux. Across the Tigris are the ridges and ravines of the Ashita Dāgh, covered with oak and brushwood. Track ascends the Bohtan valley. There is good open ground for camps on either bank of the Bohtan; firewood abundant and drinking water plentiful and good. Baliq, village : some cultivation. Mu'tadd, a Kurdish village near a small spring with some cultivation and small orchards. End of a rocky ridge overlooks village from E., at a distance of 1 m. The Bohtan is joined on the r. bank by a large affluent formed by the combined waters of the Bitlis Su and Keser Su. The lower part of the valley of this tributary is fairly open, with bare slopes and low cliffs at intervals, and 3 m. up-stream it is crossed by a good masonry bridge—the Nasr ed-Din Köprü (see Route 102 b). A track leads W. to Ridhwān. Above the junction are the ruins of a masonry bridge over the Bohtan, of which the centre arches have been swept away. 511 Pass Dodoisu village on the opposite bank. Ferry-boat kept near here. Cross the Zorāweh Chai, flowing from the hilly country to the E. On the far bank is Beloriz, a small Kurdish village. The path is now an easy track along the river bank. 53 1 Just before entering a gorge the Bohtan has to be forded. The river is here 120 yds. wide, but the ford is diagonal, and is 450 yds. long. When practicable it is 3 to 31 ft. deep near the left bank, but gets shallower towards the right. It is only passable at low water. Otherwise a ferry is used, the boat for which is usually kept near Dodoisu (see m. 517). The bank is shelving and easy. The gorge is now entered by a 10 ft. track along the base of the cliff, and a few feet above water-level. 534 Pass Siyah Khān, a rock-cut chamber in the face of the cliff. The path rounds the base of the cliff and is difficult for 1 m. About here route from Diarbekr joins (see Route 102 b, m. 85%). 55 The valley opens out. Path among boulders and stones. 574 | The ascent from valley begins (alt. 1,510 ft.). The river is N 2 196 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret- ibn- 'Omar here 120 yds. wide, and 5 ft. deep, with a rapid current among boulders and shingle. On the l. bank rises a cliff above which is a sloping terrace i m. wide, topped by a wall of rock 300 ft. to 400 ft. high. Oak scrub on the slopes. The ascent is easy at first, then gets steeper, and ends in short paved zigzags with a roadway of 10-12 ft. or narrower at some points. 592 | The top of the steepest part is reached (alt. 2,750 ft.) and an | easy clay track follows, going up a bare dry valley to the N. 601 Aderius, į m. to the l. Road reaches head of ravine and enters Sairt. From Sairt the T.L. to Bitlis strikes N., while the route under description goes NW. along a projected chaussée (1888) to Bitlis, the first 3 m. of which across the open plain were well metalled, and practicable for wheels. The telegraph line towards Diarbekr goes along the chaussée, which has probably been further improved of late years. 652 Descend by a stony track to the Keser Su, 27 ft. deep in September. It rises to 5 or 6 ft. in April or May. Ford the stream. Here a track to Diarbekr by Sinan branches off. 662 Pass Serpir on the r., near a ruined stone bridge. Cross a fertile plain passing Keseri hamlet and Erbin village (on the r.), and then skirting some low hills. Turn NĖ. and follow a valley, in which is a small, brackish stream. The valley leads towards the Bitlis Su, to which there is a steep descent by a fair track. Pass Madar on the r. Pass Seriyan on the r. On the l. bank of the river low ground with cotton cultivation. Ford the Bitlis Su. It is usually passable except in spring. The track follows the r. bank, over sandy soil, and passing a spring. On the l. bank are high hills fairly wooded. Sulha, a small Kurd hamlet. Here the road leaves the river which comes down from a gorge to the NE. Ascend a narrow valley, skirting in places a winding torrent bed (dry in September). Cross into another similar valley, with scattered oak and hawthorn. Gevri Giaour, a village to the r. The road then leads across a hilly amphitheatre by a pass 300 yds. long to ROUTE 85 197 Miles from Jeziret- ibn. 'Omar 80 811 821 837 Ziyaret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni (or simply Ziyāret), a shrine with some houses round it, in a wide basin, affording good camping- and grazing-ground in spring. Here the Diarbekr-Bitlis road comes in from the W. (See Route 103 a, m. 1092.) Road turns in a north-easterly direction, and enters the valley of a large stream flowing from the NW. Kosiar, a Chris- tian village, is visible some 4 m. up the valley on a spur. Cross stream by two old 20-ft. stone arches reported in 1899 to be just passable for guns. The made road at that date here ceased for a short distance. Follow an easy clay track practicable for guns. Enter valley of the Bitlis Su, and follow a road which in 1899 was made but not metalled nor completed : a 12–15-ft. roadway had been cut in the slope. Many small springs cross the road, difficult in wet weather, but drying later. No bridges nor culverts had been made in 1899. Oak scrub. The Bitlis Su now 300 yds. to r. in a deep gorge. On the 1. bank are steep wooded spurs rising to a higher range beyond. Lower wooded hills are visible m. to 1. Cross some craggy ravines from that direction. Valley opens with easier slopes; approach closer to the river, about 150-200 ft. above it. Narrower defile with cliffs on far bank. Valley opens. High wooded spurs to r. Hills on l. become gradually lower. The country is not difficult, but much cut up by ravines, and guns could not move far from the road. Chapiran bridge across the Bitlis Su. The made road continues up the r. bank (see under m. 90): the track used by the authority here followed crosses the river by the bridge. The bridge in 1899 was half-ruined. The main span, a 50-ft. arch, was then in fair repair: the foundations of the arch rest on a rock in mid-stream. Two small arches next the l. bank were much broken, and although it had been repaired the bridge was difficult even for mules. It is better, when possible, to ford the stream 100 yds. lower down. The ford is easy except in flood. | 300 yds. beyond the bridge cross another bridge of one 843 0000 به نام 198 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret. ibn. 'Omar 892 903 40-ft. span over a side stream from wooded hills to the E. High, pointed arch, with approaches much worn away. The stream has little water except in flood and can be forded. Ascend gradually a high, wooded spur from the E. Easy track among stony and shaly hills dotted with oak and juniper. River makes a sharp bend to NW. in an open valley. Cross wooded plateau at the summit of a spur. A series of good springs. In 1899 it was reported that the road hereabouts would require levelling and cutting at several points for the passage of guns. Deep gorge of the Modeki Su emerging from the hills on the other side of the river becomes visible. The made road crosses this river by an old stone bridge just above the junction of the Modeki with the Bitlis. Millo village is near the bridge on the r. bank of the Modeki. Descend gradually by a rough track, crossing a succession of wooded spurs from the SE. River in deep gorge 300 yds. to l. Sycamore and pistachio by the stream. Cross large stream from the E. Nearly dry (end of May). Steep descent and ascent. Gundo, Kurd village, on the further bank of the river. Destumi village on far slope of the Bitlis Su, à m. distant. Cross a broad spur. Easy track. River winds in deep gorge. Mejanis, Kurdish village, on a high spur to the r. Cross to r. bank of Bitlis Su by a good masonry bridge of one 40-ft. span (alt. here 2,225 ft.). Approaches steep and worn in places. Short steep ascent on r. bank, and then easy clay track along plateau between the river and high range to N. Kermata, Kurd village on wooded spur to r. Hasrik, on plateau to l. 11 m. off. Stony but level track. Cross deep ravine from the l. Pass Bajan Qal'ah, a few Kurd houses, with ruined castle on a pinnacle of rock overlooking the river gorge, which makes a sharp loop to N. here. | Marsa among gardens 1 m. to l. 911 93 952 963 98 983 ROUTE 85 199 Miles from Jezíret- ibn- 'Omar 991 100 102 Stony track among scattered wheat fields, surrounded by thick thorn hedges. Derraj on the l. bank. Lower end of the Bitlis pass. Here the river makes a sharp bend to the N. and debouches from between the Kauchub Dāgh on the W. and the Kumur Dāgh on the E., both of them high masses of rock with craggy, wooded slopes. The chaussée has been cut in the loose rock up the steep slope, and continues up the r. bank. After some heavy rock cutting in a spur on the r. bank below Dukhān, it is carried along the steep cliff on the r. bank and to the plateau beyond, and is passable for guns. The present track crosses to l. bank of the Bitlis Su by a 30-ft. stone arch, half ruined in 1899. Steep narrow ascent on 1. bank. Follow a stony track through low oaks and undergrowth. Valley closes in to 200 yds. wide, bordered by steep, craggy slopes with trees and brushwood. Dukhān (alt. 3,515 ft.), large khan in the river valley, now contracted between high, rocky ranges and with steep, wooded slopes. Few supplies. Country sparsely popu. lated. The villages are small and off the road. T.L. (one wire) from Diarbekr to Bitlis follows the pass. Leaving Dukhān the track is stony, but fairly easy. Cross to the r. bank by a wooden bridge of 35-ft. span built where the river narrows in a rocky gorge, and rejoin the chaussée which is 20 ft. wide, and cut in the hill-side. The chaussée winds along the face of a spur. Pass Keufurdur Qal'ah, a small ruined fort near a ruined khan on a knoll to the l. Road then keeps close along the stream. To the 1. are craggy terraces with a few oaks and shrubs. High up on a slope to the E. is Shattakh, a small village 11 m. off. The valley here is about 400 yds. wide at the bottom; the river winds a good deal, and in the loops are small, level places suitable for camps. Pass Qara Qān ruins up a side valley. To the W. is the high range of the Akyab Dāgh, topped by a succession of rugged pinnacles. Trees and undergrowth decrease as Bitlis is neared, owing to their being cut for firewood. 1023 103 105 1064 109 200 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret. ibn. 'Omar 1102 113 Ajem Khān, in ruins. On either side are rocky valleys. The river is a rapid torrent among boulders and stones. The chaussée, keeping generally along the river-bank, improves as Bitlis is approached, and there are good stone culverts (1888). The valley narrows, and rocky spurs approach from the l. The river emerges from a gorge with limestone cliffs, and on the far side is the hamlet of Surib (or Surim). The chaussée ascends by an easy gradient, with a retaining wall on the river side. Towards the summit of the ascent is a ridge of whitish rock, a deposit from a mineral spring higher up the mountain. Through this rock the road passes by a tunnel 20 ft. long, 12 ft. broad, and 12 ft. high, Higher up is an old tunnel, smaller, for the former track, but now disused. This is the Delikli Tāsh, said to have been made in ancient times. The ascent continues for a short distance, the chaussée being well revetted with stone, and the valley then opens out to about a mile wide. Pakhand, a village 1 m. distant on opposite bank on steep rocky slope. Cultivation in terraces and a few orchards. On that side a valley comes in from SE., down which runs the track from Kifra and Olek to Sairt, crossing by an old masonry bridge (Route 86 c). The chaussée, 24 ft. wide, ascends gradually. Cross to the l. bank by a masonry arch of 40-ft. span, keep along the base of a cliff under some stone quarries. Bitlis. Enter the southern end of the town by a gradient of 1 in 25. Road is supported by a masonry retaining wall. Alt. 4,900 ft. 115 117 118 ROUTE 86 a SAIRT-BITLIS (432 m.) Via CHEMI KHAN AND DUKHAN Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 126 (report of 1892). This is a shorter route than by Ziyāret Wā'iz el-Qurāni, but was not passable for guns in 1892. It was reported in that year that it might be improvised into a good road by clearance of stones and ROUTES 85, 86 a 201 improvement of gradients, but that this would take some time. The Ziyāret route is always easier. There are few villages along the road, and the district is not well populated. Supplies scarce ; water and firewood plentiful. Miles from Sairt 41 91 111 Sairt. Path crosses the open plateau to the N. Path reaches the edge of the plateau and commences the long descent to the Keser Su. Two miles to the l. is a small village, Fiskin, with some vineyards. The path de- scends a clay hill-side cut up by small ravines, and a track branches off towards the Argif Köprü. The Keser Su is reached in an open valley among wooded hills. The river flows by a narrow winding gorge through a steep clay ridge, below which is Argif Köprü. The path crosses a large stream flowing into the Keser Su from the SE., ascends the clay ridge by a steep zigzag track. Summit of ridge (3,150 ft.). Descending by zigzag track. Reach the Keser valley again and cross another stream also from the SE. Ford the Keser Su to the r. bank. The river was 80 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep in September, 1888. It flows over shingle with shelving banks. The village of Kifra (see Route 86c, m. 12) is visible 4 m. off to the ESE. Two miles up-stream the river emerges from a narrow rift in the hills, rounding the S. end of a ridge of bare rock. Chemi Khān, a small village usually deserted in summer. Route begins a long ascent by a mule track up a rough clay slope cut up by ravines, and sparsely wooded. The ravines are mostly dry at the end of September. A good spring is passed, with fine oaks round it. The Kurd village of Sirs lies in a valley to the l. On the other side of the valley are Mudus and other villages with terraces and orchards (see Route 86 b, m. 17). The E. side of a wide basin among wooded hills is now followed, and a col reached, whence a stony path leads along the hill-side to the N. 11 m. to the W. is a wooded ridge, and the country is now thickly wooded with low oaks. The path winds round basin with ravines draining SE. to the Keser, which emerges through an enormous rocky gorge. On the E. is the Siser Dāgh, with well-wooded lower slopes and bare sheets of rock 124 17 192 202 LAND ROUTES Miles from Sairt 223 above. The district on the S. slope is Skambo, which contains several Kurd villages. NW. of the gorge is Kumar Dāgh, between the Bitlis Su and the Keser Su, with a rocky summit. TO SE. the country is thickly wooded. Liart, or Lairt, village 11 m. SE. in the Keser valley, and Qara Vār, 14 m. up the hill to the l. The villages are small, and though the valleys are fertile the district is under-populated (1888). Only most difficult mule-tracks lead N. through the gorge of the Keser. Reach a narrow col on the watershed between the Bitlis and Keser. The path zigzags steeply towards the Bitlis valley along a stony hill-side, in a forest of oak, juniper, ash, and hawthorn. The Bitlis Su makes a sharp bend and the valley contracts with lofty rugged ranges on either hand, and the descent by a stony path on a wooded hill-side becomes more gradual. Dukhān. Here the path joins the main road up the pass to Bitlis. (See Route 85, m. 102–118.) Bitlis. 271 431 ROUTE 86 b SAIRT-BITLIS (45 m. ?) Via THE ARGIF KÖPRÜ Authority :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 126 A (report of 1901). This route, which is a mule-track, goes slightly more to the W. than Route 86 a. It crosses the Keser by a bridge, and is thus useful when the river is high in spring. Miles from Sairt 3 Sairt. Follow Route 86 a for 3 m. Skirt along a flat-topped hill to the W. Pass Halenzi, a few houses on the slope to the l. Then comes an easy, though stony, track and a steep descent to ROUTES 86 a, b 203 Miles from Sairt 87 The Keser valley. The Argif bridge, a masonry structure of 4 arches, over the Keser Su. One in the centre of 50 ft., one of 40 ft., one of 30 ft., one of 15 ft. The bridge is 85 yds. long with an 18-ft. roadway. Cross the bridge. An easy mule-track leads NW. through Dodan to Ziyāret Wā'iz el- Qur'āni, crossing the Bitlis Su by a ford. A short distance up-stream the river flows through a gorge (see Route 86 a, m. 73). The route ascends the r. bank for a short way, passes the Degalan salt-pans, and enters a side valley to the N. Ascend steeply a spur from the N. Bazliss in the valley below. A broad col. Here a track leads NW. to Menar, 3 m. off, a Kurd village of 100 houses, and centre of the Zirkhi Nahiye. A rough track goes on from Menar by Gigan and Derun to Verkhunis. The route skirts the head of a deep valley going E. to the Keser, keeping close to the limestone ridges on the 1. Pass a good spring, and Beitarun in a valley to the r. The Sirokhli, Haveidan, and Dunbeli nomad Kurds usually spend the winter about here. Mudus, Kurd village, with extensive orchards and two good springs. Two steep, narrow ravines are crossed, with sparsely wooded slopes, over a broad col. Route then descends steeply into a narrow valley and reaches Verkhunis (so authority of 1888, but it seems possible that the track does not run through Verkhunis village. Verkhunis stream may perhaps be meant). Wind up a narrow stream-bed, and turn N. over a steep spur, leaving Shemailan, or Shemialah, a half-ruined village in a ravine to the l. Route descends a deep valley, reaches a col on the far side, and joins Route 86 a between m. 221 and 25. Rough tracks also join from Verkhunis, but none of this craggy limestone country is fit for wheels. Bitlis. 141 25 45 ? 204 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 86 c Sairt 0 SAIRT-BITLIS (42 m.) Via KIFRA AND OLEK Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 127 (report of 1880). This is an extremely difficult track even for pack-animals, and the upper part of the valley of the Keser Su offers no facilities for military communication. Miles from Sairt. Road crosses a low ridge, and descends a dry water- course. Pass Halenzor to the E., where a fair track goes to Van via Shirwan (Route 87 a). Moslem shrine and hamlet. Track keeps along the slopes above a small, cultivated valley. The Gaviteh Dāgh is crossed, and a steep descent follows. 71 1 At the foot of the descent a track joins from the Chemi Khān route (Route 86 a) 2 m. to the W., avoiding the Gaviteh Dāgh. A series of ridges is crossed and some pools and salt-pans are passed. Ascend a gully, and reach Kifra or Shirwan Qal'ah (alt. 2,750 ft.), a Kurd village of 40 houses and the seat of the Kaimmakan of the Kaza of Shirwan Qaʻlah. Path ascends NE. skirting limestone cliffs, and crossing a ridge. Then turning more to NNE. it crosses into a valley of a tributary of the Keser. Sitz, small village, to E. A steep ascent by a gully then leads to a break in a rocky ridge. Summit of ridge. Descend by an extremely rugged track, fairly broad at first, getting steeper as the stream is approached. The hill-sides are well wooded. Khasköi, in a depression about 2 m. wide, draining towards the Keser from the Gerzevil valley higher up. A spur is crossed and there is a steep descent to another tributary of the Keser from Yerun. Thence an ascent leads past Oghraq. Track traverses a country of difficult ridges and deep valleys. ROUTES 86 c, 87 a 205 Miles from Sairt 22 282 Summit of a ridge. Very steep descent into the narrow gorge of the Keser Su. Keser Su The path goes up its valley and crosses to the r. bank by a stone bridge. The river is usually fordable. Ascend to the NW. by a side valley. Olek Ashāghi, Olek Yuqāri. Hereabouts there are 4 small villages in a valley to the r. This ascent is most difficult, being only a steep goat-track up a rocky pointed ridge. There is an equally steep and difficult descent through woods on the far side into the valley of the Bitlis Su. Pakhand, in an open cultivated basin draining north (see Route 85, m. 115). Cross the river by an old stone bridge and reach the Bitlis chaussée (Route 85). Bitlis, ROUTE 87 a SAIRT-VAN (102 m.) Via THE SHIRWAN DISTRICT, MUKUS, AND PENDAGANZ Authorities : -See p. 459. Main authority: Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 128 B (report of 1899). General direction, NE. This is a fair mule-track, and is in constant use in summer because, although a more difficult route than the main caravan road via Bitlis and Tadyan (Routes 85, from m. 62, and 89 a), it is 42 m. shorter. The track follows a stream and crosses an outlier S. of the Gören Dagh, goes through the Shirwan district into the valley of the Ghindig Su, which it ascends for a short distance. Then, crossing the river, it traverses the high land of the Mazara Dāgh and Nuh-i-Girān Dāgh between the Ghindig Su and the Bohtan Su into the Mukus Su valley, a distance of 45 m, through a country which produces little in grain, but in which water, fuel, and grass is fairly plentiful. For the next 10 m. it passes up the Mukus valley through a fertile, well-wooded country to Mukus, beyond which it crosses into the Lake Van basin by the Agherov Gedik, a bleak difficult pass of alt. 10,275 ft., and joins the easy road from Bitlis to 206 LAND ROUTES Van near the shore of the lake after a stretch of 23 m., which is sufficiently difficult to cause most of the produce of the Mukus valley to find its outlet at Sairt rather than at Van. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. Miles from Sairt 0 Sairt (alt. 2,820 ft.). Leaving the plain the route passes, by a broad easy track, through low, stony hills, ascends a shallow valley by a good mule-track through vineyards, passes through undulating country round the heads of some dry ravines, and ascends a shallow ravine. Pass Halenzor (alt. 3,880 ft.), 70 Mohammedan houses, on l., situated on a small cultivated plateau, with a supply of fairly good water obtained from wells. An easy mule- track leads over an undulating plateau, round the heads of several ravines, dry in July, which drain N. to the Keser Su, and passes on r. a white-domed tomb. Pass Pirsov, small Kurdish village à m. to r. Route now follows the upper S. slopes of the Darya Tullahi Dāgh, the watershed between the Bohtan Su and the Keser Su. Sharp summit of a ridge (alt. 4,730 ft.). Stony, but easy mule-track among brushwood, passing above Poli, 25 houses, 14 m. to r. Route now winds along a gravelly ridge past a few stunted oaks and bushes, and ravines most of which are dry in July. It then crosses to the N. slopes of the watershed, crosses a stream, the headwaters of the Qurmas Su, recrosses the watershed, and enters • a well-cultivated plain. Qurmas (Shirwan ; alt. 3,665 ft.), 60 Kurdish and Arme- nian houses. The road then ascends to the S. slopes of the Shirwan or Gören Dāgh by a steep and stony but easy path, passing in July plenty of drinking water from springs and streams all the way to Mukus. Gerchilan, small Kurdish village. Track, which is here very stony but level along the slope of the Shirwan Dāgh, skirts the headwaters of numerous steep ravines, keeping 11 m. below the cliffs on the sum- mit of the ridge, and passes through a cultivated basin. Pass Bai, small Kurdish village i m. to l. Route crosses a stony col, a valley, and another col, the track being easy but stony, through oak scrub. It then traverses a cultivated valley in which is a good spring by the roadside. 12 13 141 ROUTE 87 a 207 Miles from Sairt 153 17 194 221 Cross a stony col (alt. 4,875 ft.), and descends rather steeply into another valley. After crossing another ridge into a larger valley route ascends steeply. Broad col (alt. 4,605 ft.). Descent over very stony slopes, passing i m. farther on the village of Salangir, in a well-cultivated basin with some oak trees. Route then ascends by a stony zigzag. Col, whence a gradual descent over stony outliers leads across a ridge (alt. 4,785 ft.) to an easy track along the hillside. Proceed across an open basin, and then by a gradual descent to a rough ravine which is followed past the Roman Catholic Armenian village of Garni å m. to l. The descent becomes steeper as it follows a stony spur on r. of the ravine, and becoming still steeper descends by a clay track to roughly cultivated land. Khanduq (alt. 2,270 ft.), 30 Kurdish houses, situated on a plateau, whence route follows a very steep zigzag in shale to the Garni stream, which is crossed. The route then ascends less steeply, through terraced cultivation, to Zewa, a small Kurdish village, from which it descends gradually by an easy track above the Ghindig Su to a large tributary coming from the Yerun district on the N. slopes of the Gören Dāgh. Cross the stream by a 35-ft. stone bridge, and cross a spur by a steep narrow shale ledge in order to avoid a cliff. The Ghindig Su, which emerges at this point from a narrow gorge. A cantilever bridge of 50-ft. span takes the track to the 1. bank. Follow a narrow ledge to the Raman Dereh, a small tributary from E. Cross this stream and ascend its valley by a very steep, stony path, passing Raman, 10 Kurd houses, on the l. bank, about 14 m. from the Ghindig bridge; the ascent becomes more gradual as it crosses a well-cultivated plateau, then be. comes steep as it leads to a higher plateau, and to Evzindan (alt. 4,540 ft.), 30 Kurdish houses. The whole of this district is very fertile, and is cultivated for vines, Indian corn, and millet; small oaks grow on the hill- sides. Beyond the village the track ascends the stony W. hill-side of Nuh-i-Girān Dāgh by steep zigzags. From the head of the ascent it follows a narrow ledge in a steep shale 24 241 271 208 LAND ROUTES Miles from Sairt spur for about 35 mins. Then, near a large spring, it! becomes easier for a short distance, after which it ascends very steeply by zigzags in clay for about 20 mins. It next follows a spur (7,615 ft.) by an easier ascent, which continues past Kirnik (in a deep valley to NW.) to the 321 | Giāh-i-Histiri Gedik (alt. 8,810 ft.). The track now passes out of the valley of the Ghindig Su, and for the next 12 m. traverses the ridge forming the watershed between that stream and the Bohtan Su, passing through almost uninhabited, fairly wooded country, mostly used for summer grazing-grounds, in which water is rather scarce. After leaving the pass the road winds along the hill-side. 35 Spring, from which an easy alternative track, stony in places, passes round N. side of the watershed. The route followed, an easy track, stony in places, descends some- what steeply as it rounds the headwaters of various tributaries of the Bohtan Su. 371 Alternative track, mentioned above, rejoins. 381 Desht-i-Harnik (alt. 6,235 ft.), basin in which a lake is formed in the spring, as happens in several other similar basins along the route. A stony ridge is crossed, and the N. edge of the plain is followed, past bare hills. Round a rocky spur and enter the 391 Desht-i-Ovi basin (alt. 6,085 ft.), which drains to the Ghindig Su, where the 'Ali Qanli Kurds have a yāilā. Here a good mule-track, coming S. from Qara Su and Khisan (Route 87 b, at m. 41 and m. 36) through the Mazara district, crosses the route and goes to the Bohtan Su, apparently reaching the river at the Gip Köprü W. of Khoskheir. The route then follows an easy track, nearly level, along the summit of the watershed between the Ghindig and Bohtan rivers. Keep along the S. slope through brush- wood, passing Arinjik and Yuqāri Eureh 1 m. down to l. 412 Round the heads of several deep valleys draining to S. to the well-cultivated Nemran district, where villages are mostly Armenian. Then regain the summit of the watershed, and follow an easy track. Route 88 (m. 92), going to Bitlis from Mukus, diverges to l. Large spring (alt. 8,530 ft.), near which is a camping- ground of ‘Ali Qanli Kurds, Descend gradually, fol. ROUTE 87 a 209 Miles from Sairt 497 51 54 lowing a ridge into the valley of the Mukus Su, S. of the Delan Dereh, passing through gavvan, useful for fuel. Round first a conical hill to the S., and then the head of the Termanagh valley, which goes to SE. Route becomes steeper along a spur. Round the head of the valley of Manguna. Route becomes still steeper as it follows the spur, now 'broad and of clay, and descends a zigzag track in shaly clay soil. Enter the stream-level of the well-cultivated valley of the Mukus Su. Cross the Delan Dereh, a tributary stream coming from 1. Cross the Mukus Su to l. bank by the Qirmiz Köprü, a 50-ft. arch of burnt brick. Ascend by a stony track through terraced cultivation. Aghin, 40 Armenian houses, the residence in 1899 of Mer- tulla Bey, an important local Kurd. Road then follows a cultivated terrace, and crosses a stone bridge of one 40-ft. and one 25-ft. arch over the Arinj Dereh, a stream 40 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep flowing from the Arnost Dāgh on E. Thence follow a stony but easy mule-track along the river bank. Mukus (alt. 5,330 ft.), 150 houses, the seat of a Kaimma- kam under Van. For the road to Bitlis see Route 88. There are two stone bridges across the Mukus stream. Crossing one of these bridges an easy mule-track leads up the r. bank, and follows the valley which has become narrow, possibly keeping to r. bank, although this is uncertain, the notes of the only authority on this route not being clear. Mouth of the Sichan Dereh coming from E., dry in July. Route follows a broad ledge by an easy track as the river winds in a deep, narrow gorge, and passes a small culti- vated basin on r. | Bāsh Bulāq, a remarkable spring, the principal source of the river. The track continues to be easy as it ascends the valley, and meets a large stream coming from the Av.i.Berkhān Dāgh on W.: it follows the main stream NNE. to a place where the valley bifurcates N. and NE. Khoros Kilisseh, Armenian monastery just above bifurca- tion of valley (alt. 6,645 ft.). Ascent of the Agherov Dāgh begins by a very steep zigzag, which becomes less steep as it follows a ridge of stony clay. 55 56 58] MES. IV 210 LAND ROUTES Miles from Sairt 62 Agherov Gedik (alt. 10,275 ft.), the narrow divide of the Lake Van watershed. A descent leads to a small basin. The winter track, which is marked by upright stones and passes where the snow- drifts are less deep, lies about 1 m. to E. From the basin the track follows a very steep, stony descent down a valley, passes a good spring, becomes easier, and, on reaching the foot of the steeper part of the descent, turns sharply to E., and follows the l. bank of a small stream by an easy gradient. Zeliganz, small village where there is an old Kurdish castle. Junction of a valley from the S., at which lies Arpit. Route continues by an easy, stony track. Poghonis (alt. 6,195 ft.). Cross to r. bank. Pass Pakvanz, 35 Armenian houses, on l. bank. Valley becomes well cultivated. Hennas, 30 houses. Route trends to NE. as it ascends a steep clay spur descending NNE. towards the lake. Summit of spur (alt. 6,520 ft.). Descend steeply into a valley parallel to that which has just been left. Anar, Kurdish village of 25 housesCross the stream in the valley. Pass on r. Tershukh, 30 Kurdish and Armenian houses, lying in a well-cultivated district. Cross a broad spur, and descend diagonally through Pendaganz, 40 Armenian houses. Join Route 89 a at m. 63 and follow it to | Van. ROUTE 87 b SAIRT-VAN (1062 m.) Via QARA SU AND PELO Authorities :-See p. 459. Main authorities : Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 128 (report of 1881). This is a longer and more difficult route than that by Mukus (Route 87 a). The first part of the route through Yerun is specially difficult, and the route is little used. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. ROUTES 87 a, b 211 Miles from Sairt 12 Sairt. The route follows that to Van (Route 87 a) to near Shirwan or Qurmas, where it descends into the Qurmas plain, and keeping W. of the village and heading NE., goes down to Ma'den, a poor Nestorian village, near which are former gold workings. Route then crosses a rough watershed, with streams going to the Ghindig Su and Keser Su on either hand. It descends the deep valley of one of these streams, in the Yerun district, and reaches the gorge of the Ghindig Su, keeping the steep, rocky slopes of the Beibo Dāgh to the NW. Ent, small village. A rough hill track follows round the eastern end of the Beibo Dāgh overlooking the Ghindig gorge far below to the r. Follow a steep descent. Cross the Kamatān Dereh, a tributary of the Ghindig, running in a rocky valley. Pass the deep, narrow valley of Yerun close to its junction with the Ghindig. Pass Yerun, a Kurdish and Armenian village some distance above, whence rough tracks lead direct to Bitlis. Ascending from the valley the track is narrow and goes high above the river gorge. Cross a low wooded ridge. Enter the Khisan plain near the village of the same name, situated among the ruins of an earlier Moslem city. A little farther up the plain is Ghaida Tekkeh (alt. 4,030 ft.), an important Kurdish place of pilgrimage, where travellers are expected to dismount į m. off. A Sheikh who fought in the last Russian war is buried here, and the place is a Kurdish political centre. The soil and climate are good, and rice, wheat, rye, and vines and other fruits are cultivated. There are several villages. Ascend some low, wooded hills by an easy track and descend to Qara Su (alt. 4,610 ft.), lying in a valley, 50 Kurdish and Armenian houses. Qara Su is the head-quarters of the Kaza of Khisan, and the Kaimmakam resides here. The country is well-wooded and fertile and has many villages of Kurds and Armenians. Vines in particular do well, and there is a large production of raisins. Wheat and other crops give good returns, but there is little surplus produce, and supplies could not be counted on. Firewood, low oak, and scrub, is plentiful. 02 212 LAND ROUTES Miles from Sairt A mountain track, only possible in summer, runs up the Durin-Mervan valley and over the Av-i-Berkhān to the Agherov Gedik, where it joins the road from Mukus to Van (see Route 87 a, m. 62). Several hill routes radiate from Qara Su, and communication with Bitlis and Mukus is easy. Route 88, Mukus-Bitlis, at m. 26, is crossed here. (An easier but longer route to Qara Su might be found by following the Sairt-Mukus road, Route 87 a, across the Ghindig and as far as the Desht-i-Ovi, at m. 39, whence a comparatively easy route leads by the Mazara valley, across the Ghindig Su, and by Khisan (see m. 36 above) to Qara Su. This would avoid the difficult country between Ma'den and Khisan, but would be about 53 m., though not much longer in time than the route de- scribed.) On leaving Qara Su the road descends a valley at first broad and cultivated, then narrowing, with low clay hills covered with oak scrub on either hand. There are a few vineyards. A small stream is crossed by a stone bridge, and a ridge of reddish clay hills (alt. 4,840 ft.) ascended. A good mule-track leads through oak scrub with the deep valley of the Qara Su below to the l. The mouth of a large tributary valley on the far bank is passed. A track leads up to Dadig and so on to Bitlis. Khoros, 250 Kurd houses, lies about 2 m. up this valley, with Chukh near it in a side valley. On the slopes near are vineyards. Follow a very steep descent towards the Qara Su in a narrow gorge, with a view of the Ghindig in another gorge to r. Cross the Qara Su (alt. 3,850 ft.) by a bridge of logs and fascines, 6-ft. roadway and 40-ft. span. This is the usual type of bridge in this part of the country, and is suitable for mule traffic, but not for carts. The path goes steeply up a stony clay slope, sparsely wooded, and skirts the Ghindig Su in a deep gorge bordered by precipitous mountains, then crosses a narrow spur, and descends to the river by steep zigzags. Ghitsan Dereh, a long defile in which a stony, rough track follows the Ghindig. | A stream is crossed from a gorge to l., 2 m. up which is 44 45 46 ROUTE 87 b 213 Miles from Sairt 48 501 a large Kurdish village, and beyond to the NW. the stony slopes of the Kulat Dāgh. To r. is Asgor Dereh, a short, steep valley among high spurs of the Āv-i-Berkhān range, the summer pasture of the ‘Ali Qanli and Duderi Kurds. N. of the Asgor Dereh is the rocky, conical peak of Sinagir Dāgh. The path passes under the steep wooded crags of Kulat : Dāgh. Chummin (alt. 4,130 ft.), a few houses on the far bank. Stony track along the river crosses a small stream from a narrow gorge on l., and enters a deep loop to the SW., winding round a rocky spur, the summit crowned by a remarkable rock, the Sinban Tash. On the far bank a narrow, wooded valley joins, with the village of Köt about half-way up it. The track is easy over a clay slope with good walnut trees. To E. is the prominent peak of Sinagir Dāgh. Chemkani Tekkeh, a celebrated shrine, with a few houses round the main building. There is a rough wooden bridge across the river, whence a track ascends the mountain valley of Akhtis (Armenian Yeghigis), from which steep paths lead over the Agherov Dāgh and down to Lake Van. On a crag to r. are ruins of a celebrated Kurd stronghold, and Sinban and two other villages lie in a cultivated basin high up the slopes to E. The stream is crossed to l. bank by a frail bridge of logs and fascines, 40-ft. span. At the end of the loop (see m. 48 above) a good track by the river is followed. There are fine walnut and fruit- trees here and some cultivation. The track has been im- proved for transport of firewood to the lake, and on to Van. Pass Kitikhān, a few houses on the far bank. The road goes through Ajan, a Kurd hamlet, and passes Ala Khān, a larger hamlet, off the opposite bank, at the foot of a steep slope amid cultivation, The track is now good along a cultivated slope. Cross to r. bank by a bridge of logs and fascines on a stone pier with one span of 40 ft. and one of 30 ft. To the l. amid vineyards Semeri, the residence of a Kurdish chief, is passed. 52 53 214 LAND ROUTES Miles from Sairt 54 55 57 Saris (alt. 4,550 ft.), prettily situated among trees and orchards. Saris is the principal centre of the Ghitsan Dereh, which is celebrated for its fruit, fresh and dried. There is a good clay track among terraces with stone walls. Cross the Uranz Dereh, a large stream from the NW., draining the country S. of Kindranz and Karchikan. Pass Uranz. A track to Karchikan leads up the narrow valley by the r. bank of the stream. On the S. bank is the Dalist Dāgh, a high, stony range, and 1 m. up the valley on the r. bank is Zangirs village. A frail footbridge crosses the main stream; there are patches of cultivation, and trees of walnut, oak, and ash in the valley. Steep crags then close in and the track is stony, but in 1881 had been improved in the worst places, and was a fair mule road. A rough track continues up the r. bank, but it is better when possible to cross to the 1. bank by a bad ford among boulders, just below a broken stone bridge, near Khanjars, Armenian village of 30 houses, at the mouth of the Andavin Dereh, a valley 2 m. long to ESE. The mouth of the Hirnik stream running down a large valley from the NW. is passed, with a small village, Injesor, on its 1. bank a mile up. The road in 1881 had been improved by cutting the rocky slope at the worst points, and was then a good mule-track. Chavrakh, Armenian hamlet, with cultivation on the far bank, with a frail wooden bridge crossing to it. On the near bank another part of the same village is passed, clustered round the house of a local Kurdish chief of some influence of the 'Ali Qanli tribe. A stony track follows; the valley widens and rounded clay hills come into view to the N.: there is also a large stream from the N. from Naniganz. Tracks lead up to this place and to others on the shore of Lake Van. Engatzar (alt. 5,480 ft.), 33 Kurd and Armenian houses, on the r. bank at the junction. Road turns E. up another valley, the Alan Dereh, after crossing its stream by a stone bridge. There is a little cultivation. On the r. are steep, rocky slopes well wooded, on the l. bare clay slopes. A number of villages are passed, one to the l., Kotek, then two to the r., the first, ROUTES 87 b, 88 215 Miles from Sairt 62 64 Danas, on a steep slope, the other, Ozkin, is a cultivated basin with fruit-trees, then one in a cultivated basin on the l., Vartinitz, and another, Pelul, at the mouth of a craggy valley to the r. The valley then narrows to 100 yds., the path following a narrow ledge in a clay slope. It passes a valley to the r., up which is a Kurd hamlet, Zurul. Turn N, up a broad valley bordered by rounded clay hills, while the Alan Dereh goes on ENE. Gradual ascent. Pelo (alt. 6,320 ft.), a village of 60 houses of Armenians with many more in ruins, in the centre of a cultivated basin. From here an easy mule-track runs E., over a rounded spur to Takh manis, joining the Van road there, and a large spring is passed, the main source of this arm of the Ghindig Su. A sharp ascent leads to the head of the valley. Alt. 6,320 ft. Join the Bitlis-Van road (Route 89 a, m. 47*). Van. 66 1062 ROUTE 88 MUKUS-BITLIS (511 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Route 128 a (report of 1899). General direction, NW. This route follows the Mukus Su, crosses the Dolan Dereh, ascends the S. slopes of the latter stream to the watershed between the Bohtan Su and the Ghindig Su. It then descends a tributary of the Ghindig Su, crosses the Desht-i-Garin ridge, 8,140 ft., into the valley of the Ghindig, which it crosses, goes through Qara Su, and passes over the Banor Gedik, 6,180 ft., into the watershed of the Güzel Dereh : it crosses the valley of this stream and traverses the Gholtiki Dāgh into the valley of the Bitlis Su. It is a good mule road, and passes through a fairly populous country, where fuel and water can be obtained in sufficient quantities for small parties. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. 216 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mukus! 0 113 121 131 1 141 Mukus. For 92 m. follow Route 87 a, m. 54-441. Route descends steeply to the Shirnis stream, leaving a monastery high up on r., and passing down the valley. Route runs just above Shirnis, 20 Armenian houses, whence it descends by a stony clay track in a bare hill-side. Trahus, 25 Armenian houses. Cross a torrent coming from E., and continue to descend the stream, following a narrow, difficult track among the boulders. Ascend steeply to Taghik, 40 Kurdish houses, on a spur. Descend steeply by zigzags to the well-wooded valley of the Ispairt or Spargird, and cross its stream by a ford just above its junction with the Shirnis stream, a place which would be difficult to cross during the spring floods. Route then passes Bedran, 6 Armenian houses, and follows an easy track along the r. bank of the stream. Eureh (alt. 5,800 ft.), lying 200 ft. above the stream, the residence of a Mudir who is a local Kurdish Bey. Lower down the valley is the Mazara district, in which, as in the upper part of the valley, much fruit is produced. The route now ascends steeply, and passes through Yuqāri Taghik, 25 Kurdish houses, on a broad cultivated terrace, whence it winds up a steep but easy track over stony clay, through gavvan bushes, and ascends to NW. Summit of a spur (alt. 8,140 ft.) coming from the Desht-i- Gerin ridge, an outlier of Āv-i-Berkhān Dāgh to NE. Route follows the ridge by an easy track, passing deep valleys on both sides, rounds the head of a deep valley draining to the Ispairt stream, and continues along the ridge by an easy track. Turn to N. down a ravine. Cross a spur. Lī (alt. 5,700 ft.), 5 Armenian houses, descends steeply a broad clay spur. Ghindig, Kurdish village of 15 houses, situated in a small, cultivated basin. Passing through terraced cultivation route descends by a track which becomes very steep. Ghindig bridge (alt. 3,700 ft.), across the Ghindig Su, a cantilever bridge of wood on stone piers, one span of 48 ft. and one of 18 ft., with an 8.ft. roadway. From the bridge an alternative track goes round by the Khisan valley via Ghaida Tekkeh and the Khisan plain 171 181 191 21. 211 ROUTE 88 217 Miles from Mukus 26 292 30 to Qara Su (m. 26, below), an easier but longer route than that followed. This latter, turning to l. over a ledge in shale, rises very steeply by zigzags over a wooded slope of shaly clay, and reaches the end of a ridge running NW. This it ascends, rounding the head of the Ardolj valley on r., as it runs SE. to the Ghindig Su. Pans, small Armenian village, 1 m. to 1. After con- tinuing along the top of the ridge through high brush- wood for about 10 mins., route leaves the ridge by a spur descending to N., following a well-defined track, and passing through low hills covered with stunted oaks and brushwood. Ford the Qara Su, shallow in May, and meet the alternative route from m. 213, above. Qara Su (alt. 4,610 ft.). For routes from this place, see Route 87 b, m. 41. Leaving the village the route ascends the r. or N. side of a well-cultivated valley, passing through Piranis, 20 Armenian houses. Duranis, 20 Armenian houses. Two large springs close to r. Ascend rather steeply by a stony ravine to W., pass a track leading SSE, to the ruined city of Khisan, and then ascend easily through stony hills. Banor Gedik (alt. 6,180 ft.), broad summit, whence an easy, stony descent leads to a steep clay ridge, which is descended to a large tributary of the Güzel Dereh. The stream is crossed to l. bank, and the route continues by an easy track. Gelhokh, 40 Armenian houses. Cross the stream again, continue down the r. bank along the well-cultivated valley, and across the Dadig plain, pass several villages, and, rounding the NE, slopes of the Of Dāgh, trend to NW. Leave the plain by a short narrow gorge (alt. 5,300 ft.). Beyond the gorge route passes a stone bridge leading to some villages on 1. bank, passes a ziyaret, and follows the valley, which has again opened out, by an easy track through willow and ash trees. Cross the Güzel Dereh by a bridge with a 50-ft. masonry arch. A track goes up the r. bank of the river to Sakh. (See Route 89 b, m. 133.) 327 341 37 391 218 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mukus Following the r. bank of the stream, pass Sasunan, à m. to r., and on the far bank Vanik, 60 houses, situated at the mouth of a large tributary coming from the wooded Of Dāgh to SE. 403 Sinek, a small village situated on both banks of the stream. Route leaves the Güzel Dereh at a point whence another track leads down the opposite or 1. bank to Shirwan and Sairt. Ascend by a rough, stony track, which becomes easier as it follows a small stream through brushwood and trees. Bablak Gedik. From the summit an easy track leads down a broad ridge to the Nahiyeh district, and passes through Hirnis, 40 Kurdish houses on the banks of a stream. It then crosses a low ridge coming from N., and enters the village of Gholtig (alt. 5,400 ft.), a thriving Armenian village of 300 houses, lying in a wide culti- vated and wooded basin which drains SE. into the Güzel Dereh. From the village an alternative track, easier but somewhat longer than that followed, leads to Bitlis, 6 m. distant, going W. and then NW. as it passes S. of the Gholtiki Dāgh. The main route follows a very steep ascent by a clay track, which becomes easier farther up. 464 Pass in the high, rugged Gholtiki Dāgh. Track descends to the 482 Gholtiki Maidān, a basin à m. in diameter, filled by a lake in spring. Steep, stony track down a ridge to 511 | Bitlis. ROUTE 89 a BITLIS–VAN (88 m.) Via' S. SHORE OF LAKE VAN Authorities : -See p. 459. Main authorities : Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 95 (reports of 1899 and 1890), and Reports of 1900-1905. General direction, E. From remote times this route has been followed by caravans journeying from the Tigris valley to Lakes Van and Urmia. It is on the whole easy for pack-animals, though the going is rough in parts. Supplies, fuel, and water are plentiful ROUTES 88, 89 a 219 the whole way. In 1905 it was not practicable for wheeled traffic, although in 1900 some stretches of it had been metalled, and parts had been regraded : it is possible that this work has been completed over the whole length, but since the labour required was considerable this is not probable. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. Miles from 1 Bitlis Bitlis. Leaving the market on the r. bank of the stream a wide road leads to a fairly easy ascent į m. distant, whence a 30-ft. metalled road leads along a plateau. The road then crosses first a ravine from l. by a 20-ft. stone bridge, and later, by a 30-ft. stone bridge, a stream from Popshin on I., 30 Armenian houses. Beyond this second bridge it follows the Bitlis stream, here running in an impassable gorge 50 ft. wide which bends to E., and skirts a stony spur from E.; at this point the road was not metalled in 1900, but the track is stony and good for wheeled traffic. The valley opens out to a width of 500 yds. of level, stony ground, the gorge gets shallower and less steep, and the Poar stream is passed over. A track on r. leads by a stone bridge to the alternative route to Shamunis. A stream from l. is crossed. The valley opens out to the Rahwa plateau at its head, the Bash Khān, built of stone and 30 yds. square, being passed. The T.L. to Mush branches off to l., while that to Van goes r., following the routes to these places respectively. Route now crosses in a NE. direction the open, uncultivated, and almost waterless plateau, which is covered with deep snow until the middle of April :: it can otherwise be traversed easily in any direction. Route crosses the Bitlis stream, 10 ft. wide in a shallow depression, Aliman Khān, built of stone and 70 yds. square, whence a branch, a mule-track, goes E. over a deep spur via Ortap, 71 m., to the main road at m. 18. Continue over the plateau and gradually descend to Tadvan, 50 houses, mostly Armenian, on the shore of Lake Van, where there is a bay with a landing-place. From here two roads go N. to Akhlāt, and the Van road goes due S. along the shore of the lake by an easy, open track. 220 LAND ROUTES Miles from Bitlis 18 261 Tukh, Armenian village, 14 m. to r. up a valley, across whose stream there was a dilapidated stone bridge in 1890, and a ford 2 ft. deep in September, with a muddy bottom. A somewhat steep ascent leads to an open basin, surrounded by low hills covered with brushwood. Khān Elmali, 1 m. from the shore. Route then rounds a promontory, 150 ft. above the shore, and enters another basin through which a strong stream flows. Pasha Elmali, 30 houses. Follow a rocky, rough track by the shore (alt. 5,360 ft.), 30 ft. above the water ; leave the lake by a short, steep ascent ; descend gradually over a stony plain. Then cross some low hills to l., and after passing a stream descend by a broad, easy track through an open basin 1 m. wide. Shamunis (alt. 5,460 ft.), 50 Kurd houses with good water and plentiful supplies, lying N. of the Sakh Dāgh, on which are some low oaks, a few junipers, and brush wood. Route 89 b (m. 251) from Bitlis joins here. Beyond this the route turns E. along a shingly beach, leaves the basin and rounds a promontory. It then follows a stony hill-side, crosses first a shingly beach è m. long, then a stream, and passes an open basin m. wide. | Gharzit, 20 Armenian and 10 Kurdish houses. Keep near the water-level by a stony track, and follow the shore, N. of a steep slope covered with brushwood. Here pass, 1 m. to l., the large Armenian village of Surp, situated on the W. shore of a large promontory, whence fuel is shipped to Van. From this point a very steep ascent of į m. leads SE. away from the lake, passing through stones and bushes by zigzags. Summit.. Route passes through low, rocky hills, and then follows a stream by an easy descending track. Pass Wanik, 60 houses, i m. to r., shut in by steep hills covered with brushwood and stunted trees. Going E. route enters a valley m. wide, opening into a wide well- wooded valley from S. Kindranz, 30 Armenian houses. 1 m. to r. (S.) is the resi- dence of the Kaimmakam of Karchikan Kaza, and a good halting-place for a large body of men, with plenty of fuel, supplies, and drinking water. From the valley a level track leads across the well-cultivated and well-watered Göllü plain, 3-4 m. wide, which is flooded for a considerable 302 351 ROUTE 89 a 221 Miles from Bitlis 391 40 433 45 period every spring, and is separated from the lake by a low, rocky ridge through which a tunnel, some 5 ft. high, leads the drainage into the lake. There are 3 Armenian and 2 Kurdish villages in the plain. Göllü, 50 Armenian houses. Foot of a steep ascent (alt. 5,600 ft.), through rocks, by zigzags. Summit of a spur, whence route follows a ridge, about m. wide, the watershed between Lake Van and the Bohtan Su, passing at first a valley with easy sloping sides, then another valley covered with oak coppice some 6 ft. high ; it then passes the S. end of a bay, the natural port of the Karkar district. On the E. and W. sides of the bay respectively Ziwa and Pogha are situated. Descend gently a wide valley. Haranz, Armenian village, 1 m. to l., situated in the basin of the Bohtan Su, through which the track goes for the next 52 m. A difficult track leads over a clay spur by a short, steep ascent and descent. Naniganz, 30 Armenian houses, where there is plenty of water also for a large camping.ground. Pass Pelo, 100 Armenian houses, 2 m, to SW. Pass Takhmanis, in a ravine to r., through which comes Route 87 b from Sairt via Qara Su and Pelo. Traverse a succession of small spurs which trend S. to a wide cultivated basin ; ascend steeply for 1 m, to a spur (6,910 ft.), wind along a slope over some sections which had been metalled in 1899, and descend slightly to Qusqun Qiran Gedik (alt. 6,750 ft.). Descend steeply towards the lake following a valley by short zigzags which, in 1890, had had some improvements made in them but required to be lengthened and widened. | Henzek (alt. 6,200 ft.), Armenian village of 50 houses. From this point the road, which was practicable for wheeled traffic in 1899, descends the valley easily by the 1. bank of the stream. It passes a valley to r., crosses clay slopes with minor valleys, passes a long valley running SE., and crosses the stream to 1. bank. Pass a tributary from S. at whose mouth, m. to r., lies Tekhtis. Pass another tributary at whose mouth to r. lies Petmanis, 30 houses. Cross to r. bank, the valley opening out from 472 494 503 523 531 222 LAND ROUTES Miles from Bitlis 56 571 601 1 m. to žm. in width and the stream being nearly dry in September. By an easy gradient the road reaches a point near Norkogh, 50 Armenian houses, i m. to l. at the mouth of a rocky valley, a good place for a large camp. A flat plain lying along the shore of the lake is now entered, Mokrapert, a large Armenian village being passed 1. m. to l., where is a landing-place in a bay. Pass Pagan, 50 houses, 1 m. to r. ; beyond which a rocky spur is skirted. Verkunis. A ravine is crossed, with a rapid stream 12 ft. wide coming down a wooded valley up which runs a track to Mukus. Follow an easy track past Hakavank on the shore, the residence of the Gregorian Armenian Catholics of Aq Tomar. Pishavenk, 80 houses, on the banks of a rapid mountain stream, 40 ft. wide and 18 in. deep in September, flowing from the Agherov Dāgh past Narekh, and bordered by poplars, willows, ash, and sycamore. Route crosses this torrent and, farther on, a stream in a shingly bed 60 yds. wide. Cross a stream in a wide bed, coming from Pendaganz, 1 m. to r., 50 houses. Route 87 a (at m. 77) joins here. This is a good place for a large camp, the plain being fairly level and 1 m. wide, and water, fuel, and supplies plentiful. The route continues along the shore by an easy track over clay and stones and then ascends very steeply, the track hardly being practicable for wheeled traffic, to the summit of the Qurt Tāsh, whence it descends rather steeply over a better gradient, and crosses a large stream running N. from the Ardost Dāgh, 11 m. up which is Vostan (alt. 5,560 ft.), 300 houses, mostly Kurdish with a a few Armenian, scattered among gardens, where there is a T.O., and remains of a castle. Seat of the Kaimmakam of Qavās Kaza, under Van, and Sheikh Hamid, an important Kurdish chief. Route 81 b joins here. The road enters the plain of the Khoshāb Su. Bay on l., on whose W. shore are the ruins of a fort and the village of Haishat. Route continues along the bay , m. from the shore. 63 692 ROUTE 89 a 223 Miles from Bitlis 71 Hatanun, 30 Armenian houses, at the foot of low hills on r. Pass Paltienz, 60 houses, 2 m. to r. Leave the swampy delta of the river on I., cross a cultivated terrace by an easy clay track, and reach the ford at Engii (alt. 5,400 ft.), Armenian village of 100 houses. Ford 200 yds. below the village, 60 yds. wide and 2 ft. 3 in. deep in September, but only 30 ft. wide in November, the stream flowing swiftly over a hard, gravelly bottom. A bad wooden bridge crosses the river above the village where the route is joined by the road from Shattakh (see Route 81 a, m. 24%). There is an open space here suitable for a large camp, where supplies are plentiful and water is good, but fuel is scarce and can only be obtained in considerable quantities by lake transport. Beyond Engil the route crosses a canal sometimes known as the Shemiram Su, 8 ft. wide and 4 or 5 ft. deep, by a stone bridge, and follows an easy road across the Havatzor plain, from which it ascends rather steeply by a stony track. Summit of a ridge of hills (alt. 6,200 ft.), the N. boundary of the plain. Route crosses some rounded clay hills, and a dry ravine from SE., where a metalled track (30 ft. wide) from Van is met. Parts of the route were being improved and metalled in 1900. Artamid, 300 houses, Mohammedan and Armenian, good spring water. Reported ruined in 1915: see p. 453. Route crosses the Shemiram Su by a stone bridge, skirts garden on l., descends by an easy gradient to shore of lake, and leaves to r. the cultivated basin in which stands Zevistan, a thriving village. Join cart-track from the Erek gardens of Van. Route skirts the sandy shore of the lake and traverses an open cultivated plain 2 m. from some rounded hills on r., and 1 m. from the lake on 1. | Van. 762 83 88 224 LAND ROUTES . ROUTE 89 b BITLIS–SHAMUNIS (252 m.) Via KHOTUM Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Route 96 (Report of 1892): some later information. General direction, ENE. This is an alternative road to Route 89 a which it meets at m. 261. It goes S. and E. of the Poar Dāgh passing over high rough ground, and being a cooler road in summer than Route 85 a. It is a mule-track which, having once been kept in good order, had been allowed to fall out of repair in 1900: since then it may have been improved. Except in its highest part, where it skirts the Poar Dāgh, it is fairly supplied with water and with fuel. Supplies can be obtained near Lake Van, but are scarce elsewhere, although they can be imported from the valley of the Güzel Dereh. Miles from Bitlis 97 Bitlis. Leave by a track from the N. end of the town. Follow the l. bank of the Bitlis Su, keeping high up above town and, farther on, above the gorge. Cross the Poar stream by a 30-ft. stone bridge. Route turns r. (NE.) up r. bank of the Poar stream, through a well-wooded valley which gradually narrows, the track being easy. Poar, an Armenian village. Beyond this the foot of a steep ascent (alt. 5,900 ft.) which continues for 1 m., whence an easier path, passable for mules only, leads by zigzags up a slope of clay and stones. Ridge (alt. 7,065 ft.), from which an equally steep descent in zigzags passes numerous springs and streams and some low brushwood, and enters a valley (alt. 6,305 ft.) which it descends easily over clay and stones for 11 m., passing along its N. side. Lower down the valley is well cultivated. Antz (alt. 5,915 ft.), Armenian village of 40 houses, beyond which the track enters the valley of the Güzel Dereh, flowing S. to join the Keser Su: the valley is į m. wide, is well-wooded, and has a mule-track running down it to Sasunan, 9 m., from which a branch-track goes to Bitlis via Sindian, 13 m. 123 ROUTE 89b 225 Miles from Bitlis 133 141 164 182 Pass Sakh, 50 Armenian houses, to r. Watershed between the Tigris and Lake Van is crossed into the wooded headwaters of a tributary of the Kavar Dereh, a stream which lower down is known as the Güzel Dereh. | Tributary stream coming from Khart, 1 m. to l., 40 Armenian houses. Gerp, 20 Armenian houses, im. to r. Cross the Kavar Dereh by a raft. Masonry bridge. Khotum, 60 houses. Turn sharply to NE. following the r. bank of the stream, up the valley which is 200 to 300 yds. wide. Some low junipers are passed on hill to l. The stream is crossed by a 15.ft. masonry bridge (alt. 5,775 ft.). A wooded rocky valley is passed to r., in which lies Kamar, 20 Kurd houses. The stream, 20 ft. wide and 1 ft. deep in September, is recrossed by another 15-ft. masonry bridge, and the r. bank is followed by a broad track. Track passes to r. a rocky valley, 300 to 400 yds. wide, which grows good hay, and down which flows the Sapor Su, the boundary between the Vilayets of Van and Bitlis ; the Kurd village of Sapor, 15 houses, is situated up this valley, past which a very steep mule- track leads E. over the Sakh Dāgh to the Ghitzan Dereh. Track now crosses a ridge. Sakach, Kurdish village of 15 houses. Route leaves the basin of the Kavar Dereh by a low col, passing through oaks and brushwood into the valley of a small stream flowing NE Shamunis, on the S. shore of Lake Van. Route 89 a (m. 263) to Van is joined here. 213 223 252 MES. IV ROUTES BETWEEN MOSUL AND DIARBEKR ROUTES 90 a, b MOSUL-JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR GENERAL NOTE ON Routes E. OF THE TIGRIS Between Mosul and Feishkhabur the Tigris valley is not suited to movement by land. The river flows in a tortuous course through defiles with steep cliffs of limestone, clay, and conglomerate, and the country near the E. side of the valley is cut up by numerous deep and difficult ravines which run towards the Tigris. The route from Mosul to Jezīret-ibn-Omar passing E. of the Tigris, therefore avoids the river in this part of its course, and runs first in a general NNW. direction over an easy, undulating plain through Filfil to the Dohuk Su. Beyond that stream it follows a terrace of rolling, fairly easy ground which lies between the foot of the rugged range of the Jebel Abyadh on the E. and the very broken country along the Tigris to the W. In the neighbourhood of Simel there is a choice of routes to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar: (i) Via Zakho. See Route 90 a below. (ii) Via Feishkhabur. See Route 90 b below. Before the war caravans went fairly frequently from Mosul to Feishkhabur by the route E. of the Tigris, and at Feishkhabur crossed the river by ferry and struck across the plains W. of the Tigris to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar or Nisibin. The direct route between Mosul and Nisibin W. of the Tigris has been used since the war for the passage of troops in winter, spring, and early summer. In late summer (from July) and in autumn troops apparently moved from Nisibin to Mosul by Jezīret-ibn-'Omar; but their exact route is not known. See Route 91. ROUTE 90 a 227 ROUTE 90 a MOSUL-JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR (110 m.) Via ZAKHO Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii (report of 1888). Route report of 1903. Notes by a traveller of 1909. This important main route is described in detail by an authority who traversed it in June, 1888, and in less detail by another authority who passed along it in early autumn, 1903. It is not clear, however, how far the two authorities followed exactly the same track. There is a made and graded road, metalled in parts, and passable for wheels, to within 6 m. of Zakho. The metal is reported in 1903 as much worn, and traffic often left the metalled road. It seems clear that between Mosul.and the Jebel Abyadh there are a great number of alternative tracks over the plain. Between Mosul and Zakho the only serious impediments to wheels are the river-beds mentioned in the itinerary (which are difficult for wheels in fine weather, and are probably made impassable by rain), and the Zakho mountain which is crossed at a height of 1,280 ft. (the 1903 authority says 1,510 ft.) above Zakho : on the northern slopes of this range the last six miles into Zakho were suitable only for pack-animals in 1903. Beyond Zakho to within 15 miles of Jezīret-ibn-'Omar the road is difficult for wheels on account of the river-beds that have to be crossed, but is not impassable for field artillery except in flood time. The track is brown soil without many stones. The last 15 miles into Jezīret-ibn-'Omar were reported in 1903 impassable for carts, owing to the accidented and stony nature of the road ; but the track could easily be improved. The rivers that present most difficulty are the Khabūr (see m. 71 and 721) and the Hazil (m. 803). Water is scarce in the first 29 m. of the route, but there is a good supply for the rest of the way. There is fair grazing in the Khabar valley. Supplies are very scanty for military purposes except in the neighbourhood of Mosul, but en route are sufficient for travellers. There is coal in the hills N. of the Khabūr valley, principally near Sherānis and Harbol, to the N. of Zakho. Brushwood and some trees are available for fuel on the hills. P 2 228 LAND ROUTES Fair camping-grounds for a force not over a division can be obtained at Butaq Su (m. 294), Fai’deh (m. 331), Dohuk Su (m. 40%), Simel (m. 454), Asi (m. 594), and for larger forces at several points in the valley of the Khabūr between Zakho and the Hazil river. In recent years the population of the country appears on the whole to have been decreasing. A traveller who passed over part of this route in 1906 says, 'Between Mosul and Zakho new ruins meet the eye on every hand'. Between Zakho and Jezīret-ibn-'Omar there seem to have been more deserted than inhabited villages in 1903. This decay seems to have been caused by the depredations of Kurdish nomads which have been driving the population southwards. The Christian villages seem to have suffered badly, and probably the Yezidis have also been much reduced. Miles from Mosul co Mosul. Cross bridge over Tigris. After crossing the bridge the route follows the left bank of the Khozer river. Mound of Nebi Yūnus, with village on its summit, at some distance to r. The telegraph line branches, one branch going to Baghdad via Erbil and Kirkuk, the other along this route to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, Mardın, and Diarbekr. Road turns to left on to brick bridge of six arches, badly built, over the Khozer. Ford easy, over gravel 18 in. deep on June 16, 1888; dry in early autumn, 1903. Route skirts the Nineveh mounds on r. Broad track to r. branches N. to Tel Kaif and Alkosh. See Route 67 b. Hadīyeh (?), village of 50 Arab houses (1888) on r. The 1903 authority locates about å m. to r. of this point on the road a village of 30 houses which he calls Resh. idiyeh. Monastery of Mar Girgis, a substantial masonry building with upper walls loop-holed, on a mound 1 m. to r. of road. The monks own the neighbouring land. Most of their outdoor servants were (in 1888) Yezidis. Water is from a spring 1 m. up a ravine. Route leads over a rolling plain with gravelly undulations. The T.L. follows the made road, but before the war the latter seems to have been generally avoided by traffic : its culverts had fallen into disrepair in 1888. Aorta ROUTE 90 a 229 Miles from Mosul 113 17 Tel Kaif, village of 300 to 400 houses, 3 m. to r. Several tracks diverge towards Tel Kaif and towards the river. Brick and stone bridge, one arch, 15.ft. span, over small stream. Hasan Gelad iš 11 m. up this stream, and Khur Kharāb is 4 m. down-stream; both about 100 houses. Filfil, on N. bank of stream ; 50 Moslem houses, round one larger stone building belonging to a Mosul merchant (1888). Some lime-kilns are used to burn gypsum. They are of masonry, arched over, with a few perforations in the top, and sunk just below the ground-level. The inhabitants are settled Arabs. Indian corn is grown along the stream. A track branches off on I. to Tel Addus. . Tel Addus, a village of 50 Moslem houses, 1 m. to the l., with a few patches of Indian corn and wheat (1888). In 1903 a village called Tel Hādhir, å m. to I., was passed hereabout. Mināreh village, m. on l. Farther on, Kaka and Tor- grabi are also passed at some distance on the r. (1903). Deiristān, 1 m. to r. 100 houses: inhabited by settled Arabs, Kurds, and a few Yezidis (1888: not mentioned 1903). Ford the Butaq Su (apparently also called Baghat). Gravelly bed 40-50 yds. wide. Banks, where the stream was crossed in 1903, 50 ft. high. Much of the water of the river is led away into irrigation cuts and mill-streams. In June, 1888, the water in the Butaq was 20 ft. wide, in autumn, 1903, it was 10 ft. wide, 10 in. deep, with a cur- rent 4 m. p. h. About 12 m. up the stream is Hattara, a large village of 400 houses. A parallel track runs through it. Deghirmen village lies 1 m. down- stream. Country is cut up by stony ravines for about a mile. The 1888 authority gives Karana, a village of a few houses, as lying 1 m. to l., on a rocky ravine 300 yds. broad and 100 ft. deep, with a stream over the ledges of rock. He says also that there were two mills, several irrigation channels, and patches of cultivation. He makes no mention of Fā'ideh. The 1903 authority reports a village of 20 houses on l., and calls it New Fā'ideh (spring of 500 gallons). 32 230 LAND ROUTES Miles from ! Mosul 331 341 35 403 Fā'ideh is located here by the 1903 authority, also on the ). He says that it is deserted. Spring of 100 gallons. He makes no mention of Karana. Cross stream which joins the Butaq Su. The gravelly river-bed is 50 yds. wide; the banks are 20 ft. high. The stream was reported 10 ft. wide in June, 1888; reported 5 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep, current i m. p. h. in early autumn, 1903. From the r. bank of this stream the track followed by the authority of 1888 makes a détour to 1. round a spur from a rocky range on r. It rejoins the main road at Gurra- pahan. The chaussée takes a straighter course more to the E. Gurrapahan (alt. 1,285 ft.), a village of 250 Yezidi houses. Water is obtained from a stream with marshy banks. Road reaches height of 1,330 ft. It is here an easy track over clay and gravel, well worn, and from 15 to 20 ft. wide. A slight descent towards the Dohuk Su. Ford Dohuk Su (called by the authority of 1903 the Dillib): bed 70 yds. wide, banks 30 ft. high, with easy approaches. In June, 1888, river was 30 ft. wide and 18 in. deep ; in early autumn, 1903, 10 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep, current 3 m. p. h., bottom firm earth. A mill stands near the ford, and irrigation cuts are found along the banks. | 11 m. up-stream is the Yezidi village of Dulep, 150 houses, with orchards and gardens. A mile down-stream is Girishchik, 100 houses, also Yezidi. T. L. to Jezíret-ibn-Omar apparently leaves the road at or near the Dohuk Su, diverging to l. In 1888 it ran through Bashishtha (see under m. 541), and thence to the Derebun plateau near Feishkhabur. See Route 90 b, and m. 941 of this route. Cross a river-bed, 50 yds. wide, banks 30 ft. high, bottom firm earth : stream fordable in June, 1888. Simel, a scattered village, is apparently placed N. of this stream by the authority of 1888, whereas the authority of 1903 seems to suggest that it is on the S. bank. To the E., on a mound overlooking the stream, are the ruins of a stone fort some 60 yds. square. In 1888 this was the only Arab village in the neighbourhood, the others all being Kurdish. The plain round Simel was then fertile, a good deal of wheat and Indian corn 454 ROUTE 90 a 231 Miles from Mosul being grown; but cultivation seems to have declined: there were 200 houses in the plain in 1888, whereas in 1903 there were only 30 houses and 50 tents. The country in the neighbourhood is open and treeless except for some poplars along the stream 5 m. to NE. Near the foot of the Jebel Abyadh is the small monastery of Keshafir on a prominent spur. Between Simel and Asi it is very doubtful whether the authority of 1888 followed the same track as that taken by the authority of 1903. The account given by the latter will be found under Asi (see m. 594 below). The details that here follow are based on the account of 1888. 461 | Two small hut-villages 11 m. to the left. Several other small villages in the direction of the Tigris, mostly in- habited by Yezidis. Ford a stream flowing S. The stream is crossed by a culvert with a 15-ft. stone arch for the chaussée. Alt. 1,560 ft. Pass Tel Zeit, 2 m. to l.; a village of 100 houses clustered round a stone building. Cross stream near a large mulberry tree. Pass large village, 2 m. to l., called Maqlūbeh. It lies in a deep valley with a few trees. Jebel Abyadh is here about 4 m. to r. : a rough mule-track is seen crossing it by the Beitān pass. The summit of the range is very steep and rocky. Baghyān on slope to r. Bashishtha (Basitki), T.O. in 1888, 3 m. to l. Small springs in a ravine. Āsi, Yezidi village, fifty houses, 1 m. to r.: spring with flow of good water, estimated (1903) at 2,000 gallons p. h. Fruit and vegetables grown here. Above Asi rise the rocky sides of the Jebel Abyadh, here almost without vegetation. There is a ruined tower on a spur above the village, and the foundations of a square fort at the foot of the slope. Gurdashin village, 100 houses, 4 m. SW. of Asi in a small valley. 591 232 LAND ROUTES Simel. 12 16 Miles from Mosul The following is an account of the route Simel-Asi according to the authority of 1903 (see above, m. 454). Miles from Simel. Direction NW. to Kilzet. River-bed, 80 yds. wide, banks 35 ft. high. In early autumn, pools, with flow of 100 gallons p. h. between them. Kilzet, village, 1 m. to l. Direction NNW. 9 Zerukani, village, 30 houses, im. to 1. 10 Giresh, village, 40 houses, 2 m. to r. Spring. Cross small stream, flowing from Giresh spring. In early autumn only a few pools. Barsipiki, village, 10 houses to l. Āsi, to r. The country is undulating and fertile, but little cultivated (1888). 624 Spring alongside road, a few huts and trees (1888). This seems to be the same as Terkejān, reported by 1903 authority as being a village of 15 houses, on r., with spring and pool on l. Terkejān, however, is placed 6 m. from Asi. 621 Enter the Zakho pass. The account of the road to top of this is very briefly described by the 1903 observer as follows: "The steep ascent begins N. by W., immediately beyond Terkejān on the regular metalled cart-road which, though not in good repair, is quite passable for wheels.' A traveller in 1909 confirms this, saying that the road is good. The length of the ascent is given as 2 m. The more detailed account of the 1888 observer, though doubtless no longer applicable in detail, may still prove serviceable. His instructions and times are as follows: Ascend gradually in a northerly direction by a valley 300 to 400 yds. wide with steep, shelving slopes; then follow a mule road 12 ft. to 15 ft., paved in places, with easy gradient, up the E. side of the rocky ravine. At 16 min. from the beginning of the ascent, the height reached is 2,315 ft. The track averages 10 ft. to 12 ft. wide, cleared of stones, with easy gradient. A few bushes on the hill-sides. At 25 min. the altitude is 2,545 ft. At 30 min., for 100 yds., a paved 10-ft. track, ROUTE 90 a 233 Miles from Mosul 643 gradient 10° ascending. For 150 yds. from the summit the gradient is 12° up a series of short zigzags. At 33 min. the summit of pass (2,680 ft.) is reached. The length of the ascent is given as 22 m. The 1903 observer's account of the road from the summit to Zakho is again very brief. He states that from the summit it is merely a rough, stony hill-path unfit for wheels. It is steep and zigzags continually. The 1909 traveller describes it as a bridle-path strewn with boulders. The steep descent ends 3 m. below the summit. It then goes down a gentle slope. 31 m. below the summit there is a good spring on the r. From summit to Zakho is given as 6 m. The 1888 observer's account of the descent is as follows. He started to descend by an easy 20-ft. track, following a small stream. The road here could be ascended by wheels. At 7 min. from the beginning of the descent the altitude is 2,590 ft. At 23 min. it is 2,300 ft. At 42 min. the valley opens to 1 m. wide ; stream keeps E. and disappears among some rounded spurs. Road crosses some wide grassy terraces forming lower spurs of the range. The hill-side is sparsely wooded with low oaks and undergrowth. At 46 min. the height is 2,020 ft. Road lies through large groves of oaks. The gradient is easy, following the l. bank of a stream. The track is rough in places over sandstone. A little clearing of loose stones and clay would make this easily practicable for artillery. At 1 hr. 1 min. descend a clay spur between two ravines by some short zigzags ; track 12 to 15 ft. wide. The route crosses a small stream and ascends by 12-ft. paved road with two zigzags cut in a ledge. At 1 hr. 13 min. the route descends the W. side of a clay spur towards the mouth of the pass. A mile to the r., on a grassy spur, is a small village called Hasan, sur- rounded by vineyards. This would seem to be the place at which the 1903 observer reports a spring. At 1 hr. 21 min. the altitude is 1,870 ft. The road follows a stream in a deep valley with shelving clay sides, banks lined with oleanders and shrubs. At 1 hr. 41 min. the altitude is 1,670 ft. On either side of the valley are rounded, gravelly spurs, outliers from the main range, 68 234 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul with grassy terraces between them and the rocky ridge behind. These hills offer a good site for defensive works to cover the entrance to the pass and town of Zakho from the north. At 1 hr. 51 min. the road passes along the slope 60 ft. above the stream. For 1 m. there is a retaining wall, 5 to 6 ft. high, of masonry, forming a good 12-ft. track. The valley is narrow, with steep clay and gravelly slopes, and occasional ledges of con- glomerate. The valley then opens, and Zakho is reached at 2 hr. 10 min. L. bank of Khabūr. Zakho, on an island in stream. From this point there are three ways of starting for Jezíret- ibn-'Omar. (a) Pass over the bridge (10-ft. roadway) which leads from the l. bank of the Khabūr river to the island upon which the more ancient part of Zakho is built, and then ford the northern channel to the r. bank of the Khabūr, where stands the Christian quarter of Zakho. This northern channel is usually fordable for laden mules at the end of June, but not before. On the r. bank of the Khabūr route (c), below, is joined. (6) A second route was followed by the authority of 1903. Descend the l. bank of the Khabūr, passing on r. the villages of Bedar (or Dedar, 23 m.), 25 houses, and Chammaymishko (37 m.), 1 m. to r., across the Khabūr. At 47 m. ford the Khabūr: low l. bank, r. bank 30 ft. high, stony bottom, 80 yds. wide, 21 ft. deep, current 3 m. p. h. Crossing was awkward, even in the dry season, on account of the depth of water. On the r. bank route (c) is joined at or near Dornoch (or Lurnag): see m. 801, below. (c) The third route is that which is followed by the main road. It proceeds up the left bank of the Khabūr, skirting conglomerate cliffs which overhang the water, passing a backwater where rafts are built, and con- tinuing as follows. Masonry bridge, 148 yds. long, with one central arch of a high-pointed shape, 40-ft. span, and 40 ft. above water- level at the centre, having two small spans on the 1. bank, and one on the r. bank. Its roadway is 15 ft. wide, paved with round stones, described as being i slippery as glass'. There is no parapet, and the 724 ROUTE 90 a 235 Miles from Mosul 731 741 754 781 801 gradients are steep. It would be difficult for carts. The route turns to l. and follows a broad easy track along plain by the r. bank. The Khabūr valley is open-from 5 to 12 m. wide. Fair grazing and plenty of water even at l.w. season. Would be an ideal site for plantation colony. Pass the Christian quarter of Zakho which stands on the r. bank. Route (6), above, joins about here. Cross dry, gravelly bed, 30 yds. wide, of stream from N. Road runs as a tangent to a loop of the river for 1 m., which then bends S. Main channel 50 to 60 yds. wide, current rapid in June. River reported fordable from middle of July at several places below Zakho. Skirt river for a short way, then strike across plain, which has a rich clay soil overlying gravel. Some wheat and maize. Proceed along river for ļ m., following a ledge in a gravelly cliff over the water. Pass cluster of Kurdish huts, called Dornoch (1888). Procure guide for the ford of the Hazil. The 1903 authority locates on r. a fort and village of 30 houses, with wells, which he calls ‘Lurnak' (Lurnaq). Low- water ford crosses Khabūr il little over 1 m. from Lurnaq. Ford the Hazil river which comes from a gap in the mountains a few miles to the NE. It straggles in several channels over a wide pebbly bed. The principal one in June was 80 yds. wide and 3 ft. deep, with a strong current. It is reported even in l.w. season as 60 yds. wide, 3 ft. deep, current 32 m. p. h. A guide is necessary, as there are no landmarks on either bank. It is often unfordable with a very powerful current, and has then to be crossed by raft. Through maize-fields (1888) irrigated by canals from the Hazil. 4 m. to N., under the foot of the hills, is the site of a Christian village of 200 houses surrounded by orchards, called Tel Khabbīn; the village was partly ruined in 1888 by Kurdish raiders and was deserted in 1903. Near it is a stream with a flow estimated, in 1903, at 20,000 gallons p. h. Wāsit, another Christian village, was 1 m. NW. of Tel Khabbin : it also was much reduced in 1888. 80 84ả 236 LAND ROUTES 884 Miles from Mosul 851 Pass a mound of ruins. A small square tower still remains. Cross dry, gravelly bed of stream, 150 yds. wide (June). Gund Hadīd, a deserted village on r., is located by 1903 authority 3 m. on this side of Nabrawān (see m. 904). It has an irrigation stream, 5 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep, current 2 m. p. h. Pass two Christian villages on the plain to l., 3 m. distant, Girki Bedras and Takian, 100 houses each (1888). The 1903 authority, however, locates Takian as 3 m. to the 1. of a point on the road 1 m. beyond Nahrawān. Kurd village of 30 mud huts. Shortly afterwards route crosses gravelly bed of stream, 100 yds. wide, dry even in June. Nahrawān, Christian village of 100 mud huts (1888), alt. 1,200 ft., on a mound by a spring and stream, which in early autumn was 9 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep, with current 11 m. p. h. A few poplars and fruit gardens by the stream, maize grown on the plain. Bazu, a large village, lies 3 m. to the l. Follow broad track across the plain. Reach low terrace (alt. 1,230 ft.) overlooking bed of the Tigris. Dip into flat alongside river, about 1 m. wide. An easy descent, following broad, gravelly track. 931 | Account of 1903 places Little 'Arabiyeh (Rubāhi ?) on the r. of the road 3 m. from Nahrawān. In 1888 a village called Rubāhi was reported to lie on the Tigris į m. to 1. of road and 41 m. from Nahrawān. No mention is made of such a village in 1903, though two deserted villages on the Tigris, called 'Arabiyeh, were reported-one here, the other at m. 967; see m. 964 941 Telegraph line Mosul-Diarbekr joins here from the Derebun plateau (see above m. 403). Route 90 b via Feishkhabur also joins in this neighbourhood. 943 Pass Rubāhi, 100 houses (1888), 1 m. to the left by the Tigris, with a church in ruins on a knoll and a few poplars and orchards. Large herds of cattle (1888). This may be Little Arabiyeh, mentioned by the authority of 1903 as a deserted village on Tigris, 3 m. from Nahrawān. 95 Cross large irrigation canal from Tigris. Road ascends a low, flat spur. Soil, gravelly clay. ROUTE 90 a 237 Miles from Mosul 953 964 994 Dip into valley of a large stream coming from NE. by N. (30°), bordered by low, rounded hills. A large grove of poplars along the banks. This would seem to be the stream which the 1903 authority names the 'Arabiyeh. His account indicates that he crossed it at m. 961. At this point the 1888 authority reports a ruined fort on knoll overlooking a bend of the river. Gardens and orchards round the foot of the hill. Narrow track through gardens, crossing irrigation cuts. Telegraph follows the l. bank at the foot of a gravelly cliff, 60 ft. high, skirting a bend of the Tigris. Track is 10-12 ft. broad, rather stony, and obstructed by blocks of conglomerate fallen from the cliff above. It might easily be improved into a good road. About this point the 1903 authority crossed a stream . flowing to the Tigris with water in early autumn 10 ft. wide, 10 in. deep, with a current 32 m. p. h. a m. on, large deserted village of Arabiyeh to l. is reported in 1903. River makes a loop to W.; route strikes across a bare flat- topped spur rising about 200 ft. above the river. Reach the valley of the Nurdush Su, 600 to 700 yds. broad, bordered by undulating gravelly hills, from the Judi Dāgh, some 10 m. to the NE. Towards end of June river 30 yds. wide, 18 in. deep. In early autumn 20 yds. wide, 1 ft. deep, current 4 m. p. h. No banks, gravel bottom. The crossing is easy. Follow a flat terrace, bounded by low hills 200 yds. to the r. No streams enter the Tigris here. The country is bare and burnt up. Rawini, large deserted village on r. (1903). The river bends 1 m. to the E. The terrace rises gradually 30 ft. above the river. An easy track over gravelly clay soil. Along a ledge, 10 to 12 ft. wide, at the foot of cliffs 60 to 80 ft. high, skirting a bend of the Tigris. Deserted village on 1. (1903). Deserted village on I. (1903). Alt. 1,150 ft. Cross a stream-bed, with very little water towards end of June. Then, leaving the Tigris, ascend a low, rounded hill ; track stony and rough in some places. Soil, gravelly conglomerate, with some strata of chalky formation. 992 1011 102 1024 1041 238 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 1053 108 Summit of ridge, 1,585 ft. A fairly level track, winding among low undulations. Two small springs by the road. The Tigris makes a wide bend of about 3 m. round spur. Several rocky ravines. From alt. 1,570 ft. descend again toward the Tigris. Short zigzags in a slope of boulders and loose gravel. Easy going. Reach level of river 1 m. to the l. of it. Cross terrace with grass and tall sedges. On the river is Qasr Delau (alt. 1,230 ft.), 20 Kurdish huts. In 1888 there were here extensive gardens and orchards, irrigated by water from a large spring above. Almonds, figs, tomatoes, &c., grown. Pass remains of an old bridge, called the Pir-i-Bahfit, across the Tigris. Short, gravelly spurs above the gardens, crossing two small ravines. Bridge of 18 boats over the Tigris. River is 135 yds. wide, current 21 m. p. h. (1.w.). Bridge in 1903 was not wide or strong enough for wheels. It could be made strong enough to take field artillery, &c., as boats had enough buoyancy. | Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. 1093 110 ROUTE 90 b MOSUL-JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR (103 m. ?) Via FEISHKHABUR Authority :-Goldsmid, Telegraph and Travel (journey of 1864). This route diverges from Route 90 a apparently near Simel ; but it seems that there are a number of tracks branching off from Route 90 a between the Dohuk Su and Asi which could be made the beginning of a route to Feishkhabur. It rejoins Route 90 a near m. 941 on the N. side of the Khabūr valley. The T.L. follows the general line of this ROUTES 90 a, b 239 route. There is no satisfactory information as to the character of this route, which as far as Feishkhabur is frequently followed by caravans. Between Simel and Feishkhabur a number of streams are crossed, two of which, the Mezri and the Girkulderasi, may be difficult. Near Feishkhabur the western end of the Jebel Abyadh has to be crossed; its slopes are here fairly easy. N. of the Jebel Abyadh is the most serious obstacle on the route, the Khabūr, which is reported to be fordable in the dry season at several places between Mosul and Zakho. The length of the route is uncertain, as it is not clear where the Khabūr can best be crossed. Supplies for military purposes are probably very scanty. There is grazing in the Khabūr valley, and apparently abundant water. Miles from Mosul Mosul. Follow Route 90 a. 452 Simel. A number of villages and streams, which cannot be exactly placed, have been mentioned by travellers as lying between Simel and Feishkhabur. The villages are inhabited by Chaldaeans. See Appendix 1, below. The Mezri and Girkulderasi streams were found difficult by a party on horseback in June, 1864. 771 ? | Feishkhabur. Ferry across the Tigris. For route from r. bank of Tigris opposite Feishkhabur to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar see Appendix 2, below. For route from r. bank of Tigris opposite Feishkhabur to Nisibin see Route 90 d. A track leads up S. side of Khabūr valley to Zakho and thence to Amadiyeh, see Route 90 c. 804 ? Khabūr river. This has been found unfordable in June, but it is reported that in July it becomes fordable at several places between Zakho and its mouth. The Khabūr, at its mouth, is about 330 yds. wide, but is said to be only about 110 yds. broad a few miles up-stream. Its banks are here grassy and marshy. 874 ? | N. of the Khabūr river Route 90 a is joined about m. 944. 103 ? | Jeziret-ibn-'Omar. APPENDIX (1) The following list of Chaldaean villages between Simel and Feish- khabur was given by a native of the district in 1910: 240 LAND ROUTES Miles from Simel 41 Girfil, on r, bank of stream. Giresh. Bashishtha (Basitki). Khānikerkūm. Kushmanna. Mezri, on 1. bank of stream. Parawa. Girkeleh. Pebsin. Badshidda. 191 211 24 251 There appears to be no information as to the character of the route between Feishkhabur and Jezīret-ibn-Omar along the r. bank of the Tigris. The following Chaldaean villages were mentioned in native information of 1910 : Miles from Feish- khabur 111 Chemresh. Tusana. 161 | Rehanieh. The total length of the route is about 25 m. ROUTE 90 c AMADIYEH-FEISHKHABUR (802 m. ?) Via ZAKHO Authority :— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iii, Routes 122 and 125 a (reports of 1903 and 1888). This route connects Amadiyeh with the roads from Mosul to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar by Zakho and Feishkhabur respectively, and also connects these roads with each other. As far as the Sipneh Chai the route follows the road from Amadiyeh to Mosul by Dohuk (Route 67 b). From that point it diverges westward, being as far as Navishki an easy hill track through a country with some cultivation and plenty . . . ROUTES 90 b, c 241 0 292? of water and fuel. From Navishki to Zakho it is on the whole fairly easy, being almost level for considerable stretches, but much of it is stony and accidented: trees everywhere here, but hardly any cultivation, and no villages. From Zakho to Feishkhabur the authority of 1888 followed a track which seems on the whole easy and may be passable for wheels. The authority of 1903, who seems to have taken approximately the same line, found the track fairly easy, though rather stony and accidented for the last half of the distance. A few villages are passed on this part of the route ; there is plenty of brushwood and water, and a good deal of cultivation. Miles from Amadi. yeh Amadiyeh. Follow the road to Dohuk for the first 24 m. (see Route 67 b, m. 1041-m. 801). 24 Sipneh Chai. Here the Dohuk road is left, and the hill. side is ascended for 31 m., after which a turn is made to the r., and a track is followed winding up and down the hill-side. Benda village. Thence wind up and down along the mountain-side, crossing one deep valley. 33 Kuremeh, a Kurd village 1 m. to r. across an undulating, terrace-like flat with cultivation and vineyards. 353 Barash, Kurd village, to r. Thence over easy, open, undulating ground. About 4 m. to r. of this point the Sipneh Chai joins the Khabūr. Gradual descent through low hills, thickly covered with brushwood and small trees. 401 Eridan, small Kurd village, to l. Cross a deep valley: gradual ascent to Navīshki, Kurd village. Descend small wooded valley. 462 Route leads over undulating, park-like ground on the N. side of the valley of the Rogherm Chai, which flows in a deep valley about 1 m. to l. Then by a steep, stony descent to the river. Ford Rogherm Chai, here a fair-sized mountain stream. Immediately below this point the Rogherm joins the Khabūr, here 30 yds. wide and unfordable (January). Continue along l. bank of the Khabūr, winding through low, brushwood.covered hills. Shirbesh Chai, a small stream. Ascend by a steep winding track for 1 m. 54* | Cross broad, gently sloping spurs from the l. 52 544 MES, IV 242 LAND ROUTES Miles from Amadi. yeh 563 Open undulating ground. Gentle descent to 582 Small stream. Gradual ascent up a cultivated, trough-like valley : turning to r. cross a low, bare, stony ridge, and descend steeply to 603 | L. bank of the Khabūr, near three-arched stone bridge. Thence along level river-bank. 613 Zakho (alt. 1,400 ft.). Follow a broad, gravelly track about m. from 1. bank of Khabür. Bedar, 100 Nestorian houses, on the river 1 m. to r. Skirt a line of gravelly hills, the outliers of the Jebel Abyadh. Several springs in the hills. The water is used for irrigation lower down. The summit ridge of the Jebel Abyadh appears from here to be composed of impassable vertical sheets of limestone. Khalil Aghwār, ziyāret in a thick grove of well-grown oaks through which the route passes. Three small stream-beds, nearly dry in June, are crossed, and the spurs to r. gradually cease. The junction of the Hazil Su on the opposite side of the Khabūr is passed. 724 Leave the Khabür and follow a well-defined, easy track 15-20 ft. wide, stony in places, with ascending gradient. 72 A plentiful stream in a stony bed is crossed. Three Chaldaean villages half-way up ridge to l., with orchards and some cultivation. Gradual ascent along an easy gravel track. A few low bushes on the hill-sides. Then ascend r. bank of stream. Low gravelly mounds to r. Ascend a winding track, 20 ft. broad, towards Derebūn plateau. Easy gradient, passable for wheels. 774 Derebūn plateau (alt. 1,780 ft.) extending N., flat-topped, and ending in steep bluffs overlooking the Khabūr, Emerging from the rock at the end of the main range of the Jebel Abyadh is a spring with a large stream called the Derebūn, which forms a small, reedy marsh on the plateau. This has to be waded. The springs on the Derebūn plateau are warm, and rather brackish. 773 Derebūn, 100 Yezidi houses. Here the Mosul-Jezīret- ibn-'Omar T. L. crosses the route. Descend gradually winding through low, bare hills. 803? | Feishkhabur (alt. 1,160 ft.). See Route 90 b, m. 771. 753 244 LAND ROUTES Miles from Feish- khabar 21 251 261 28 Sarmusak, 3 springs, & m. l. 231 Jilika, small spring r. Gulijeh, good spring, r. Kergho Chai, a small stream which does not usually dry up in summer. Kaztapen, r. Water from small stream which does not dry up in summer. Thence past Bāqirwān (good spring, r.) and Batirzan (2 springs) to 302? | Deirun-i-Agha (this point may be further from Kaztapen than is estimated here ; compare Route 93 b, where it is given as 3 m. from Batirzan). (For the rest of the road see Route 93 b, m. 364-731.) 673 ? Nisibin. (See Route 93 b. The authority followed for the first part of the route makes the distance between Deirun and Nisibin 293 m.) ROUTE 91 MOSUL-NISIBIN (131 m. ?) Via Eski Mosul AND Tel RUMELAN Authorities :—Hinrichs (journey of 1911), Oppenheim (journey of 1893). - The country between Mosul and Nisibin, W. of the Tigris, is for many miles undulating desert, broken here and there by low hills or mounds that mark the site of ancient settlements. Wheeled traffic crossed the plain between Mosul and Nisibin before the war, but no details regarding the route followed by it are available. The ground is said to be heavy after rain. In winter the snow sometimes lies on the plain for weeks, causing great hardship to animals. In spring the whole area is covered with herbage, and there seems at that season to be a fair supply of water, either in wells or wadis. These conditions, however, last only for a few weeks. No fuel or supplies for troops could be expected before the war. The population is almost entirely nomad. The railway between Nisibin and Mosul is planned (according to ROUTES 90 d, 91 245 a report of 1913) to run by Kesik Köprü (see Appendix 2 to this route) and Tel Rumelan. No information as to improvements since 1914 is available. See Appendix 4, p. 250, for route of Turks, 1916. The tracks usually followed by travellers in recent years have kept well to the NE. of the more direct routes, probably because there seems to be more likelihood of finding good water in that direction (e. g. in the Saweidiyeh river). In summer the heat is intense, sand-storms are frequent, and draughts of poisonous wind are occasionally met with. Miles from Mosul Mosul. Leave by the Sinjar gate at the NW. corner of the city and cross the plain of Mosul. Ascend a rise. Cross a wadi. Cross another rise. Mosul disappears from view. Cross a wadi. Pass through monotonous country for about 2 m. In this stretch apparently a track branches to the l. to Abu Mariyeh. Descend from the plateau towards the river. Pass Humeidat to the r., village on the r. bank of a stream. Ascend fairly steeply up the course of the stream. Track runs generally WNW. skirting the Jebel 'Allān. Pass Bādisheh village some distance to r. on the l. bank of the stream. El-Ubētir village lies about 2 m. to N. No drinking water in August, 1893. Cross the stream on which lie Bādisheh and Homeidat. Pass ruins of a modern village. Some cultivation. Cross a wadi, waterless in August, 1898. Ruins. The country hereabouts slopes away to the S. in terraces, the first of these stretching as far as Jebel Mehlebiyeh. El-Khān, ruins of a rectangular fort with strong stone walls, situated at the foot of the Jebel 'Allān. Ascend the ridge. Summit. Towards the W. the ridge gradually sinks into the desert plateau. Follow the r. bank of a wadi NE. Stony track. Ruin-field of Eski Mosul. Large modern rectangular building flanked by towers on the highest point of the ruin-field to the N. near the Tigris. Zaptieh post. 201 227 246 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 25 32 322 Cross the Abu Mariyeh stream by a ford just below an old stone bridge with a single span of more than 20 ft. The roadway across it is barely 5 ft. broad and it does not appear to be passable. Near the Tigris the Abu Mariyeh breaks into several arms. This stream is said to rise in the Jebel Mehlebiyeh. Track runs along a ridge, in a general W. direction. Direction changes to N. by W. Cross a small stream called 'Ain el-Hulweh. Tel Mus, an isolated mound, steep to the N. Ruined fort on the summit. Near the mound is a stream flowing in several channels, with a mill. Kurdish encampments may be met with in the neighbour- hood. SW. of Tel Mus a ridge called Jebel Qoseir esh-Sharrij runs from NW. to SE. The ordinary track runs direct to m. 403 below. The route as here described makes a détour eastward to Abu Wajneh. For a more direct track to Tel Rumelan (m. 82) see Appendix 2 to present route. Abu Wajneh, ruin-field and modern village on the S. slope of Jebel et-Turi. Near the modern village are several ancient wells, some of which are still in good condition. On the E. the ruin-field is commanded by a large high mound, with graves and a domed tomb on the summit. Track now runs WSW. Cross a wadi. Track joins the caravan route. From this point Tel A'far (see Route 92 a) bears SW. 'Ain Saleh, ruins of a village and springs in a hollow. Good water. The overflow runs to join the Abu Mariyeh. Track ascends for about 1 m. and follows the ridge of 'Ain Saleh. A side-track diverges N. to the Tigris. 38 392 403 421 445 46 It crosses the Shu'eib el-Kohāf, a tributary of the Tigris, at m. i, and passes a hill, one of two called Tulūl el-Kohāf, the second being passed to the l. at m. 13. The direction is now NNE. About the same point the Shu'eib el-Kohāf is again crossed and the track descends towards the Tigris which is reached at m. 4. The direction is now N. by W. following the course of the river to a Kurdish village called Hāwi Zummar (m. 11). ROUTE 91 247 61 Miles from Mogul Track runs NW. across the desert plateau, keeping this general direction for a good many miles. No settled habitation. | Cross the Sha'eib el-Kohāf and pass the two tels, Tulul el-Kohāf, to r. Tel Hamadāreh, about 100 ft. high. Kurdish nomads with flocks of sheep may be seen here in spring. Country here undulating to hilly. Here a track branches off leading to the Tigris (about 7 m.). It descends to the valley of the Suweidiyeh, a tributary of the Tigris. Cross 2 small streams. 593 | Ruins of Khān es-Sufa'iyeh (Khān et-Taqtiq). These ruins lie on the edge of the desert plateau, about 60 ft. above the Suweidiyeh. Descend and cross the Suweidiyeh by a fairly deep ford (August). Cross a wadi. 611 Cross a second wadi. 62 Cross a third wadi. 63 Hill on the l. and stream. Tel called El-Khān. Small stream enters the Suweidiyeh near here. Track follows the general course of the Suweidiyeh in a NW. direction. About here the track bears WSW. towards Rumelan. Ruin-mounds. Track follows the course of a tributary of the Rumelan (see below, m. 82) for some distance and passes springs which form the source of the tributary previously mentioned. Cross the Suweidiyeh. Track runs SW. Cross the Ramelan (dry in l.w.). Tel Rumelan. Cross a stream called the Zambīl. Tel Zambīl and village on the r. Cross the Demm er-Robu, a tributary of the Khunezir (see below, m. 911). Many basalt blocks to be seen about here. 90 Cross the Wādi er-Rumelan. 914 Demir Kapu Khān (?). Cross the Khunezir. All the three streams last mentioned have been found to contain water in August, and grass has been found along their banks. Nam 248 LAND ROUTES 98 1024 Miles from Mosul 913 Tel Chilara and ruined village to r. This place is 7 hrs.' ride from Aznair village on the southern route from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Nisibin (see Route 93 b, m. 561). The intervening country is a grassy plain broken by occasional ravines and rivulets. Track runs NW. 954 Abra, Kurdish village on the S. slope of a large hill above a stream. Apparently about here the route bifurcates, the longer track running N. by W. For details see Appendix 1 to the present route. 963 Cross a wadi. Pass Tel 'Alo, about 4 m. to 1. 99 Tel Kardib, 1-14 m. to r. 1013 Cross the El-Ashqaneh, dry in l.w. season. 102 Tel el-Ashqaneh and village on the r. Cross a small stream, the ‘Abbās. Tel Farsukh. The ground here is covered with basalt rocks. 1031 Two mounds, Tulūl er-Rummān, on the l. 1031 Kerem Roqeqyeh hill with Kurdish village about 3 m. to l. 103 Cross El-Qotrani stream, dry in l.w. season. 106 Tel Mutūleh village on the r. 1091 Qubūr el-Bīdh (“White Graves'), village. 1101 Tel Ter and Tel Rofel. Track runs W. by S. 1124 Kiradeh village on a stream called the Jerrahi. Cross the stream by a wooden bridge. About 6-10 m. WSW. of this point is a locality where the Shammār were found encamped in August 1893: they apparently obtained their water from wells as the stream in the neighbourhood was nearly dried up. Nisibin lies ENE. of this point. Tel esh-Shā'ir (on the Jezīret-ibn-'Omar-Nisibin route, see Route 93 b, m. 611) lies NE. No information as to the shortest route to Nisibin from Kiradeh. 131? Nisibin. APPENDICES (1) Alternative route from Abra Track follows the course of the stream through a valley strewn with basalt blocks. 73 / El-Koz, small village on the r. ROUTE 91 249 Miles from Mosul 98 1003 Emerge on to the desert plateau. Occasional cultivation. Khirbet Resh, village on a ruin-mound. Direction now NW. No regular track. 1031 Derunah Kulinga, village. 104 Bawerd, village (deserted ?). Here this track joins the post-road between Jezīret-ibn-'Omar and Nisibin. For the rest of the route to Nisibin see Route 93 b, m. 431. 1343 Nisibin. (2) The following details are given from an old account (1764) of a journey to Nisibin which followed a caravan track. Good grazing was found on the track in April. Miles from Mosul 31] Mosul. Direction of track WNW. 181 Dubs (?). Direction still WNW. Kesik Köprü, ruins. Direction now NW. by W. 413 Hogena. Ruins on a hill. About 11 m. S. is another hill with ruins called Qasr Sharij. Direction NW. by W. 55 Awenat (ruins ?). Direction NE. by E. See Appendix 3, below. Tel el-Hamzeh. Direction now NW. 93 Rumelan. See main route, m. 82. Direction W. by N. 1131 Rijl el-'Abbās. Direction WNW. 1281 Tel esh-Shā'ir. Direction now W. The stage from Tel esh-Shā'ir to Nisibin is that detailed in the route Jezíret. ibn-'Omar-Nisibin. See Route 93 b, m. 614. 1433 | Nisibin. 73} (3) The following course between Tel Mus and Tel Rumelan was taken by Ainsworth in January, 1840. He found grazing, but little water, and apparently no adequate fuel. He made it a day's march between Tel Awenat and Chilara (which he calls Chil Agha), 8-10 m. beyond Rumelan (main route, above, m. 913). Tel Mus. See main route, above, m. 34. A brook called Awenat is crossed. Pass a large ruin-mound called Ahlan Tefipeh (Tamarisk hill). This hill is identified on Kiepert's map with Tel el-Hawā, mentioned by another traveller, and the 250 LAND ROUTES rest of the route is represented as identical with that in Appendix 2 above. Pass mound called Char Pera (Chilpara ?). Tel Rumelan. See main route, above, m. 82. (4) It was reported in 1916 that (in January of that year) the Turks were using a line of march from Ras el-'Ain via Tel Ermen and ‘Amūdeh (see Routes 126, introduction, and 94, m. 17), and Nisibin to Mosul. The route was apparently to be given up in July owing to lack of water: see p. 226. The stages from Nisibin were :- Dogara (9 hrs.); Kirikin (6 hrs. : 13 hrs. for crossing two streams); Demir Kapu (6 hrs. : see main route, above, m. 911); Akhlāt el- Kachet (? hrs.); Awenat (5 hrs.: 1 day's halt: see App. 2 and 3, above); Hakta (5 hrs.); Shanazeel (7 hrs.); Hamadan (4 hrs.); Mosul (4 hrs.). ROUTE 92 a MOSUL-NISIBIN (1564 m.) Via BELED SINJAR Authorities :-E. Sachau (journey of 1880); Military Report on Arabia, Route 23 (report of 1903); Sarre and Herzfeld (journey of 1908); notes by a traveller who went over this route (following (ii) between Mosul and Tel A'far) a few years before the war (exact date uncertain); Routes in Arabia, No. 191 (report of 1914). This route runs over plain or low undulations throughout its course, except at the pass over the Jebel Sinjar. It appears to be practicable for wheels from Mosul to the pass across the Sinjar, though this does not seem to have been stated explicitly by any of the authorities who have gone over the ground except as regards the stage from Mosul to Tel Affar. The pass through the Jebel Sinjar is low and fairly easy, but the road is stony and might need improving for wheeled traffic. This is said to be the only pass practicable for caravans across the Sinjar range, though there are besides a number of difficult tracks over the hills. It seems that the plain between the Sinjar hills and Nisibin, though easy going in dry weather, would be very difficult for wheels after rain. For further notes on the going see below under Routes (i) and (ii) to Tel A'far, and under m. 39, m. 76, m. 99, m. 113. The inhabitants are mainly Arabs in the plains and Yezidis in and near the hills. There are Turkomans at Tel A'far. ROUTES 91, 92 a 251 There is cultivation at intervals along the route from Mosul to Beled Sinjar and at the foot of the Toq hills, but supplies would probably not be available in any considerable quantities. N. of the Sinjar range the country is quite destitute of settled inhabitants and cultivation up to about 10-12 m. from Nisibin. No nomad camps are mentioned. Water is generally fairly plentiful. There is very little on Route (ii) from Mosul to Tel A'far. Beyond Tel A'far the plain is watered by springs and by streams from the hills to the N. Between Tel A'far and the neighbourhood of Beled Sinjar (see under m. 39) the water is somewhat sulphurous and brackish though drinkable. N. of the Sinjar range water is to be had (at least in winter and spring) from a number of streams, but it does not appear to be very good. No information is available as to the water-supply in this plain during the summer and autumn. Apparently some grazing is to be found in winter on the plains between Mosul and Tel A'far, and between the Sinjar hills and Nisibin, and it is probably abundant in spring on these sections of the route. Fuel is apparently lacking except in parts of the Sinjar hills. Miles from Mosul Mosul. From Mosul to Tel A'far there are two possible routes. (i) NORTHERN ROUTE This route is passable for wheeled traffic. It leads over flat or undulating country, and rises over spurs of the low hills W. of Mosul, crossing a number of small ravines. Humeidat village about 14 m. N. of the road. The ridge behind it runs close to the 1. bank of the Tigris. Route crosses Wadi Badosh, with some cultivation along its banks. Khān Lubgilleh? (see note under m. 39). Route crosses a small, flat plain called Ed-Daulaieh. Khirbet ed-Daulaieh (Khirbet el-Baghleh?), ruined village. Northern end of a long ridge called Jebel 'Atshāneh, minning in a SE. direction, is passed. Undulating 15 162 183 ry. 213 22 assed. bills called El Majelīnāt, about 11 m. y S. of the other. 252 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 25 301 A wadi is crossed. This wadi, or possibly another crossed in the neighbourhood, is called Wādi Debaneh, which was reported in 1880 as probably containing water at most seasons. The depression in which the Wadi Debuneh lies is thickly strewn with large blocks of stone. In the plain to NE. of it is a hill called Tāshtah, near which there is said to be a spring. The plain is bounded on N. and S. by low ridges running NW. and SE. Ūch Tepeh, three tels about 1-1 m. S. of the track. 'Ain el-Beidhā, three springs near a small hill. Abu Miriam, small village on a tel. Spring on W. side of the tel, and cultivation in plain to W. There are several other tels in the plain. A ridge bounds the plain to N., 3-6 m. distant, running in a NW. direction. A wadi is crossed. Track rises very gradually. Route reaches the top of the gradual slope, here crossing the line of the low hills called Jebel Mehlebiyeh. It then gradually descends a valley (cultivated in 1880), with low hills on either side. Route passes a rain-water pool. A little farther on is a cistern. Tel A'far. The following account has been based on the information of an Arab officer in the Turkish service who in August, 1914, traversed the route from Tel A'far to Mosul in 13 hrs, by carriage : Miles | Mosul, Cross Wádi Badosh. Khān Lubgilleh. Re-cross Wādi Badosh at Khān el-Baghleh. Abu Miriam. Tel Affar. 37 16 18 23 38 Tel A (ii) SOUTHERN ROUTE This appears to be rather worse supplied with water than the northern route. Mosul. The route is said to run for about 6 m. over a cultivated plain. Route passes through low, stony hills (Jebel 'Atshāneh ?). Route emerges into open, undulating, cultivated country, which is traversed as far as Muwali. ROUTE 92 a 253 Miles from Mosul 16 19} Muwali, village of Jebūr Arabs. Water-supply from one brackish well and in winter from rain-water. Between Muwali and Tel A'far water is very scarce. Route leads for some miles over open plain, with some cultivation and good grazing. Two hills of the same name lie near the village. Majelīnāt, small settlement of semi-nomads, with bad water from springs. Route runs over bare undulating ground at the foot of low hills, as far as Tel A'far. Dubulu, small village. Tel A'far. 38 A recent authority gives the following times from Tel A'far to Mosul : Hrs. Tel A'far. Dubulu. Mujelīnāt. Muwali. Jebel Til Atshăn (Jebel 'Atshāneh ?). Mosul. 500 For the routes from Tel A'far to Deir ez-Zor see vol. iii, Routes 49 a, b. Miles con- tinued from Route (i) 39 Tel A'far. From Tel A'far to Beled Sinjar the route is generally easy, running over open, undulating ground or cultivated plain ; but in January, 1880, the going was soft as the result of melting snow. Up to the Solaq Chai (21 m. from Beled Sinjar) the water on the route, though plen- tiful, is brackish, and only just drinkable. For 112 m. beyond Tel A'far the route goes across an undulating plain slightly depressed in the middle, bounded by ridges to N. and open on the S. A number of tels are scattered over the plain. Stream flowing S. crossed (January, 1880). Apparently about this point, or a short distance farther on, a group of tels are seen at about 1 hr.'s ride to S. Tel Wardān, large eminence. Cross wadi with water (December), some cultivation on its banks. 393 254 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 48 481 481 501 51 513 Cross Wādi Ibreh with abundant water (December). On the farther side, cultivation extending to the Wādi Mujeirat (m. 51). Site of deserted village of Ibreh (1907). Tel Ibreh (called by local Arabs in 1880 Khirbet Seyyid Kleb). The tel contains some modern cave-dwellings. Stream running SE, is crossed (this is apparently the Wādi Sharai, and seems to be the 'small boggy stream' described by a recent authority as a branch of the Wādi Ibreh lying 22 m. from it). Tel er-Rus, a few hundred yards to S. of track. Stream flowing SE. is crossed. This is apparently the Wādi Mujeirat, but a recent authority mentions the Jibbareh Chai as a small, boggy stream 31 m. from the Wādi Ibreh. Tel Abu Fuseikeh lies apparently about 1-i m. to the N. on the r. bank of the Wādi Sharai. Cultivation and small villages near it. Cultivation apparently ceases in this neighbourhood. 'Ain esh-Sharīd, ruin-field, and spring near which is some cultivation. Low ridge running W. begins on N. It is 1-2 m. from the track. Between this point and m. 57 are several water-courses. Apparently in this neighbourhood (21 hrs.' ride from Wādi el-Ibreh) lies the spring of 'Ain Tīneh, under the ridge to the N., i hr.'s ride WSW. of it is said to lie the four springs of 'Ain el-Ghassān, luke-warm and sulphurous. To SSW, from 'Ain el-Ghassān, about one day's march distant, is seen a hill called Tel Tartar, in which a tepid sulphurous spring takes its rise. This spring was believed by a traveller of 1880 to be the head of the Tartar river. Other springs feeding the Tartar seem to lie near Beled Sinjar. Wadi containing water (December). This wadi is appa- rently a short distance W. of 'Ain el-Ghassān. El-Khān, ruins of a large khan beside the track. Springs in the neighbourhood called El-Hararat, or 'Ain el. Khān. In 1906 the Mendikan tribe was encamped here. The bulk of the tribe are Yezidi by religion, but the Sheikhs and some of the families are Moslem. Ground from about here to Beled Sinjar was reported as very soft in January, 1880, owing to the melting of snow on the hills. 55 ROUTE 92 a 255 Miles from Mosul 621 641 65 662 711 721 73 741 Cross large wadi with steep banks. To N. (13-2 m. dis- tant) are a number of hills, outlines of the chain called Et-Toq. These hills run in a line parallel with the route (about WSW.). Beyond them to NW. (not yet in sight) lies the eastern end of the main Sinjar range. Village about 1 m. to N. of track. Four tels in a line running E. and W. lie in a plain to S. Cross Wādī Dājis. Cross Wādi en-Naml. Cross Wādi Delukhān. About this point the first peak of Jebel Sinjar comes in sight. Deep wadi. Cross wadi. Cross stream. Large Yezidi village of Mihrkan to N. on the slopes of a hill (1880). Pass Qara Tepeh, or Tel Aswad, which lies to N. of track. Pass Eshkeptah village, which lies to N. of track. Solaq Chai (sweet water). A number of small streams occur between this point and Beled Sinjar. Cultivation to S. of track. Beled Sinjar. Times given for the journey from Beled Sinjar to Tel A'far by a recent authority : Hrs. Beled Sinjar. A tepeh on left (N.). Solaq Chai. Eshkeptah. Gelu Khăn Chai (?). Gereh Sinoh, hill with ruined village (?). Kheräleh Tepeh (?). Iabrah Chai (Wādi Ibreh). 10 | Tel A'far. From Beled Sinjar to the Shillo pass the track runs over a cultivated but rather stony plain, sloping gently S. from the Tõq hills. The track runs 1-2 m. from the foot of the hills. Though stony, it is fairly easy. Water is good and abundant. Yezidi villages in the plains, or (more often) at the foot of the bills and on the hill slopes. Kebalish village, Daqiqeh, Yezidi village, about 1 m. to r., and Kānisark, to 1. 77 7 781 256 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 80 811 82" 831 Qizil Khān, about 2 m. to r. Gabara, about 2 m. to r. Cross wadi and pass Debusi village. Fairly level, stony track running past cultivation. Wurdi (alt. 1,500 ft.), village of 90 Arab houses on the plain, 1 m. from the hills. One large spring of good water and one mill. Jeddaleh, Arab village, to r. Cross wadi. Khubazi. Two peaks, highest points of the Sinjar range, are now to N. Mejlumi, m. to r. at the foot of the hills. Tel Heyyāl, 1 m. to 1. Track passes two (ruined ?) shrines called 'Abd el-Aziz and 'Abd el-Qadir. Sekenik (or Ghiran), a Yezidi village lies in a ravine of the Toq hills to N. of route. It comprises about 100 houses. From the ravine a stream runs into the plain ; it is there crossed by the route. For route from Sekenik to Shedādi and Deir see vol. iii, p. 315 seq. Kolang Hafzeh, Yezidi village, with five good wells to l. Track enters hills. The Bari or Shillo pass about 7 m. long is described as rough and stony, but not particularly difficult. A valley through the Tõq hills is first fol- lowed in a N. direction. At the N. end of the valley rises the main Sinjar range. N. end of valley through Toq hills. Here two valleys meet-one from ENE., the other from NW.: the former runs between the Sinjar and Toq ranges, the latter between the Tòq and Jureibeh ranges to W. and the Sinjar to E. The track follows this latter valley leading NW. Shillo, Yezidi village, to r, near the mouth of the valley which runs ENE. Cultivation near the village. The track winds over rocky, broken ground. Mamhuwed, 50-60 dwellings, inhabited only in summer. Watershed about 2,250 ft. above sea-level, and about 570 ft. above the plain. Main Sinjar range to r., Jebel Jureibeh to l. Pass about i m. wide. Bara (or Bereh), small Yezidi village 1 m. to W. The inhabitants are semi-nomadic. The track now descends the Bara valley and follows the course of the Howeir Khālid, a stream flowing north- 100 1002 1021 1031 1051 ROUTE 92 a 257 Miles from Mogul 1091 113 126 130 134 1371 141 1457 wards from the mountains. The low foot-hills of the Sinjar are passed. Howeir Khalid stream is here apparently left by the route. Country undulating and stony. Cross Kasak Chai, small muddy stream. Route runs across a large plain in a general NNW. direction. The mountains N. of Nisibin are visible in clear weather. The plain which extends the whole way to Nisibin is open and grassy, and is said to be easy going in dry weather but very heavy in wet, especially between the Radd Su and Nisibin. A number of streams are crossed, many of which are boggy and form awkward obstacles. Water (from these streams) was reported as fairly abun. dant in January. The country is absolutely uninhabited till about m. 1453. No defined track. Cross Radd Su, a shallow boggy stream. Tel Khidhr; mound on 1. (Authority, 1903, places the tel half-way between Radd Su and Tullahi Su; but see times given below at end of route). Jerrahi Su, small stream. Mekhabin Su, in this neighbourhood. Tel Shermokh, mound to W. of track. Tel Nasr, large mound to W. of track. Cultivation begins on the plain. Cross stream of fair size, in a deep.cut channel with steep banks. It was found difficult to ford in January. Jawa, village à m. to W. of track. (This and succeeding villages were all Arab in 1903. They had mills. Water not very good.) Mas'udeh to E. Tel Ebresh 2 m. to E. Lesagen, à m. to W. Shawatteh (Sharuti?), 1 m. to E. Selamun 'Aleik lake to W. Deyyoh to W. of track. Dadushti, 1 m. to E. Tel Resh, 1 m. to E. Jumcah, 2 m. to E. 'Ain Tari to E. Cross Jaghjagha river by Nisibin bridge, a 12-arched stone structure. Nisibin. 1464 1473 1483 1491 1493 1501 1511 152 1522 1531 1543 1561 NES, IV 258 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul The following times for the journey from Nisibin to Beled Sinjar have been given by a recent authority (see also above under m. 76 for times from Beled Sinjar to Tel A'far, and m, 39 for times from Tel A'far to Mosul) : Hrs. Hrs. Nisibin. Shillo. 'Ain Tari. Leave hills. Shawutteh. Sekenik. Mekhabin Su. Mejlumi. Jerrahi Su. Khubazi. Tel Khidhr. Jeddaleh. Radd Şu. Wurdi, Qashiq Chai (Kasak Chai?), 23 Qizil Khān. Howeir Khālid. Daqiqeh. Kebalish. Mamhuwed. Beled Sinjar. NE on out.cocowa WNIA Bara. ROUTE 92 b MOSUL-NISIBIN (184 m. ?) Via BEKRĀN AND SAMUKHA Authority :-Forbes, in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. ix (1839). This route passes along the northern edge of the main range of the Sinjar hills. Very little can be said regarding the state of the road followed or as to the supplies obtainable. So far as is known, it has not been crossed by any European traveller for a great many years. As far as Samukha water is fairly plentiful, at least in spring, and fuel may be got when the hills are entered at about m. 60. From Samukha the track lies across the desert where no supplies or fuel are obtainable. The first 20-30 m. from Samukha are badly supplied with water, the streams which flow N. from the hills speedily losing themselves in the desert. For the next few miles, till about m. 146, water seems to be fairly plentiful but brackish. Beyond this point no more water is mentioned till the Jaghjagha is reached. Miles from Mosul. For route to Tel A'far see Route 92 a. 39 Tel A'far. Direction now W. by N. 48 Small stream. Mosul ROUTES 92 a, b 259 Miles from Mosul 52 57 801 811 841 Spring overflowing to form a stream which loses itself about 12 m. SE. The E. end of the Sinjar hills lies WNW. from here. Begin the gentle ascent of a range of low outliers. After a short distance pass a pond or tank of brackish water bordered by tall reeds. Cross a small stream of good water and begin to descend towards the base of the higher hills, crossing several marshy ravines covered with reeds. Soil good but stony. Some cultivation. Track runs along the base of low hills. Turn suddenly SW. and ascend steeply. Bekrān village in plantations of fig-trees. The houses are built in terraces one above the other on the NE. shoulder of the mountain near the point where an outer range of low hills joins the higher and precipitous inner one. Fig and vine cultivation in terraces. Water from wells at the foot of the hill about 1 m. from the village. Track now runs W. through fig plantations. Naqsi village. Two Yezidi tombs. Pass Yusufeh and Keichkeh, small villages. Gundibili village, with a Yezidi tomb. Pass Kushtaneh village. Pass Haldinoh village. Nogri and 'Amrān, united villages. Track due W. between the inner and the outer hills through fig gardens. Outer low range of hills ends. Low oaks on the mountain. Tomb of Sheikh Rami, a Yezidi place of pilgrimage, 8 m. N. in the desert, surrounded by a grove of bay-trees. Hills now become lower and more rugged, but thickly covered with scrub and oaks. Another low range of outer hills begins. Pass many large ravines from the mountain. Large ravine leading S. to Kirsi village. Stream bordered with willows and poplars. Pass Rauzeh 'Ashur, ruined village. Pass a ravine running S. into the mountain. Pass Khāliq, extensive ruins. Scanty stream running down into the valley below. The hill-side here is low, bare, and rocky, with low oaks. Dry grass in the plain. The authority here followed says that there were herds of wild boars in this neigh- bourhood when he visited it. 85" 93 963 99 103 R 2 260 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mosul 104: Tiran or Tirani, ruined village. Outer hills now lower and broader. 1061 Pass a large ravine running into the hill. 108 Gifri village, with fig cultivation. 1083 Well in the valley. 113 Samukha, large village in a ravine, from the mouth of which the village and lake of Khatuniyeh is about 12 m. WNW. Tracks lead from here to Sekenik on the S. side of the hills. Leave Samukha in a NNW. direction through fairly level plains. Some grass and thorn. The bearings given by the authority for his route across the plain to Nisibin contain some confusion, and the line he followed cannot be traced. According to his reckoning he reached the Radd Su at m. 1461, crossed it at m. 1511, reached the Jaghjagha (approached across marshy, reedy ground) at m. 162, and crossed it near Hainu at m. 174, where its bottom was of mud and sand. 184 ? | Nisibin. ROUTES 93 a, b JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-NISIBIN GENERAL NOTE The routes from Jezīret-ibn-Omar to Nisibin run over the undulating country at the southern foot of the Tur Abdin plateau, which presents the appearance of a great wall rising abruptly from the plain. There are two routes, a northern and a southern. The former is described as the caravan route, the latter as a post-road. These routes would seem to coincide to the neighbourhood of Tel.i.Bel (m. 19) and again from Latifeh to Nisibin (the last 4 m. of the way): between Tel-i-Bel and Latifeh they are within a few miles of each other. The southern route appears to be a few miles longer than the northern, and is difficult, owing to heavy going, in winter. It may be remarked that the difference in length between the two routes is probably not so great as suggested by the estimates in the text. See note at end of introduction to Route 93 b. ROUTES 92 b, 93 a 261 ROUTE 93 a JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-NISIBIN (63 m.) NORTHERN ROUTE, via NARINJA Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., Route 183 (report of 1903). Report of a traveller who went over the route in recent years before the war (exact date uncertain). This is a good but stony caravan road, impassable for wheels, though easy for baggage animals. From Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Narinja the road ascends gradually for about 31 m. to a crest, and is rather rough and stony: afterwards it passes over open, gently undulating country in which cultivation and rocky lava-strewn ground alternate. From Narinja to Ghirimira the track winds over open undulating ground, which, though rocky in places, is easier than the country between Jezíret-ibn-'Omar and Narinja: it is also less cultivated. From Ghirimira to Nisibin the route is very easy all the way, through level, fertile, well-cultivated country containing irrigation cuts, rice- fields, mills, and tree plantations. There is a good supply of water, even in the dry season, from streams, springs, and wells along the whole route. Grazing apparently good, especially in spring. Fuel scarce. A fair amount of supplies is procurable near Jezīret-ibn- 'Omar and Nisibin, but not much elsewhere. Troops could camp near most of the streams crossed en route, but could get very little but water and grass. The villages, which are small, belong mainly to semi-nomadic Kurds, and a large part of the inhabitants, with their flocks and herds, move up to the hills in the summer. One account states that the Hawerki Kurds occupy the country between Jezīret-ibn-'Omar and Servan, the Aznair are found between Servan and the neighbourhood of Latifeh, and the Bonursi between Latifeh and Nisibin. Another account reports Alika Kurds between Jeztret- ibn.'Omar and Ghizhel, and Omerka from there to Tel-i-Bel : these may be sections of the Hawerki. There are several Syrian (Christian) villages between Narinja and Ghirimira: these are mentioned in the itinerary. Tai Arabs are found near Nisibin. The following times are reported by a traveller who recently went over the route : Hrs. Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. Narinja. | Ghirimira. Nisibin. He estimated the total distance by the route at 66 m. The authority of 1903 gives 613 m. 16 262 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jegīret- ibn. 'Omar NE 24 101 12 Jezīret-ibn-Omar. Cross arm of the Tigris by a wooden bridge (weak in 1907) on stone piers. Track reaches 1. bank of a small stream, the Saklan Chai: bed 100 yds. wide, bottom stony. In early autumn it is mainly dry, but contains pools at intervals. Cross to r. bank of stream. The stream is 100 to 400 ft. below level of country to W. Gradual ascent by zigzag path to Crest, 1,450 ft. Arnabat, 11 m. to r. Winding track over undulating country to Kāni Sifra (or Kāni Sipi, or Kānispi), a Kurdish village of 30 houses. Cultivation watered by a spring. The traveller who takes the southerly route gives this village as į m. on left. He also mentions Bazif, a deserted village, as 2 m. beyond Kani Sifra on l., and Killist, village of 15 houses, as 2 m. beyond Bazif on 1. Over boulder-strewn ground to Derbajia, village of 15 to 30 houses, 2 wells, on 1. Dimbel, 10 houses, off road to l., 1 m. from Derbajia. | Ghizhel (also called Gujal and Gijali), village of 15-20 houses, on l. Sivik, village 15 to 20 houses, on l., well. Khelani, village of 20 houses, on I., 4 springs, 1 well. Guriakazila about 1 m. on r. Cross Safan Chai, 10 yds. wide, bank 60 ft., stony bottom. The stream is small, but even in early autumn has a flow of 20,000 gals. p.h. Near it is the village of Safan, 20 to 40 houses, with village of Zerguz to r. Deserted village on I. (1903). Tel-i-Bel, village of 30 houses. Located by 1903 authority on r., 10 springs. Located by another authority on l. Tel-i-Bel is given as 6 hrs. from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. · The southerly route diverges to the l. at or beyond Tel-i-Bel. Cross a small stream. Megammar (Mergemekr ?), ruined village, 5 min. on r. Ford Remel Chai, small stream with rocky bottom, un- bridged. This stream is placed by one authority at 21 m. from Megammar and 2 m. from Narinja. Pass Dupikh, small ruined village. 17 20 201 22 23. ROUTE 93 a 263 Miles from Jeziret- ibn- 'Omar 25 261 31 ? 321 One authority mentions fording the Narinja Chai, which has good and abundant water. Narinja (alt. 1,900 ft.). Several springs. Usual caravan stage, no khan. Continue over plain, road winding and stony, to Banik, on r., 4 springs (1903). Later authority also gives Dopok as i m. to left, Qara Kharāb (Kharāb-i-Kai ? See Route 93 b, m. 25) as 1 m. to r., and Khirbeh Susina as 21 m. to r. Alkamsh, on the r., 2 wells. (Latest authority gives 2 hrs. as the time taken between Narinja and Alkamsh. Authority of 1903 gives the distance as 3 m.) Babet, a ruined village on l., 3 springs. Pass Zehwik, 4 m. to l., and Serkani, i m. to r. Gherirush, a ruined village and mound on l., on a small stream with good water. Over level ground to Khāniq, small village on r., two springs. Bawerd, 40 to 50 houses (deserted ? See Route 93 b, m. 434), 14 m. on l. Opposite it is Ghirbaraz, 1 m. to r. Pass a ruined village, on l., 3 springs (1903). Servan, 15 to 20 houses. Spring. Pass Qasrbelek, į m. to l., and Koli Köi (or Kolik), Syrian village, i m. to r. Opposite Koli Köi is Qasr Sepi, a Kurdish village à m. from road. Kenik, Syrian village, 50 to 60 houses, several good springs, good cultivation. Cross the Servan Chai, no bridge. Geravsh, å m. to 1. Bīr Gurija, Syrian village on r., 30 to 40 houses, 7 wells. Tel Hasan, on r., a mound, no village. Ghuriamara, 11 m. to 1. Latest authority states that from here to Nisibin the road can be used by carriages. Gundik, ruins of Syrian village, 17 m. from road. Merbab, Syrian village, 1 m. to r. Ghirimira, alt. 1,400 or 1,500 ft., Syrian village, 4 springs and 7 wells. Caravan stage. Tel Minār, mixed Kurdish and Syrian village, at the foot of a mound on r., spring and 6 wells. 51 531 264 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret. ibn. 'Omar مي باد Pass Shuesk, #m. to r., Tel Ahbud, 1 m. to l., and 'Arbeh, i m. to l. Kirtwan, on r. at foot of mound, 60 houses. 3 or 5 wells. Latīfeh, village of 40 houses, à m. to l. of northerly route. It is given as to r. of the southerly route. Southerly route (cf. below, Route 93 b, m. 692) comes in here from l. Jum'a (Jema Jemalu ?), village, 2 m. to 1. Girhasin, village with mound, on r. Well (latest authority says 2 wells). Aintan, village of 40 houses, 1 m. to 1. Mooris, village, 2 m. to r. (1903). Mill on r. Mahmakia, village of 50 houses, į m. to l. Stream and wells. Weisik, 1 m. to r. Mill on r. Irrigation stream crosses from 1. Mill on r. Irrigation stream crosses from 1. River Jaghjagha. Cross by good stone foot-bridge, 9 arches (it is not clear whether this should be identified with the ‘12-arched' stone bridge in Route 92 a, m. 1564). | Nisibin. 63 ROUTE 93 b JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR—NISIBIN (734 m. ?) SOUTHERN ROUTE, via AZNAIR AND DEIRUN Authorities :-Route reports of autumn 1903 and 1907. Route report of Feb. 1903 from Batirzan onwards (see Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, no. 184). It was reported in 1903 that the section of this route between Jezīret-ibn-'Omar and Tel Kharāb (m. 501) was in general impassable for wheels on account of the frequent deep wadis and the rocky, accidented nature of the country, but that field artillery might pass with difficulty, needing help among boulders and at wadis. From Tel Kharāb to Nisibin there is a good unmetalled road over ROUTES 93 a, b 265 red-brown soil, fit for wheels in the dry season, over nearly level country. The southern route as a whole is said to be difficult in winter on account of mud. Abundant water from springs, streams, and wells. Estimates of water in the streams are for the end of the dry season (early autumn). Excellent grazing. Fuel scarce. Supplies en route very scanty for troops. Camping-grounds near most of the streams. The inhabitants are mainly Kurdish. Hessina Kurds were reported in 1907 between Tel-i-Bel and the boundary of the Jezīret kaza (m. 253), Alya from Batirzan to the Jerrahi Su, and Aznair from Hajilo to Latīfeh. Some Syrian Christians are found among the Aznaour. The following times were reported by a traveller who went over the route from Nisibin to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar in autumn, 1903 : Hours. 0 Nisibin. Tel Kharāb. 11 Batirzan. 201 | Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. He used the route in dry weather when the going was at its best. He estimates the total distance by this route at 65 m., whereas an authority of 1907 puts it at 687 m. An authority of Feb. 1903 gives the distance from Deirun-i-Agha (m. 361) to Nisibin as 292 m. The total distance given in the itinerary below (734 m.) has resulted from taking the largest estimate in several places where these authorities disagree. It is probably too great. All important discrepancies between the authorities have been noticed in the text of the itinerary. Miles from Jezīret- ibn. 'Omar 19 25 253 Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. For route as far as Tel-i-Bel see Route 93 a. Tel-i-Bel. Southerly route diverges to the l. from the northerly either at, or at some little distance beyond, Tel-i-Bel. Kharāb-i-Kai, village of 10 houses (1903), or 35 houses (1907), on r. Spring with discharge of 4,000 gals. p.h. Cross nullah, bed 80 yds. wide, banks 25 ft. high, rocky bottom. Discharge about 20,000 gals. p. h. Clear spring on hill above stream. This nullah, which is called the Saklan Su by an authority of 1907, is the boundary of the Jezīret kaza. Kharāb-i-Razīyeh, deserted village, on r. (1903). Springs with discharge of 4,000 gals. p.h. 27 266 LAND ROUTES 431 Miles from Jezirot- ibn. Omar 331 Batirzan, village of 20 houses. Two springs with daily discharge of some 20,000 gals. Good camping-ground. (Batirzan is placed 81 m. from Kharāb-i.Kai by the authority followed here (1907): an authority of 1903 places it 41 m. from Kharāb-i-Kai.) From Batirzan to Deirun-i-Agha the track is rough and stony. 341 Wadi, 50 yds. wide, banks 30 ft., gravel bottom. Daily flow of 4,000 gals. 361 Deirun-i-Agha, fort, village of 40 houses, on l. Spring and wells. (The authority of Feb. 1903 places this village 2 m. from Batirzan.) Route 91 d, from Feishkhabur, joins here. 373 Deserted village à m. to l. : another on r. (1903). 381 Stream (Alīp Su ?) crosses from r., banks 20 ft. high, stony bottom. Discharge some 20,000 gals. p.h. Deserted village & m. to l. (1903). Bawerd, large deserted village, on r. (1903): stream and wells. (See Route 93 a, m. 372.) 453 ? Cross Jerrahi Su. Bed 100 yds. wide, banks 60 ft. high. River 10 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep. Current 21 m. p. h. (This river is placed by the authority of 1907 at 77 m. from Deirun, 51 m. from the Alip Su, and 3 m. from the Bawerd stream. The authority of Feb. 1903 makes the crossing of the river only 54 m. from Deirun. The authority of autumn, 1903, has here been followed.) Hajilo, village of 35 to 50 houses with fort, on 1. Stream crosses from r. beyond village, no banks. Discharge of 4,000 gals. p.h. 483 Chimirlu, village of 35 houses, on r.: 2 springs. A stream which crosses road from r. beyond village has a discharge of about 10,000 gals. p.h. Tel Kharāb (or Tez Kharāb), village of 30 houses on l. Two springs forming stream with a discharge of 8,000 gals. p.h. Seruja stream crosses from r. No banks, stony bottom, 10 yds. wide, 1 ft. deep, current 1 m. p.h. Aznair, village of 60 houses with fort, on l. Spring and 2 wells. (This place is given as 2 m. beyond the Seruja Chai by the authority of autumn, 1903, and 14 m. by the authority of Feb. 1903. The authority of 1907 is followed here.) The track to Ghirkezira (m. 631) is level and free from stones. 471 504 521 561 ROUTE 93 b 267 Miles from Jezīret- ibn Omar 581 603 611 631 641 Ghirikshamo, large fortified village, , m. to l. Tel Jehān, village of 40 houses, on r. : 2 wells. Tel esh-Shā'ir, village of 100 houses, on l. Ghirkezira, village of 25 houses, on l.: 2 wells. (This place is given by the authority of 1907 as 31 m. beyond Aznair, and 6 m. by the authority of Feb. 1903. The authority of autumn 1903 is here followed.) Dergezu, village of 40 houses, 1 m. to r. Gizbeki, village, 3 m. to 1. Tel Yakub, village of 30 houses, 2 m. to r. Hader Hassan (Qara Hasan, or Karassan), village of 20 houses, on r. One well. (This place is given as 6 m. from Nisibin by the authority of Feb. 1903.) Nameti, village, 2 m. to 1. Kirtwan, village of 35 houses, 1 m. to r. Latīfeh, village of 40 houses, on r. This route joins the northerly route (cf. above, Route 93 a, m. 59) at this point. Nisibin. 732 268 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 94 NISIBIN–MARDĪN (37 m.) Authorities :Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 181 (report of January, 1903). Military Report on Arabia, Route 22 (report of 1903). Route report of 1907. Notes by a traveller who went over the route a few years before the war (exact date uncertain). As far as Tel Hurrin the road is an unmetalled track, passable for carts, over country practically flat, with no impediment to passage of all arms in dry weather, but it is made very heavy by rain. The road is brown soil for 15 m. from Nisibin; thereafter it is stony. The general direction is WNW. At 41 m. from Mardin the road begins to ascend, but the ascent is by a metalled car- riage-road, systematically graded : this was reported good and the gradients fairly easy in 1903: an authority of 1907 states that the gradients are steep, and the surface is worn in places. In the region of Dara there are said to be alternative roads. A steep range of mountains is on the r. all the way, 2 to 5 m. off, 1,500 ft. or more above the plain : the lower slopes are stony, with some grazing ; the upper slopes have brushwood and trees. Streams en route are no obstacles ; they are shallow in wide stony beds. Water is found in wells at villages and in streams at Dara and Nisibin (in the dry season of 1903 it was reported that there was hardly any water except in the above-mentioned streams, which were ample for military purposes). Supplies en route sufficient for travellers, but hardly any for military purposes. Camping-grounds at Nisibin and Dara. The country near the route contains fairly numerous villages, the inhabitants being mainly Kurdish, with some Syrian Christians in places. In 1903 the march from Mardīn to Nisibin was made by a traveller in the following times : Hrs. O Mardin. 61 Dara. 121 Nisibin. A later authority gives the following times : Hrs. O Mardin. 63 Tel 'Amūdeh (Dara). 107 Nisibin. ROUTE 94 269 Miles from Nisibin 1 6 Nisibin. Cross the Khinis Chai, a good stream, by a rough stone bridge. Small stream crosses from r.: no banks. Tel A'far, village å m. to r. Has small stream, no well. Another authority says 1 well. Stream crosses from r.: no banks: discharge 4,000 gallons p.h. Stream crosses from r.: no banks: discharge 2,000 gallons p.h. Kalla Affa, village of 30 houses, ž m. to r. Kharāb Qurt, village of 50-100 houses, i m. to r. : in- habitants are Kotchikan Kurds. (A later authority gives Kharabat, a village with 4 wells, one hour beyond Tel A'far on r. : apparently the same place is meant. An authority of 1907 places Kharāb Qurt at 41 m. from Nisibin.) . Tel esh-Sha'ir, village, 1 m. to l. Authority of 1907 places Tilshehir' (30 houses of Mirsinen Kurds) là m, beyond Kharāb Qurt. Kodo, village im. to l., 1 well (another authority says 2 wells). Mandara, village, 2 m. to r., 1 well (another authority says 2 wells). Dodan, village, 1 m. to l., 1 well. Qasr Serchikhen, a village of 20-50 houses, on r. ; 2 wells. Inhabitants Bubelan Kurds. Remains of an old fort. A short distance beyond this village a road diverges to r. leading to the ruins of Dara, beyond which it rejoins the caravan-road, while a branch leads to Midiat (see Route 97c). Shorik, village of 50 houses, i m. to l., 2 wells. Hasdek, village, į m. to l., 2 wells. Other villages are seen to r. and l. between this point and m. 17. ‘Amūdeh, large village of 200 houses 2 m. to l., 12 wells. Dakori Kurds. (Amūdeh is placed 102 m. from Qasr Serchikhen by an authority of 1907.) There is a route from Tel Ermen (see Route 126, introduc- tion) followed by Turks on the march between Ras El-Ain, Nisibin and Mosul (Route 91, Appendix 4) in January 1916. Marching time from Tel Ermen to ‘Amūdeh was given as 111 hrs. ; 'Amūdeh to Nisibin, 9 hrs. ‘Amūdeh Chai, a shallow stream, flowing from r. (from Dara). Discharge estimated at 20,000 gall. p.h. in early autumn, good water. 270 LAND ROUTES Miles from Nisibin 24 26 Ruins of the Byzantine fortress of Dara lie up the valley of the 'Amudeh Chai to r. There is a Kurdish village in the ruin-area. See Route 97 c, m. 16. Qarashiq, a Kurd village, į m. to r., 2 wells. The foot of hills is å m. to r. Large village (Qaraliq ?), ^ m. to l. Qaraliq has 2 wells. Qasr Kalendelan, a Kurd village, on 1., 2 wells. Remains of an old tower. Road now runs over cultivated plain. Deserted village 1 m. to 1. (1903). Deserted village on I. (1903). Tel Hurrin, a village of 100 houses, on l., 2 wells (another authority says 3), water 25 ft. from surface, good supply. One authority states that the village is inhabited by Syrian Christians, another that it is Kurdish. The Kalendelan Kurds are apparently found in the neighbourhood.: Road leaves cultivated plain. Qasr Jiran, village on r, at foot of hills, 3 wells. A metalled carriage-road, systematically graded, winds up hill-side. | Mardīn, 1,600 ft. above plain. 281 324 37 ROUTE 95 a MARDĪN—DIARBEKR (54 m.) Via KHĀNEKI Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 178 (report of 1902); sketch- map of 1902: notes by a traveller who went over the route a few years before the war (exact date uncertain). Before the war this road was at least partially metalled. In 1902 it was reported to be metalled for the first 164 m. from Mardin and for the last 82 m. into Diarbekr: the former section was then in fairly good order, the latter rough and bad to within about 4 m. from Diarbekr. The unmetalled part was rough and stony and heavy in the rainy season, but on the whole fair in dry weather.. Up to the present war the route as a whole was passable for carts but not practicable for carriages in the rains. The T.L. follows the general line of the route. Between Mardın and Khāneki Yuqāri supplies are scarce and good water not abundant, but fuel is plentiful. Between Khāneki and Diarbekr supplies are less scarce, water is fairly plentiful, and fuel is very scarce. ROUTES 94, 95 a 271 A recent authority gives the following times for the route from Diarbekr to Mardin : Hrs. O Diarbekr. Khānag Punār. Khāneki Yuqäri. 14 Sheikhăn, Mardin, Miles from Mardin Mardīn. Descend steep hill from Mardın into the plain. The descent is rough and stony, and some of the gradients are very steep. Part of the road is paved in shallow ledges. 44 Reach plain (12 hrs. from here to Mardın). Follow up the ravine of the Gov watercourse, a winding ascent with fairly easy gradients. The ravine is usually dry except in rains. Pass 'Omar Agha Punār with 1 spring. Pass Khānaraq, small village to l. Ascend, through bare rocky hills, the Jebel Afz. Cross crest of range (alt. 3,550 ft.), low summits covered with oak scrub on either side. Descend into narrow valley of Sheikhān. 7į Pass Sheikh Alia (3 hrs. from here to Mardīn), a small village ž m. to r. On sketch-map of 1902 this place is marked at m. 10. Continue to descend valley of the Sheikhān. Cross to r. bank by three-arched stone bridge. To NW. hills rise to 3,700 ft. 11 Sheikhān, village of 60 houses to l. (5 hrs. from here to Mardın). Continue to descend valley. Valley here 1 m. wide. Hills rise some 400 ft. on either hand. Small bridge to l. bank of Sheikhān Chai. Ascend valley of small stream. Metalled chaussée now ends. Next cross valley of a small stream flowing N. Tozian is a large village with vines and orchards 2 m, down this stream. Wind among low, stony, scrub-covered hills to a col, alt. 3,500 ft. Pass Avgaor, small village to r. Khāneki Yuqāri (Upper), the usual halting-place, a Kurdish village on hill-side. Good water from stream ; wood abundant. Road winds down narrow valley of the Shammerkh Chai passing some small villages. Khāneki Ashāghi (Lower), a fair-sized village to l. Descend the valley by r. bank of the stream. The stream is a SE. arm of the Gök Su, a tributary of the Tigris which rises in the Qarajeh Dāgh. 272 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mardin 31 " Khān Shash pir. Rise out of valley over a broad spur. Sheikh Ilyās, a small village with spring, 1 m. to r. Cross the Gök Su, easily fordable except in flood. Another authority speaks of a good stone bridge here. Ka- mishlu, 1 m. to 1. (to r., on sketch-map) on banks of Gök Su. It is a usual stopping-place for caravans. Pass Khānaq Punār, large village to l. Cross open undu- lating country, with much cultivation. Shukerli lies to r. in river valley. Hereabouts route from Midiat to Diarbekr joins (see Route 101). Descend from a plateau in a NW. direction. Qara Köprü, masonry bridge, 5 arches and 20.ft. roadway with parapet, over the Quru Chai, which comes from SW., a considerable stream with rocky bed difficult to ford. Metalled chaussée said to begin here in 1902, but to be so rough that caravans prefer to avoid it. Track now skirts low hills and runs towards the Tigris, which it then follows. Masonry bridge, 8 arches, 50 yds. long, with 20-ft. road. way, over the Hawār Chai, which flows from the Qarajeh Dāgh. The lower portion of the valley is cultivated, but to the W. it is stony and bare. The track through Derek to Mardin branches off S. at this bridge (see Route 95 c). Kabi village. Haji 'Isa (15 Kurdish houses) on 1. bank of Tigris. Another authority mentions Charokhi village, 100 houses of Chaldaeans, about 3-4 m. from Diarbekr. Keep along r. bank by a good metalled chaussée, passing stone bridge over the Tigris, across which leads the Farqin road (Route 103 a). Route 117 b joins hereabouts. 'Diarbekr. 49 50 54 ROUTE 95 b MARDĪN—DIARBEKR (682 m.) Via AVINEH AND QIRQ Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 179 (report of 1903). From Qara Punār (m. 363), notes of a traveller who rode over the route in 1909. See also under m. 443. This route is not passable for wheels between Mardin and Qirq Dilek. Up to Qirq it follows the ordinary caravan-route (of which, … … ……-- - ------ --- - ROUTES 95 a, b 273 however, no particulars are available ; compare Route 102 a, m. 231) from Mardin to Farqın via Bismil on the Tigris. On the section from Mardın to Avineh (m. 21) the first 2 hrs. are very rough and difficult. After that the track winds up and down over stony country, with several long ascents and descents to the valley of the Sheikhān, down which the track to Avineh is easy. Beyond Avineh the route in the valley of the Sheikhān is in some parts rocky and difficult for short distances, but generally easy. After Qirq Dilek the track enters the easy country of the Tigris valley, at first over gently undulating, and later over quite level, ground. The route here is very easy in dry weather, but heavy, after rain, Supplies are scarce until the Tigris valley, which contains much cultivation, is reached. Water and fuel abundant. Miles from Mardin 0 131 161 Mardīn. Leaving the W. end of Mardın in a N. direction, descend steeply by a winding and stony path for 3 m. to the watercourse at the bottom of main valley. Then a steep, very stony and difficult ascent. Summit. Gradual easy descent to Kefr Tel Chai. Wind up and down through bare un. dulating country. Kehzian, small Kurdish village. Thence a short distance along a low ridge and descend a small valley. Sheikhăn Chai. Reach r. bank of river, here a con. siderable stream in a well-cultivated valley with many groves of young poplars and fruit-trees. The path now becomes easy and follows r. bend of stream past Baghistān to r. Avineh (alt. 2,500 ft.), large Kurdish village of 200 houses situated in a well-cultivated valley draining W. into the Sheikhăn Chai. Leave Avineh in a NW. direction. From here to the ford across the Sheikhān Chai the route is in some places rather difficult, with steep hills on either side. Rejoin r. bank of Sheikhăn Chai. Cross Sheikhān Chai by a shallow ford. Follow 1. bank of stream: path rocky and difficult in places. Hills become lower and easier. Cross stream and pass to l. of Qirq Dilek. For alterna- tive route from Qirq Dilek to Shukerli (m. 54% below) see Route 101, m. 434-m. 654. 23 254 273 301 MES. IV s 274 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mardin 322 0 361 The hills proper now cease and the country to N. is open, easy, and undulating. Continue down r. bank of stream. Pass Köpekli. Birik, to. 1. Cross stream. Qara Panār (Armenian), on 1. bank of Sheikhān Chai. Track comes in here from 'Isa Punār and Ahmedi, cross- ing the Sheikhăn Chai near the village. See Route 101, under m. 314. Route winds over undulating, easy, culti- vated country for 43 m. Turkman Haji. (This village is perhaps somewhat farther from Qara Punār: the time taken between the two places was 1 hr. 25 min. by an authority who rode over the route in 1909.) Cross a small stream. Gök Su, a stream here 40 ft. wide, 18 in. deep in April, 1903: gravelly bottom. On r., 11 m. off, is the Tigris, here joined on its 1. bank by the ‘Ambar Chai. Qirq (or Qilq Haqiqeh), on 1. bank of Gök Su at foot of a mound; a Kurdish village of 70 houses. 414 Route to Diarbekr by 1. bank of the Tigris (authority, 1909). Total distance ridden in 41 hrs. Miles 0 21 Qirq. Ford across Tigris (50 min. ride). The Tigris was ford- able on May 31st, 1909, apparently without difficulty. Good road to Holen. (See Route 102 a.) Sadi Köi. Satil. Ford Tigris near old bridge. | Diarbekr. 10 18 463 491 521 Head due W. from Qirq. Track now over level, cultivated ground to r. bank of the Tigris, which is followed. Hujeti (Hijeti) on r. Over cultivated ground to Yuvaijik, on l. Bajwan, on r. Shukerli, 1 m. to l. Over level, cultivated ground. Reach Mardin--Diarbekr chaussée and cross Quru Chai. (See Route 95 a, m. 421-m. 54.) Diarbekr. 543 56 AWAWAWAH 681 ROUTES 95 b, c 275 ROUTE 95 c MARDĪN—DIARBEKR (64. M.). Via DEREK Authority :-Route-report of June 1907 : Taylor, 1866. This route is rough and stony, and is probably not passable for carts beyond Derek; but no definite statement on this point is available. In rain the lower ground is heavy, and the streams may be serious obstacles. Supplies are very scanty ; water is very scarce as far as Derek, and does not seem to be plentiful in summer and autumn between Derek and Diarbekr. Fuel is abundant throughout. The inhabitants of the country traversed are Kurds. The Kharok occupy the country between Derek and the neighbourhood of Gula- guli. That village and Girisor are inhabited by Metina Kurds. The Gherb are found N. of Gulaguli up to Sipiyan. For a route running between the spurs of the Māzi Dāgh and Qarajeh Dāgh passing some way W. of Derek see Route 117 a. Miles from Mardin 251 288 291 Mardīn. For the route from Mardin to Derek see Route 116 a, m. 552-m. 30. Derek, see Route 116 a, m. 30. Much water in the neigh- bourhood. Road ascends steadily but not abruptly up E. side of the Derek valley, between hills ridged with rocky outcrops and craggy summits. It shows signs of having once been made, but is now very rough and stony. Top of ascent, reached in 11 hrs. Much oak scrub. Cross a number of low hills. Well (Serinj) about 300 yds to r. of track. Road descends gently through thick oak scrub, becoming less stony and more level. Shortly after it improves it turns a little W. of N. following trend of a low ridge, and then turns N. again, and drops into a cup-like depression between low hills: clay soil, heavy after rain. Gulaguli, hamlet, with some trees. Dry stream-bed and large pond. Metina Kurds. Girisör on l. of track. Pond. Road turns N. by W. A road to Bismil and Farqin diverges to r., but no 353 8 2 276 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mardin particulars concerning it are available: it joins the caravan-route mentioned in the introduction to Route 95 b. 404 Small well. Road descends gradually, crosses small valley and climbs ridge, making détour to l. 415 On summit of ridge, to r., ruins of Qal'ah Mir Khedreh, a good landmark. Diarbekr may be visible from it. On farther side of ridge is a clear pool under limestone rock. Route now bends NW. by W. and drops sharply into a de- pression, whence it descends gently to a plain, heavy in wet weather. 444 Sipiyan, on l. of track. Good water from spring. Some trees, and a khan. Gherb Kurds. After a level tract the road crosses some low rising ground and becomes less stony. Diarbekr lies due N. 464 Cross the Quru Chai (dry at end of June, 1907) in deep nullah about į m. wide with steep sides. Cross stream-bed, dry in June. Sehperteh, broad stream in 3 channels in December. Spring. Village à m. to r. 541 Qazuq Tepeh. The track descends to the Mardın-Diar- bekr chaussée, near bend of Tigris. Follow this road into Diarbekr. Route 95 a is apparently joined between m. 44 and m. 49. 644 | Diarbekr. 481 51% ROUTE 96 a JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR—MIDIAT (65 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 178 (report of 1885); report of 1895. The tracks from Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Midiat traverse the Tur Abdin plateau, which stretches from the Tigris on the N. and E. to Mardin and Diarbekr on the W. and Nisibin on the S. On this last side it falls steeply to the plain of the Jezireh. The summit of the plateau is a stony down country interspersed with numerous oak woods. Water is scarce outside the villages and monasteries, where the supply comes largely from pools fed by winter rains and snows. Most of the plateau is very thinly populated. The inhabitants are mainly Jacobite Christians, and there are numerous Jacobite monasteries (deirs). The country has been in a state of unrest during ROUTES 95 c, 96 a 277 the war, and the Christians may have suffered at the hands of the Moslems, who are Kurds. From Jezīret-ibn-'Omar to Midiat the direction is W. This route was reported in 1895 to be a troublesome stony track on which quick travelling was impossible. It is not passable for wheels. Supplies for troops scanty. Water-supply scarce (December); fuel plentiful. Between Jezîret-ibn-'Omar and Midih a troublesome difficult track, mostly level after the ascent to the plateau, but winding, through volcanic, boulder-strewn country. Near Selakun very boggy and almost impassable after heavy rain. Several rather deep valleys are crossed. There are a few Kurd villages and the large Jacobite village of Azekh : cultivation nearly all the way. Few small springs. For an alternative route to Azekh see Route 96 b. Between Midih and Midiat the country is very rough, rocky, and stony, the route leading up and down through intricate hills. Country wild and desolate, with few villages. No water except at villages, which are supplied with deep rain-water ponds : supplies scarce, brushwood everywhere. An authority of 1895 gives the following times from Midiat to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar : Hours. Midiat. Sheikh Khān. 8 Basebrina. 151 Azekh. 221 Miles from 3 Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. Jeziret. ibn- 'Omar 0 Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. Ascend gradually from the Tigris, the first mile being over cultivated ground, the second a winding, stony ascent. Basisk. Route winds over rocky ground with the Tigris about 3 m. r. Ausar, 30 houses, to r. with wells; water close to surface. Low stony hills to N. on farther bank of Tigris. Umakh, alt. 1,800 ft., small village. Continue over cultivated stony ground, undulating, and cut up by shallow ravines with fewer boulders. Abundance of hay and grass (December), but not much tillage. Some shallow water-courses. Azekh or Hazakh (alt. 2,270 ft.). 300 houses : Jacobite Christians : some Protestants converted by American missionaries. Numerous vineyards and some cultivation. 278 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jeziret- ibn- 'Omar 23 28 391 18 Narrow track among boulders. The country hereabouts on either side of the road for some miles is very stony, and so boggy after heavy rain as to be impassable. Selakun, 1 m. r. Small Moslem village. Follow an easy track over the plain, crossing a small stream ; abundance of good grass on the plain (December) for sheep-grazing. Fertile soil, but little cultivated. Cross a deep rocky ravine. Country much cut up by ravines running E. towards Tigris. Midih, a large Jacobite village of 130 houses surrounded by much cultivation. It lies on the side of a deep, dry gorge : oak woods. , Road now is an easy and well-marked track, 15 ft. wide, through an open, broad, and almost level cultivated valley. 'Arabān. Christian village. Country now becomes more stony. Deir Mashimun, l. This is a ruined monastery. Basebrina Christian village with several monasteries. From here a track goes over a rolling plateau, passing Khaltan (6 m.), Zakharan (92 m.), Gundik (12 m.), to Kerboran (20 m.). Water scarce. To Basebrina from Midiat was found a very difficult stage in 1885, and the pace of the mules on the march from Midiat was from 11 to 27 m. p.h. Kefr Bey, small village, r. Moslems and Jacobites. Some vineyards. Deir el-Ahmar, Jacobite monastery in a ravine. Cross a series of winding ravines by a bad track. Subsoil porous limestone. Scrub oak on steep and intricate hills. Sheikh Khān, a few huts on isolated hill to I. Difficult track among boulders and ridges for a short way, and then a rocky path winding up and down. Muzeizeh, 50 good two-storied houses, to r. Good grazing in spring. Thence over undulating country: hills sparsely covered with oak scrub. In the bottom the track is easy over cultivated land, but narrow, steep, and rough over the ridges. There are no streams in the valleys. Midiat (alt. 3,800 ft.). 51 551 57 601 65 ROUTES 96 a-97 a 279 ROUTE 96 b JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-AZEKH (22 m.) Via FinUK FERRY Authority :-Notes by a traveller who rode over this route in 1909. This route ascends the 1. bank of the Tigris to Finuk, where there was a ferry before the war. The river is crossed at Finuk, and the Tur Abdin plateau is traversed by a road that is little better than an unmetalled bridle track. Miles from Jeziret. ibn. 'Omar Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. Follow Route 85 as far as Fiņuk Ferry. Village and cave-dwellings in a side ravine (see Route 85, m. 9); ruins of several castles overlooking the Tigris, the principal being on a crag above the mouth of the side ravine. Climb to summit of Tur Abdin plateau. Stony down. country very thinly populated. Only three villages seen. Clover in spring. Hundak, Christian village. Thelaila, Moslem village. Kodakh (?): marked on Kiepert's map 2-3 m. S. of the road. | Azekh. (See Route 96 a, m. 22.) ROUTE 97 a NISIBIN-MIDIAT (292 m.) Via THE VALLEY OF THE JAGHJAGHA Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 185 a (report of 1903. After the first 4 m. over the plain, rocky hills or a stony plateau are crossed by a rough, difficult track. The Jaghjagha, m. 134, is an unfordable stream bordered for a considerable distance by a thick belt of trees. The hill-sides are steep and rocky, covered 280 LAND ROUTES with brushwood and stunted oak-trees. Most of the villages are Kurd, some Syrian. Water-supply is almost entirely from rain- water cisterns. Supplies of grain are rather scanty, but there are plenty of sheep and goats. Miles from Nisibin 131 Nisibin. Leaving Nisibin in a northerly direction, cross stony almost level ground up r. bank of the Jaghjagha stream. Shanisheh, l. On r. and on the far bank of the stream some distance farther on is Bawerd. Enter hills and follow valley of the Jaghjagha Su, bordered with gardens. Qal'ah el-Bunisri (Qalʼat esh-Sheikh Ahmed ?), a village on a hill-top, l. | Cross to l. bank of stream by a rough, narrow bridge of trees and stones ; the river is deep and unfordable. Thence rough and stony, winding up valley. Junction of Āv-i-Resh (Qara Su) and Av-i-Spi (Aq Su), which form the Jaghjagha. The water of the former is dark and not good ; that of the latter is clear and drinkable. Reach springs forming the source of the Av.i-Spi, several large caves in the neighbourhood ; thence up a narrow, stony, winding valley, well wooded. Alt. 3,050 ft. Crest of a bare stony plateau. Over a stony flat to Nehel (Enhel), a Syrian village. Rain-water cisterns. (Dalineh village is said to lie to the S. of Nehel, but its position cannot be determined with certainty. An authority of 1910 seems to put it about 7-9 m. from Midiat. Both Dalineh and Nehel are said to be nests of robbers.) Thence gradual stony descent of 1 m., and 22 m. along a narrow valley. Kershef, a Kurdish village, r. Descent begins to Midiat valley; gradual and stony for å m., then 1 m. across cultivated ground. | Midiat. 13. 191 264 281 292 ROUTES 97 a-c 281 ROUTE 97 b NISIBIN–MIDIAT (38 m. ?) . Via SHOBAN Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 185 a. This route is said to be easier, but some 8 m. longer, than the route from Nisibin to Midiat via the Jaghjagha valley. It is probably about 12 m. shorter than the route by Dara. The only information available is contained in the following time-table (for caravans), and in Route 97 c, m. 40%-m. 492: Hours 31 Nisibin. Dala. Bamidi. Shoban. Chaleh. (See Route 97 c, m. 301.) Tinat. Kefr Zuti. (See Route 97 c, m. 402.) by Route 97 c to Midiat. Midiat. 104 Thence 13 ROUTE 97c NISIBIN-MIDIAT (492 m.) Via DARA Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 186 (report of 1903). Notes by a traveller who went over the route a few years before the war (exact date uncertain). This route is said to be passable for wheels in dry weather as far as Dara. Beyond Dara it is a rough, stony track winding up and down through low, rocky, brushwood-covered hills. A recent report states that from Kefr Allab (m. 453) to Midiat there is a good driving road. 282 LAND ROUTES Water and supplies scarce, but there is a certain amount of cultivation in the valleys and most of the villages are surrounded by vineyards. The following times are given by a recent authority: Hours Nisibin. 53 Dara. 131 Siti. 171 | Midiat. Miles from Nisibin 83 211 22* Nisibin. Follow the Mardīn road. See Route 94, m. 0- m. 83. Qasr Serchikhen. Route to Dara and Midiat apparently diverges from the route to Mardin, a short distance beyond this village. Qasr Ahmad Shero (apparently . m. to r.). Dara. Alt. 2,000 ft. Extensive ruins of Byzantine fortress. 85 Kurdish houses, 15 Syrian. Good water from stream. Proceed in N. direction, ascending valley of the Dara stream. On either side there is cultivation in terraces on the slopes of steep, rocky, brushwood-covered hills. Kurdis. Usual caravan stage. This is a Kurdish village surrounded with cultivation and many trees. Ascend valley past Kasrik village. Kureka Cheto, Kurdish village. Kharāb, 1 hr. to r. Thence gradual stony ascent to head of valley and crest (3,000 ft.). Cross a stony valley, wind through vine- yards to Jinata : 2 Kurdish villages of this name to l. (This place is given in a recent account as 11 hrs. from Kureka Cheto. Report of 1903 makes the distance 11 m.) Thence winding up and down through very broken, intricate country to Qara Brushk, Kurdish village, on r. Pass Talota on l. Jebel Gharās, 20 min. to 1. Chaleh, 2 hr. to r. (see Route 97 b). Winding and stony path to Sa'di, Kurdish village. Then across a deep valley and down to another valley. Siti, Kurdish village. (See Route 98 b, m. 122.) Alt. 2,600 ft. Caravan stage. Thence proceed E. up a narrow valley for ^ m. 251 ? 1 3 341 374 ROUTES 97 c, 98 a 283 Miles from Nisibin 384 403 453 Over cultivated ground through low hills. Kefr Zuti, Kurdish village, on r. (See Route 97 b.) Risheh, 10 min. to l. Along a stony ridge for 11 m., and through cultivation. Pass Kefr Allab, Kurdish and Jacobite village. From here a good road, passable for carriages, leads to Midiat, Estel on the Midiat-Mardin road (see Route 98 a, m. 21) lying 15 min. to l. The following details of the route from Kefr Allab to Midiat are from an account of 1903 : it is uncertain how far they apply to the driving road. Winding, stony ascent from Kefr Allab. Crest. Along ridge. Descend and cross valley, ascending ridge on further side. Crest. Along ridge. Short descent. Across cultivated plain. Midiat. 461 463 473 473 491 ROUTE 98 a MIDIAT-MARDĪN (40 m.) NORTHERN MAIN ROUTE via APSHI Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 185 (report of 1903). Notes by a traveller who went over the route a few years before the war (exact date uncertain). This is a caravan-route easy on the whole for mules, though too stony and rough for camels. The route leads over the Tur Abdin plateau, where the valleys are level and the hills are low. The only considerable inclines are the descent from the Tur Abdin plateau and the ascent to Mardın. Before the war the road was reported practicable for wheels, though not metalled, as far as Apshi (m. 111) and good as far as Estel (m. 22): beyond Apshi, not fit for wheels up to Reshmol (m. 35): from Reshmol to Mardin, passable again for vehicles and metalled. The track near the Seri Hofeh col (see m. 292) was rather bad for loaded animals. 284 LAND ROUTES The route runs through a comparatively populous and well-culti- vated part of the Tur Abdin plateau. Several of the villages passed are of considerable size. All the villages are on hills. Cornfields and many vineyards. Water only from rain; rain-water pools and cisterns at the villages. Brushwood plentiful. The inhabitants are mostly Kurdish (Muhalam tribe between Gengerez and Estel); there is also a Jacobite Christian element. An authority who recently travelled the route from Mardin to Midiat gives the following times: Hours Mardin. Maserta. Gengerez. Usual caravan stage. Time from Mardin, 9 hrs. for loaded animals. Apshi. | Midiat. Miles from Midiat Midiat. Proceed over fertile country consisting of a suc- cession of shallow depressions and limestone ridges. The road over the ridges was reported in 1903 to be rocky and to rise here and there in shallow steps : some years later it was said to be passable for wheels to Apshi. In the depressions the road is 8-10 ft. wide. Caves are frequently found in the limestone ridges. Numerous wells. Estel. Large village. Good cultivation. The water, which is from wells, is scarce. Kefr Hawar, about 1 hr. to l. Deir Izbīn, 100 houses, Kurd and Christian, to l. of road. Khirbet Alaf, caves used for flocks in winter. No settled population. Kunderib, 120 houses, Christian (Jacobite) village. Apshi, large village, inhabited by Syrian and Kurds. Cornfields and vineyards. Branch track to Hasan Kaif. Zernoka, 40-50 Kurdish houses, on r. Kurdish ziyaret on l. Gengerez (alt. 3,550 ft.), 120 houses ; fairly good khan. Usual caravan stage. Wells and rainpools. Khirbet Abdurrahman about 1 hr. to l. Route winds through low, stony hills. | Khirbeh Qal'at, 50-60 Kurdish houses. Wells: bad water. Wheat, barley, and vines. Tokeh, ruined and deserted in 1911. As Maserta is i approached the track is bad. M- Hea 201 ROUTES 98 a, b 285 Miles from Midiat 25 Maserta, large village, half Syrian, half Kurdish. The country is fertile and well cultivated. Vineyards exten- sive and famous. Water from wells and ponds. Track leads over undulating ground, covered with vineyards, for some miles. 2911 Ascent to Seri Hofeh pass by a track which is stony and bad for animals to descend. From the summit of the pass descend by a winding, steep, and stony track for about 1 m., then by a winding, stony, and gradual descent for about 2 m. Vineyards and fruit gardens in the ravine. Reshmol, houses estimated at 60 in 1903, and at 150 some years later. Inhabitants mainly Kurdish, with a few Christians. Good cultivation : vineyards. Water from springs. From this point the road is said to become passable for wheeled traffic. Cross unbridged watercourse usually dry, and ascend to Mardın by a gradual winding road reported to be metalled. Vineyards along road. 40 ) Mardīn, E. gate. 35 ROUTE 98 b MIDIAT-MARDĪN (50 m.) SOUTHERN ROUTE (BRIDLE PATH) via YEZDI Authority :-Notes by a traveller who rode over the route in 1909. Except for the short distance from Midiat to Estel and the last few miles into Mardın this route is apparently impossible for wheeled traffic. The track in the neighbourhood of m. 17 is stony and bad. There is no evidence as to supplies for military purposes, but they are probably scanty. No information as to water. Fuel probably plentiful. Qal'ah Namen Beg (about m. 42) seems to lie some distance from 286 LAND ROUTES the track, the authority whose account is here followed having pro- bably made a détour to examine it. The distances in the itinerary are very uncertain; they are based on the times reported by the authority. The total distance may be 5-6 miles less than that given below. 0 The following times are given : Hours Mardin. Tkhum. 8 Yezdi. Kirsefan. 173 | Midiat.. 121 Miles from Midiat Midiat. Follow Route 98 a to Estel. Estel. Route here followed diverges in a SW. direction to Kefr Hawar. Kefr Hawar. Track deteriorates. Siti, 2 m. up valley to l. (See Route 97 c, m. 371.) Kermati. Kirsefan. Bad rocky path. Fafigh, on point of a high tongue of land. Marji, NNW. of track. Gölli. Track leads SW. to Yezdi. Path rises. Khawarilek on 1. Mamitta on 1. Khamsora on r. Markute. Reskeh 'Arabin in a valley which is crossed by path. Ascend out of valley over a ridge covered with oak-scrub, and descend a long valley on the further side. Tkhum. Path ascends to Qal'ah Na'men Beg, ruined castle on top of a hill. From this castle a rocky, steep, and bad path leads down to Benibil. Cross valley and ascend round hill-side terraced with vineyards to Mardin. 50 ROUTES 98 b, 99 287 ROUTE 99 MIDIAT-HASAN KAIF (33 m.) Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 186 (report of 1903). Notes by a traveller who rode over this route in 1909. The track is difficult and perhaps impassable for wheels. An authority of 1909, however, says that the natives use two-wheeled country carts over it. From Midiat to the crest above Kefr Joz the path is winding and stony, but not very difficult; there is then a long, winding, stony descent past Kefr Joz to the valley, which is level and cultivated, heavy in wet weather, and about 3 m. broad. After leaving Kefr Joz valley the track is winding and stony, but easy enough till the ascent to Nakkaba Sor pass begins; from the pass down to Hasan Kaif the descent is rather steep and difficult. Supplies and water are said to be fairly plentiful, and there is some brushwood. Miles from Midiat 0 Midiat. Leaving in a northerly direction the route for 11 m. lies up an almost level valley, and then winds for 14 m. up a smaller branch valley to the crest. Stony ascent. Wind over level stony ground to Habsenas (alt. 3,200 ft.). 100 houses (90 Christian, 10 Kurd), strongly built of stone on a low, rocky ridge. Continue NNE. and wind through low, stony hills for 23 m., after which enter a cultivated valley, and strike up a branch of it. Derindib, on a hill, 1. Thence up a valley for į m., and up another branch valley for 3 m. On 1. is a large perennial spring from which water is taken to Midiat in years of drought. 1 m. farther reach the crest (3,700 ft.) overlooking the broad valley of Kefr Joz. A steep, winding descent of 1 hour (about 1,000 yds. in a direct line). Kefr Joz (Ker Jaouz), a large Kurdish village of 300 houses, with abundant water-supply, situated near the foot of the steep descent and looking N. over a broad well-cultivated valley 3 m. wide. In another į m. the path, which is here soft in spring, reaches the valley-level, alt. 3,100 ft. 17 288 LAND ROUTES Miles from Midiat 181 202 Pass Kefr Joz Chai, a small stream running W. Gulluka village, 15 min. to r. of road. Between this point and Ermaneh Route 100 joins. Enter well-cultivated valley of the Eddawa Chai. Pass Ermaneh village, 10 min. to 1. of road. Ground swampy. Valley about 1 m. wide. Pass several villages. The names of Eddawa on r., Narkatin on l., and Khirbeh Taq 1 m. to r. are given. Continue for 32 m. over wet, swampy ground; then turn 1 l., leaving the stream at the point where the track turns to l. Narwam village lies ahead up the valley. Ascend winding track 14 m. up mountain-side. im. of steep ascent. Nakkaba Sor Pass, summit, 3,500 ft. Track now winds down steep, stony mountain-side. Rashieh village, a hr. to 1. in this neighbourhood. Hasan Kaif, on the Tigris (see Route III G, m. 96). 26% 29 33 ROUTE 100 MARDĪN-HASAN KAIF (61 m.) Via KULLITH Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv., Route 187 (report of 1903). A rough, stony hill track, not passable for wheels, and from Kullith to Hasan Kaif difficult for loaded animals. Some supplies would be obtainable at Sor and Kefr Joz. Fuel and water abundant. Miles from Mardin Mardīn. A winding descent by a good road through terraced gardens for about 27 m. to the valley, and thence a steep, roughly paved, zigzag, difficult ascent to Crest, 3,700 ft. Wind down a stony valley; ascend steeply for 1 m. to crest of a ridge, and then descend cultivated valley of Surkichi Chai for 3 m. Near Bakais cross the Surkichi Chai by a small but good stone_bridge. ROUTES 99, 100 289 Miles from Mardin 13 181 191 221 Bakais. Ascend a narrow, winding valley up to crest of a ridge (alt. 3,250 ft.) from which Mardın is visible. Descend a winding, stony track down a narrow valley. Short ascent to Sor, small town. Chief place of a Kaza and seat of a Kaimmakam. Well supplied with gardens and water. For the route from Sor via Kullith to Diarbekr see Route 101, under m. 27. Track fairly easy to Kullith. Descend valley of the Sor Chai for a short distance. Cross a low, stony spur and enter the Kullith valley. There is a track from Sor to Bismil (Route 102, m. 23%). Pass Ahmedi, 120 Kurdish houses, 1 m. I. on the farther side of the junction of the Sor and Kullith streams. The Sor is about 20 ft. wide, and there is near Ahmedi a stone bridge crossed by the route to Diarbekr, see Route 101, under m. 311. Ascend Kullith valley on 1. bank of stream through vine- yards, cultivation, and groves of young poplars. Kullith (alt. 2,800 ft.), Syrian Jacobite village of 130 houses in a deep, well-cultivated valley. Water from a large spring below the village. From Kullith to the col above Qasr village the track is very difficult, winding, and stony, among rocky hills. Route reaches head of valley, and then winds through stony, brushwood-covered hills. Teffeh (alt. 3,750 ft.). 50 Kurdish houses, water from a spring. Winding track upand down through brushwood-covered hills. Hoskeh, Kurdish village, 1. (One account gives the time taken from Hoskeh to Teffeh as 2 hrs.) Cross a valley. Qasr, Kurdish village, 100 houses. Water from rain- cisterns. (The full name of this village appears to be Qasr Agha Tamo Giaouri.) Stony ascent from valley. Col, 3,650 ft. Then descend 1 m. Track easy to Hasur. Winding track through cultivation, passing Basiat village. Hasır, alt. variously given as 2,900 ft. and 3,250 ft. Kurdish, 120 houses. From Hasur, 71 m., over easy, undulating, and sometimes cultivated ground to N. edge of the Kefr Joz valley and the Eddawa Chai (see Route 99, m. 203). 27 302 341 352 361 371 404 MES. IV 290 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mardin 413 431 471 Cross Hasur Chai. This stream, which is here very small, later unites with the Kefr Joz and forms the Mahber Chai, which runs down the Bagas gorge to the Tigris over undulating, cultivated country, passing many small watercourses which flow from 1. Cross Mahber Chai, here a small stream ; no bridge. Mezraj village to r. Tilibat mound. Then pass over easy, undulating ground on N. side of Kefr Joz valley, till the Midiat-Hasan Kaif road is joined between Kefr Joz village and Ermaneh. Follow the road into Hasan Kaif (see Route 99, m. 181). | Hasan Kaif (see Route III G, m. 96). 61 ROUTE 101 MIDIAT-DIARBEKR (782 M.) Via KULLITH Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 180 (report of 1903). Notes by a traveller who went parts of the route in 1909. The route was described in March, 1903, as being possible, though in many places difficult, for guns. For the road from Midiat to Apshi, said to be passable for vehicles, see Route 98 a, introduction. From Apshi to Kullith it is an easy hill-track. Few villages, all Kurdish. Much cultivation. Brushwood. Water from rain-water cisterns and pools. From Kullith to Wersin, 231 m., a stony, difficult track. Path down the valley from Kullith easy. Steep descents into and ascents from Ahmedi, and over high and steep hills to Deirish. After Deirish, through low hills to Qirq Dilek ; then through undulating and easy country to Wersin. No water except from the three streams crossed. Much cultivation and many vineyards ; some brushwood; many young poplars near Kullith, Sor, and Ahmedi. From Wersin to Diarbekr the route is quite easy in dry weather ; it leads over bare, undulating, cultivated country. Villages are Kurdish. Springs fairly plentiful. No fuel. ROUTES 100, 101 29r Miles from Midiat 111 151 221 27 Midiat. Follow Midiat -- Mardin road to Apshi (see Route 98 a, m. 1-113). Apshi. Over easy, cultivated ground through low, rolling hills. Hulda, Kurdish village, I. From here the track becomes rough and stony over intri- cate ground characteristic of the Tur Abdin plateau. At some point between Hulda and Kullith the track apparently strikes the Mardin-Hasan Kaif road (see Route 100). Valley opens out, and track winds down cultivated valley between steep, rocky hills covered with brushwood. Kallith (alt. 2,800 ft.), Syrian Jacobite village of 130 houses in a deep, well-cultivated valley. (See Route 100, m. 222.) The border hills are steep, rocky, and difficult, particularly to the N. Water from a large spring below the village. Routes run from here to Mardın via Sor and to Hasan Kaif. (See Route 100.) A fairly good though somewhat stony and winding track leads down 1. bank of Kullith Chai to its junction with Sor Chai at Ahmedi, past groves of poplars and through vineyards and cornfields. Junction of the Kullith Chai and Sor Chai. The Sor Chai, here a shallow stream about 20 ft. wide, is crossed by a low three-arched stone bridge. Sor village is visible about 11 m. up the valley, which is well wooded and cultivated. The route to Mardin runs up the Sor valley. (See Route 100.) Ahmedi, Kurdish village of 120 houses. Alt. 2,350 ft. From Ahmedi a track passable for baggage animals leads to Qara Punār on the route Mardin-Diarbekr via Avineh. (See Route 95 b, m. 362.) Total marching time by a small caravan at the end of May, 64 hrs. Miles from Ahmedi: road goes N. over uplands. 10 Giriki Haji Paris, village 1 m. to N. 121 Girreh Azair. 151 'Isa Punār, large village. Koghiyyeh village by a tel. 194 | Cross Sheikhān Chai opposite Qara Punār. Route winds steeply up to a col, 3,200 ft., and then descends steeply. Cross a watercourse, a spur, a deep narrow valley, another spur followed by a narrow, stony valley, 313 Ahmedi 163 T 2 292 LAND ROUTES Miles from Midiat 383 40 411 441 50 then a low spur followed by a watercourse, and after a mile another watercourse. Deirish. A route from Mardín through Sor to Bismil on the Tigris and thence to Farqin passes through this village (see Route 102 a under m. 231). Kunzerib. Proceed through low hills. Jirzeh, 1. Thence for a mile up and down through low, bare hills, and descend an easy valley for a mile to Qirq Dilek, a fair-sized Kurdish village. Route from Mardin to Diarbekr via Avineh passes to l. of this place. For an alternative route to Shukerli (below, m. 651) see Route 95 b, m. 301-m. 543. There is a route from Qirq Dilek to the Tigris at Bismil and thence to Farqîn. Proceed down r. bank of Sheikhān Su, a stream 25 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep with stony bottom. Cross stream and leave valley, and proceed over low, bare, rolling hills for 12 m. ; then over undulating country for 41 m. Wersin, Kurdish village. Alt. 1,850 ft. From Wersin proceed over undulating, cultivated country. Aq Tepeh, on r., and, shortly afterwards, Khasseh. Sāwedi, m. to l. Kehtin, à m. to r. Then a mile over open undulating ground followed by a winding, rather steep descent of 1 m. to the Gök Su, which is crossed. A fair-sized shallow stream with firm bottom and low grassy banks. Dukkār, on r. Altun Akar, 1 m. to l., in a broad, gently-sloping valley. Shekr Tepeh, 1 m. to r. Güzel Shehr, m. to l. Proceed over flat, cultivated land. Pornakh, small Kurdish village at the foot of a mound. Shukerli, Qizilbash village, on l., at foot of bluffs. River about 11 m. to r. See above, m. 437. Proceed over level cultivated ground. Reach and follow Mardin - Diarbekr carriage-road, crossing the Quru Chai. See Route 95 a, m. 421-m. 54. Diarbekr. 523 553 571 572 593 603 611 652 671 783 ROUTES BETWEEN THE PLAIN OF DIARBEKR AND THE MOUNTAINS TO NORTH AND WEST ROUTE 102 a DIARBEKR-SAIRT (93 m.) Via HOP Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Routes 188, 189 (reports of 1899), and authorities quoted for Route III G. This route before the war was apparently passable for wheels, except at m. 811, but stony in places. It was reported in 1899 that clearing would be required at about m. 811 for 600 yds. to allow the passage of guns. At that time there were no bridges, but the fords were not difficult except in flood, and the approaches fairly easy. It is probable that much recent work has been done on the road, but no definite information has been obtained. Water is plentiful, but other supplies are scanty, at any rate after the plain of Ermi (m. 48). There does not appear to be much fuel. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. Miles from Diar- bekr Diarbekr (alt. 1,900 ft.) is left by the Mardin gate, from which a broad but rough road descends to the river. In summer, after the beginning of July, the Tigris can be forded. In flood it must be crossed at the bridge- a masonry one in good repair--23 m. down stream. The Tigris bed at the ford is 250 yds. wide, the actual channel being 100 yds. wide and 27 ft. deep when crossed in the end of July. The approaches to it are good. Road ascends the low hills on the l. bank, passes a hamlet, Satil, 20 houses, with vineyards and orchards at the head of a ravine. 2 294 LAND ROUTES Miles from 1 Diar- bekr womit 1 Road rises gradually passing over undulating downs by a broad, well-defined track, unmetalled. ! Cross a broad undulation commanding the town and much of the country to the W. The road crosses about here the chaussée to Bitlis via Farqin. (See Route 103 a.) Large springs close to the road. Khõzān 1 m. down a valley running to the Tigris. The track continues over undulating ground towards the river. Wide valley running S. Qara Bāsh, a small village 2 m. distant. Sadi Köi (alt. 2,060 ft.), Armenian village in a valley run- ning S. Cross undulations with some small valleys to the Tigris, which is now li m. distant. Khidhr Iliyās, 20 houses of Christians and Moslems, 1 m. to l. ‘Abbās, small village 1 m. to l. Hõleh, 1 m. to r. on the bank of the Tigris, which is now visible. Hujeti and Yuvaijik on the far bank. Road approaches to within 1 m. of the river, which flows here in a gravelly bed 600 yds wide, with a single well-defined channel fordable at many points in August. Cross the 'Ambar Chai, the gravelly bed of which is about 300 yds, wide, but only filled in flood-time. In August the channel was only 20 ft. wide, and 6 in. deep. 'Ambar village, 40 houses, on the l. bank at the ford. Route then follows an easy track generally parallel to the I river and about a mile from it. 163 | Qirq, 70 houses, on the far bank 2 m. off, with a large tumulus. 171 To l. a reedy lake m. in diameter is passed, almost dry I in August. The road crosses a spur from the l. and dips into a cultivated plain 11 m. wide, between the river I and low hills to N. ! A small stream 30 yds. wide and almost dry in August is crossed. Up the valley on the l. bank are several villages- Į Küchük, Kemballu, Seyyid Hasan, and Yasinjeh. After some distance Darlu, 50 Turkoman houses, is 1 m. to l. 231 | Bismil (alt. 1,685 ft.), a village of 100 Kizilbash houses, 16 ROUTE 102 a 295 Miles from Diar- bekr 251 along bank of Tigris with good trees and a few gardens. There is an excellent spring here, and a ferry over the Tigris at high water. In August the river was fordable at several points, the channel 100 yds. wide and 31 ft. deep, with gravelly bed and slow current. Routes lead N. to Farqīn (no details available), and S. to Mardin either via Qirq (see introduction to Route 95 b), or via Sor (see Route 100, m. 182, and Route 101, m. 383). Beyond Bismil the road is easy over a plain. Tersakkeh is on the far bank of the river å m. off. Cross the gravelly bed of a stream 200 yds. wide, but almost dry in August. 21 m. up the valley on the l. bank is Fethil. Qurukji, 35 houses, 11 m. to r. on the farther bank of the river. Large spring giving rise to a marshy stream. Some huts and hamlets to l. Kolpoa, 15 Kurdish houses. T.L. now leaves the route and strikes NE. to Farqın. A low col is crossed. Pool in hollow to l. (nearly dry in August). Kuchan, 1 m. to l. Road descends into the flat along the Tigris. About here Gunda 'Isa is passed; it is placed on 1. bank by authority of 1899, but on r. bank by later authority (compare Route III G, m. 431). A little farther on Allis is passed on the r. bank. Skirt a bend of the river, which flows here in a bed of shingle and gravel 200 yds. wide, stream in August 100 yds. wide, not fordable. Gunda Avdi (on r. or l. bank, as in the case of Gunda ‘Īsa, above). Good spring by the river bank. Route now gradually leaves the Tigris, crosses a col and descends to the Hazro Su (alt. 1,680 ft.), which it crosses. The bed is gravelly, 200 yds. wide; the stream in August was 20 ft. wide and 6 in. deep. The descent on the r. bank is short and steep. On the l. bank is the upper part of Salāt, 80 Kurdish houses. Mirikullieh, 15 houses, up-stream, and Ashāghi (lower) 331 352 296 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr 1 1 Salāt, 1 m. down-stream ; both on the l. bank of the Hazro Su. Enter a level basin among low hills, with a few villages and a fair amount of cultivation, though little surplus corn could be expected here. Koyun, small village 11 m. to l. Derweshi and Türbeh Spi are on the line of hills W. of Koyun. Cross a rolling plateau. The wide gravelly bed of the Batman comes in sight. Descend and cross the Sinan Su from the NNW.-a gravelly bed 100 yds. wide; dry in August. The stream joins the Batman near here. Sinan, Kurdish village of 100 houses. On this bank of the Batman Su are hills giving a command of the river and flat about El-Ma'den and Giresera (see m. 43 below), with approaches through them from the E. The Batman Su. Begin to cross the shingle of the river bed, which is covered in flood. The main stream in August was in a single channel, 100 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep, over gravel and stones. The ford follows a dia- gonal ridge, with deep water on both sides, and a guide is necessary. More shingle follows (covered in flood), then a stagnant side channel 30 yds. wide and 21 ft. deep. Its bed is generally gravel, but there are large patches of deep mud. The whole width of the river bed is 11 m. Pass Zorkan, some Kurdish houses among trees to the l. A clay track, good except in wet weather, leads through Giresera, an Armenian and Jacobite village of 150 houses. The Tigris is visible from here 4 m. farther down, but below the junction with the Batman Su it enters a narrow gorge. The district round Giresera is well culti- vated, and is irrigated by a canal from the Batman Su. | Jander, Kurdish village 1 m. down the Batman valley, į and Sheikh Chõbān, im. beyond Jander among trees. ; El-Ma'den, 2 m. up the valley, a village of 200 houses of Kurds and Armenians, with good cultivation, trees, and gardens, and the head-quarters of a Kaimmakam. There are no fords across the Batman Su immediately opposite El-Ma'den. Ölaha, 60 houses on a mound. Water is obtained here 43 46 ROUTE 102 a 297 • Miles from Diar- bekr 51 534 552 from a small spring or from wells 10–15 ft. below the surface. A good track from El-Ma'den joins here. Ermi, 40 Armenian houses on the wide plain of Bisheri ; wells must be relied on for water in this plain as there is no stream At Ermi are 5 or 6 public wells, 25 to 30 ft. deep, with perennial supply of good water. No buckets. Short stone troughs for watering animals. Route to Zokh diverges to N. See Route 103 b, m. 48. The district is very fertile: maize, wheat, barley, and cotton are cultivated. The road is broad and easy. Biladur (alt. 2,040 ft.), 60 Armenian houses. Here, as throughout the Bisheri plain, the water-supply is from wells. Animals are watered from stone troughs. At Biladur are five wells, with water at 25 to 30 ft. below the surface. Route 102 b (to Sairt via Ridhwān) diverges here. Pass Chenariyeh, a Yezidi village 2 m, to r, at foot of a low range of wooded hills. Pass large Armenian monastery of Deir-i-Keri, at the foot of the Desht-i-Keri, a flat-topped ridge with low basaltic cliffs. Kefr Su, small Kurdish village 1 m. to r. at the foot of low hills. Gedik Köi, 25 Armenian houses. Cross a col (alt. 2,635 ft.) by a pass dominated by the scarped edge of the Desht-i-Keri plateau, à m. to l. 1 m. to r. is a similar but lower ridge which merges to the S. into rough, wooded hills. Descend by an easy clay track. Jenasgir, 20 Armenian houses, close to l. Pass Ezik Yaqāri, Armenian village in a valley å m. to r. Pass Ezik Ashāghi, small village { m. to r. Zanqah, Kacho, and Bakiren are Kurdish villages farther S. Ford the Hazo Su, in a gravelly bed 300 yds. wide; the stream, in July, 1899, was 60 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep, with easy approaches. The ford and approaches are commanded by the Desht-i-Keri plateau. There was apparently also a ferry here before the war. A few miles up- and down-stream are the ruins of old bridges. A track leads down the river (which is also called Hop Su or Ridhwan Su at the several places which it passes) 563 57* 58 581 59 298 LAND ROUTES Miles from 1 Diar- bekr to Ridhwān. A mile up-stream, on a knoll near the 1. bank, is the Armenian village of Hop. Cultivation along the l. bank. Wheat, cotton, and rice are grown. Road ascends, first steeply for 300 yds., then more gradually up a ravine, stony in places. Reach summit (alt. 2,625 ft.) and enter an undulating plateau with a prominent conical hill 1 m. to N. Konkan, small Kurdish village, 1 m. to l. Cross a broad col and proceed over open undulating country draining W. Skirt low hills to r. with few trees and scrub. Merhan, 40 houses, 2 m. to l. Katma, ruined village, 2 m. to l. Easy undulating track over gravelly clay. Khatimeh pass į m. to l. Some oak-scrub on hills to r. The country to NW. is much broken by small ravines in clay and gravel, draining W. Cross broad col and enter wide basin draining S. through a gorge. Sairtan (alt. 2,345 ft.), a wretched village of Penjinan Kurds, with ruins of castle near a knoll. There are two large springs near, and a grove of trees. 'Ain Gir, 20 houses, is 11 m. distant. Route continues by an easy track across the plain with a gradual ascent. Pass Ma'ārib, a Kurd hamlet. Cross a broad col and enter a wide plain draining E. to the Bitlis Su. 11 m. to S. is a mountain with a rounded summit, and steep slopes called Gurdileh Dāgh. 'Ain Kusha, small Kurdish village, at foot of hills 1 m. to A small spring by the road-side is passed at the foot of the Gurdileh Dāgh. Fertile soil but little cultivated. Small hamlets, Kurd and Armenian, to r. Pass Zokait, 12 m. to l., formerly the head-quarters of a Kaimmakam. Pass Kotib, 1 m. to r., at foot of hills. To the N. tracks lead towards Zokh, over open country passable for all arms. Misraji, 2 m. to r. Cross a broad, stony col over a spur. Some stony undulations. To l., on a spur 21 m. off, is Jomana, lying between this route and Route 103 a. AW CO 0 ROUTE 102 a 299 Miles from Diar- bekr The T. L. from Zokh to Sairt comes in on the l. . An easy undulating track follows. 811 Reach the edge of the plateau, which terminates in a long ridge with vertical strata, overlooking the valley of a tributary flowing E. to the Bitlis Su. A small stream has worn a passage at right angles to the strata. The track follows the passage by a stony descent strewn with boulders, which would require clearing for 600 yds. for guns. Then follow a ravine to the l. parallel to the ridge and cross some minor valleys running into it. The valley of the Bitlis Su opens out and the descent becomes easier. Ford the Bitlis Su in a gravelly channel 300 to 400 yds. wide. The stream, in July, 1899, was 40 yds, wide and 2 ft. deep. Alt. at the ford 1,555 ft. The r. bank generally commands the l. Down-stream, about 14 m., is the Nasr ed-Dīn bridge on the Sairt-Ridhwān route (Route 102 b, m. 852), used when the river is in flood. It was the only bridge in this part of the country in 1899. After the ford the road ascends easily a shallow ravine by a chaussée, 30 ft. wide, cut in the hill-side, but not metalled. Soil gravelly clay. There are a number of hamlets in the vicinity up-stream on the l. bank. Cross a small col. Koshki, Yezidi village, on a hill 2 m. tor. Descend to the Keser Su (alt. 1,565 ft.), which is crossed by a ford with easy approaches. The channel is gravelly, 150 yds. wide ; the stream in July, 1899, was 40 yds. wide and 2 ft. deep. 2 m. down-stream the Keser bends to W. through a deep gorge and joins the Bitlis Su. Keser is a small village 2 m. up-stream, and there are other villages near the stream. Track now along a new chaussée by an easy gradient. The Sairt-Ridhwān route (Route 102 b) passes through a gap in the hills 11 m. to E. 911 | Ascend easily by the chaussée, which was metalled and in good order in 1899. Some small ravines trend towards the Keser. Cross a broad col and enter the cultivated basin, in which stands the town of Sairt. No stream, and the ravines are usually dry. 93 Sairt. 87 88 892 300 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 102 b DIARBEKR-SAIRT (974 m.) Via RIDHWĀN AND THE NASR ED-DIN KÖPRÜ Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 190 (report, apparently, of 1899) This was the usual route followed when the river was bridged near Ridhwān (see m. 66), but in 1899 the Sairtan route by Hop (Route 102 a) was generally followed. The fords are passable without difficulty, except in flood. The track in 1899 was apparently generally easy and passable for wheels, except between Huseinik (mn. 814) and the Nasr ed-Din bridge (m. 851), and a detour to the S. would be necessary for wheeled traffic on that stretch. No information as to recent work on the road is available. Water is on the whole good and plentiful, but supplies are scarce and there is no evidence as to fuel. The country between Ridhwān, Til, and the Nasr ed-Din Köprü would offer a good camping-ground, especially in winter and spring. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. Miles from Diar- bekr 0 51 552 602 66 Diarbekr. The route is the same as that by Sairtan (Route 102 a) as far as Biladur. Biladur. Route diverges to the E. from the Sairtan route, across the plain. Kefr Su is passed on the l., and the route rises easily over a low line of flat-topped hills. Descend towards the Hazo valley over clay spurs, steep in places, but passable for wheels. R. bank of the Hazo Su near the ruins of Silakhar bridge, of which three masonry piers remain. The valley up-stream to NW. is 14 m. wide, and has easy routes by both banks to Hop. The ground on the 1. bank is more open and the track on that side the easier. Pass Bāziwān village. The valley is narrowed by a low spur from a steep, stony spur to the N. The soil here is good, but the villages wretched. There 663 ROUTE 102 b 301 Miles from Diar. bekr 68 was formerly a large Yezidi population, and there are many ruined villages. Ford the Hazo Su at Dushah. It is easily passable over its shingly bed, except in flood. Follow the i. bank by easy clay track. Ridhwān, a place of 120 houses, mostly Armenian, with some Chaldaeans, Syrians, Jacobites, Yezidis, and Moslems. It is on the river at the foot of a mound, with the ruins of a Kurdish castle. There is a Mudir here under the Kaimmakam of Zokh, and a zaptieh post. A well-watered plain extends N. to the Bekan Dāgh, 4 m. off, on which are some small villages. Besides the tracks of either bank of the Hazo Su, and that described below, tracks run from Ridhwān as follows: (1) Through a gap in hills to NNW. to Sairtan (Route 102 a, m. 72). Easy and passable for guns. (2) To Qalqalān. See m. 781 below. This is shorter than the route detailed below. (3) To Hasan Kaif on Tigris over the E. end of the Ashita Dāgh. This is for a long distance rough and stony, and the descent to the Tigris gorge is steep. (4) To Til over easy open country, nearer the river than the route described below. This route passes near Khandaq ferry (8 m. SE. from Ridhwān), from which there is a rough track over stony hills to Kefr Joz and Mardın. The present route runs NE. by an easy clay track over undulating country to the foot of the Bekan Dāgh. Hafik, at the foot of the hills. Large springs. Other villages in neighbourhood, all poor. The plain in 1899 was only partly cultivated, chiefly owing to the lawless- ness of the Kurds. On the summit of the Bekan Dāgh there are springs, and pasture in summer. The Kurds of the Bekan Dagh belong to the Musikan tribe. Track now along the foot of the Bekan Dāgh, stony in places. Sarip, a few Kurdish huts. Qalqalān. Here the shorter track joins from Ridhwān. In the plain 2 m, to the r. is Bel Ekmek, a small village, partly Christian, where large springs are used for irrigation of cotton and rice. 76 784 302 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr 807 Ulshi, hamlet with springs of bad water. 811 Huseinik. Here a road diverges with an easy descent to Til, 71 m. distant. The direct track now crosses ravines impassable for wheels. A better route may be found farther south. 851 Nasr ed-Dīn Köprü, called in Kurdish the Pīr-i-Reshān, bridge across the Bitlis Su. There are 4 large arches, 66-ft. span, of brick and stone, with a 30-ft. arch next the 1. bank. The roadway is 13 ft. wide, with a 2-ft. wall on each side, and its total length is 147 yds. The river is easily fordable except in spring. The hills on the l. bank generally command the r.; but a mile up-stream on the r. bank a steep spur, on the sum- mit of which is a Kurd village, Bātil, has a good command to the E. The Keshkoli and Mahmedi Kurds live in this neigh- bourhood. From the bridge bridle-paths lead up the deep gorge of the Bitlis Su. The present route now crosses undulating country to Siyāh Khān at the lower end of the Bohtan gorge, where it joins the Jezīret-ibn-'Omar-Sairt route (Route 85, m. 531). Another track, more to the N., leads to Sairt over a rough limestone ridge, and is quite impassable for wheels. By both routes the distance to Sairt is about the same. 971 | Sairt. ROUTE 103 a DIARBEKR-ZIYĀRET WĀIZ EL-QUR'ANI Via Fargin and Zokh Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Routes 191, 192 (reports of 1899 and 1900). This is the route adopted before the war for the military road to Bitlis ; part of the chaussée had been constructed in 1900, and motor lorries were reported to be in use on it in 1916. The Batman can always be crossed at the Batman Köprü. On the Armenian population compare p. 32. ROUTES 102 b, 103 a 303 Miles from ! Diar- bekr 131 Diarbeler. The chaussée begins from the bridge below Diarbekr, but some 3 m. are saved by fording the river when possible E. of the town, and using one of the numerous and easy tracks that join the main route. The distances given below are by the bridge and the line of the chaussée. From the bridge the road winds along a bluff passing opposite the town, and then strikes across to Tel Allo, whence it descends easily towards the 'Ambar Chai, which flows in a broad valley and has little water except in freshets in spring. There are several villages, many of them Armenian and Jacobite, and some cultivation, but the country is other. wise bare and treeless. Crossing the 'Ambar Chai the road goes over an easy undu. lating country passable in all directions for wheels to the Quru Chai, which it crosses at Khān Bāzār. Here several tracks to Farqın diverge and lead roughly parallel over what is apparently an easy undulating country to ENE., with many villages. Kasimi, a large village, on the farther bank of a stream of the same name. A few miles to S. is the Zirka (Kurd) village of Sofyān through which one of the alternative routes passes. Haidari Khān, a large village, whence an easy route, passable for wheels, goes N. to Hazro, Pasur, and Kulp. Gravelly soil, much broken up into irregular undulations by water-action. Husein Köi, another large village.' Road descends slightly to a shallow stream at Mīr Allo, which it crosses. Kimiad, a large village, 3 m. to S. 21 30 34 When the Batman Su is fordable below the Batman bridge it is possible to strike E. over easy country to Zokh, fording the Batman near the mouth of the Melkishan stream, and avoiding the détour by Farqin. Over open undulating country to Zireh. Other villages are near, also some walled vine- yards. Farqīn. 304 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr 584 59 661 68 The chaussée is complete for 2 m. out of Farqin, after which there is a well-defined clay track at the foot of a steep rocky ridge to N. | Zerbia, a Kurd hamlet, where a track from Diarbekr joins from SW. · Telmin, a village with a tumulus, is passed, and the road descends rounding the head of small ravines, where some | - levelling is required for wheels. Bavina, a small village near which is a large spring. The Batman Su is visible to the SE. over a fertile plain, where cotton and rice are grown. Chingui, a village with tumulus and large spring. Track branches off here to Lijjeh. See Route 105. Batman bridge, with small village of Batman or Malabadi on r. bank. The river is narrowed here by limestone ledges. Above is the exit of the long gorge in which the Batman unites with the Kulp and Qabul Jeviz streams: below, it spreads over a shingly channel å m. wide which continues to the junction with the Tigris. The river is crossed by a fine masonry bridge, of one span of 145 ft., the crown of the high pointed arch being 60 ft. above water. The approach on r. bank is bent back at an obtuse angle to the main arch, and in this are four small arches for flood water. The roadway, which has a low parapet, is 20 ft. wide, but is narrowed by a stone gateway 10 ft. wide. In the abutments of the main arch are 2 chambers with windows, reached by a flight of steps from the roadway, meant as living-room for travellers. The total length of the bridge and approaches is 213 yds. A rocky hill on r. bank commands the bridge and the l. bank. For an alternative route from the bridge to Zokh by the l. bank see Alternative Route (i) below. Between the Batman and Hazo are numerous small ravines, but with a little levelling the routes could be made quite practicable for wheels. Easy track from the bridge to Zilan, a shrine and place of pilgrimage. Route crosses head of small ravine which would require improvement for wheels. Reach the valley of the Melkishan Chai by an easy descent. Ascend stream to 70 ROUTE 103 a 305 Miles from Diar- bekr 77 801 83 87 93 ? Melkishan, a small village of Moslems and Armenians. A route here runs N, to Mush via Kulp and Nerjiki (Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 192). Proceed over broad plateau partially cultivated. Pass Mezirkach, a large village 27 m. to N., at the foot of the hills. Descend from plateau and down minor valley to SE. into broad valley of the Bakiri Su, a tributary of the Hazo. Along r. bank among low hills. Some rice and cotton. Large branch of stream from N. Cross gravelly bed of Bakiri Su (or Chem-i-Bakiri in Kurdish). The bed is 200 yds. wide, and was nearly dry at the end of May, 1899. Pass ravines draining into the Bakiri valley. Cross low col. Khoziat visible 3 m. to SE. in trees. Continue by easy clay track over country cut by numerous shallow ravines. Reshkan (alt. 2,030 ft.), 30 Kurd houses, near a spring. Approach the Hazo Su by an easy track through a dry ravine. Hazo Su. In the Military Report the Hazo ford is placed 6 m. from Reshkan, but the time taken between these points was only 46 mins. The gravelly bed of the Hazo is here 800 yds. wide. In 1899 the river was fordable in May, owing to a very slight winter snowfall; but usually it is not passable till June 20th or later. In 1899 the river ran at the ford in 3 main arms, near the r. bank, with a strong current; it was 60 yds. wide and 21-3 ft. deep at the western arm. A guide was necessary. Approaches were easy. The r. bank commands the l. with a series of steep clay spurs jutting out by the ford. Donuz Punār, a good spring 5 minutes from ford. See Alternative Route (ii) below. Jimbatin, 20 houses of Kurds. Continue by an easy track over a broad spur from NE.: then over wide plain, naturally fertile but little cultivated. Small villages. Zokh (Kharzan ; alt. 2,375 ft.), a village of 100 Kurd houses and the residence of the Kaimmakam of the Kharzan Kaza. From the steep slope of a rocky ridge it overlooks the wide valley of the Hazo Su. On the summit are the 961 MES. IV 306 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr 98 101 1041 107 ruins of a Kurdish Bey's stronghold. There is a T.O. here, which is connected with the line from Diarbekr to Bitlis through Sairt and Farqin. The road now skirts a ridge to the E. by an easy ascending track, stony in places, passing a fertile plain with but few villages and little cultivation. This plain forms the Kharzan district. | Alt. 2,725 ft. Cross narrow rocky summit of ridge ; the road here is rough and stony, and would require making for 300 yds. for the passage of guns. Berar is a large village in the plain, 14 m. to r. Skirt the head of some small valleys. Some rough places that would require improvement for wheeled traffic. Cross a broad col, and ascend an open valley by an easy, undulating clay track among low hills. Some distance further Jomana is visible to the S., at end of a prominent spur, overlooking the Diarbekr-Sairt route (Route 102 a, m. 793). The road passes a small spring, dry in l.w. season, crosses a col, and winds along a stony hill-side round head of a valley running SE. Bada, 14 m. down valley. Stony parts of road require widening. (Alt. here 3,345 ft.) Edge of ridge facing NE. and looking down on to Ziyāret plain. Kokh (alt. 2,995 ft.), 40 houses on a spur near the summit. Good spring. Descend diagonally, bending to r. Numerous gravelly ravines. Easy track. In places widen- ing would be necessary for wheels. Reach foot of steep slope by a well-defined track among low gravelly outliers covered with brushwood. Enter Ziyāret plain, an oval basin, 23 m. in diameter. ' Ziyāret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni. For route to Bitlis see Route 85, m. 80. Shrine and Kurdish place of pilgrimage. ALTERNATIVE ROUTE (i) Alternative route from the Batman bridge to Zokh. This route follows the l. bank of the stream from the bridge. It is easy and passable for wheels (1900). Seliban, 20 Kurdish huts. Cross the Melkishan Chai by an easy ascent and descent. Pass Balikhan, a few huts, and ascend a long gravelly spur, following a steep clay ravine to the r. 108 1094 1091 ROUTE 103 a 307 Miles from Diar- bekr 80 Crest of the Kursi Tepeh, a flat-topped hill of horseshoe shape, with a good command to the N. It is an outlier of the Desht-i-Keri. Descend long easy spur, leaving Mergarijal in a basin to r., and pass through Bolin. These villages belong to the Rish Qotānli Kurds, a large tribe divided into 8 sections, and rich in mules and sheep. Descend into the valley of a tributary of the Hazo and cross the stream. Join the Diarbekr-Zokh route. See Route 103 b, m. 53. The country is now easy and open in all directions. ALTERNATIVE ROUTE (ii) This is an alternative route from the ford over the Hazo; it turns N. from Donuz Punār (see m. 93, above) and leads up the l. bank of the Hazo. Skerdan. Golamassia, opposite which on a flat-topped hill are the ruins of the old castle of Qal'ah-i-Sheikh Baj. The river here, even in flood-time, is often fordable, as it spreads out into 5 or 6 minor channels over a wide shingle bed. There are no bridges. Enter the valley of a stream from the NE. Near here is Reshadara, with a ford over the Hazo Su, by which a track joins from Hazo. The r. bank of the Hazo generally commands the 1. from Donuz Punār up to this point, and consists of a series of flat-topped hills with steep clay slopes. The route now leaves the Hazo to l., and follows the stream mentioned above, the shingly bed of which it crosses and re-crosses. Except after heavy rain for a short time, the stream-bed is always passable. The border slopes are of steep clay and gravel formation. Pass Deir Shaman, with ruined castle on a cliff to r. | The valley gets narrower and bends round to the E., passing Melipan, where are extensive salt-pans on the slope 2 m. to N. Cross a small stream from the N. by a stone bridge. Jezni, a place with salt-pans on the slope to N., up the valley. The valley narrows, with numerous small wooded hills on either side, and a small col has to be crossed. 100 102 1041 106 U 2 308 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar bekr The ascent in 1900 required clearing for wheels. The descent is easy along a stream running into the Bitlis Su. Over a low col and descend into basin of Ziyāret. Ziyaret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni. 1101 112 ROUTE 103 b DIARBEKR-ZOKH (721 m.) Via THE DESHT-I-KERI Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 188 (report of 1899). This route is passable for all arms. Miles from Diar- bekr Diarbekr. As far as Ermi, see Route 102 a. 48 Ermi. Road diverges to N. from the Sairt route. Road crosses the plain and reaches the outliers of the Desht-i-Keri. Ascend by an easy gradient, passing a spring near the summit, from which route descends more steeply towards the Hazo Su by a good clay track over undulating spurs trending towards the river. Near the river Alternative (i) to Route 103 a joins. The Hazo Su is forded in an easy gravelly channel near the ruins of Kharzan, an ancient walled city. (In most years the Hazo is apparently not fordable till towards the end of June.) A gradual ascent over a cultivated plain leads to 723 | Zokh. ROUTES 103 a-104 309 ROUTE 104 DIARBEKR—LIJJEH (47 m.) . Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 195 (report of 1899). This is the first part of the chief summer route between Diarbekr and Erzerum, and is much used by muleteers. It is little used by camels. In its northern part (not covered in this volume) it goes over high passes, one of which rises to nearly 4,000 ft. It has abundant pastures in the early months of the year. There is no information available as to recent work done on this road. To the foot of the hills near Lijjeh is open, rolling country, over which several tracks lead. Miles from Diar- bekr 23 Diarbekr (alt. 1,900 ft.). The Tigris is fordable at several points in summer, and a detour of some 6 m. by the bridge can thus be avoided. Leave by the Kharpūt gate, and turn towards the Tigris valley by a stony cart-road made in the low basaltic cliffs. An easy track leads through the shingly river valley. Ford the Tigris. A guide is necessary. The river-bed is here 200 yds. wide. Channel 80 yds. wide and 2 to 3 ft. deep in August, 1899. Road continues diagonally across the valley, passing small villages on either side of the river. Cross some dry rayines from low hills to r. Sherāb, 20 houses, i m. to r. in a ravine. Leave the river valley and turn up among low hills. Qādi Köi (alt. 2,165 ft.), about 100 houses, with vineyards in a well-cultivated tract. Cross the 'Ambar Chai by an easy ford (August). Stream- bed broad, flat, and shingly. The valley is open and broad rising to undulations some 450 ft. above the stream. The open undulating tract extends S. to the Tigris. There is good pasture, but little cultivation. The inhabitants, mostly Kurds, are few. Water is scarce, the springs though numerous having a small supply. There is no fuel except dry grass and tezek. . 310 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr 171 201 314 Track now NNE. over open, undulating, grass country, little cultivated. ‘Ali Bardaq. The 'Ambar valley is 11 m. to l. Pass Marmar, small village, 1 m. to r. Pass Bubayān, small Kurdish village, 1 m. to r.' Arpa Deresi, 13 m. to l. Enter a belt of low limestone ridges covered with oak and scrub. Here the track is stony in places. A track from Farqın to Haini crosses here. It is easy and practicable except over the rocky belt. Emerge from the limestone ridges and enter the wide open plain of Fis, a well-cultivated upland plain 4 m. long and 1 m. wide. The soil here is rich, and heavy after rain. Pass Fis, large village į m. to r, on a hill. Through level meadows, very boggy in parts after rain, to the N. edge of the Fis plain. Enter a series of low limestone ridges running about E. and W. and thickly covered with scrub. Ascend gradually a level cultivated valley im. wide which gets steeper, and reach | Lijjeh. 47 ROUTE 105 BATMAN BRIDGE-LIJJEH (42 m.) Authority : ----Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 193 (report of 1900). This route is of importance as connecting the Batman bridge with the main Erzerum road from Diarbekr. It was described in 1900 as rough in places, but it could then be made passable for wheels with little trouble. No information as to recent work on the road. Water plentiful. No other supplies. Fuel apparently scanty. Miles from Batman bridge Batman bridge. From the bridge the route follows Route 103 a for 11 m. (see that route under m. 664), when it turns NW. by an easy track through a rocky valley. Cross a low col and descend into the Mughur plain, in which are some half-dozen small Kurd villages. From ROUTES 104, 105 311 Miles from Batman bridge 131 17 Mistekan, one of these, a rough track leads N. to the Kulp Su bridge—the Pīr-i-Girto. (See under m. 9 below.) Enter a short gorge passable for wheels. Reach Bezwan, a small Kurdish village, the residence in 1900 of an influential Sheikh named Salih. Bezwan is on the southern border of a wide basin through which the Kulp Su winds. 3 m, to the E. the river enters a gorge 40 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep in a broad, rocky ridge, a continuation of that through which the Batman Su passes in a similar gorge. Across this is the bridge of Pir-i-Girto (Pír-i-Qazali), a single masonry arch of 36-ft. span and 18-ft. roadway, with easy approaches. Three large springs rise in the river-bed near the bridge close to the l. bank. An easy track leads from the bridge, skirting a rocky ridge, to the Pir-i-Kurtik. over the Batman Su, crossing about midway the Qabūl Jeviz, which in 1900 was unbridged, but generally fordable. Chicheka, small Kurdish village. Shevlara, small Kurdish village. Follow a steep ascent up a rocky ridge, where the road, in 1900, required improvement for wheels. The road then enters a long plain. Pass through extensive walled vineyards belonging to Sirdakkan, a Kurdish village in a ravine to l. To r. are rocky ridges, sparsely wooded. The Kulp Su flows in an enormous gorge, on the W. of which is a ruined castle on a crag. Road now passes along a gravelly plain, draining E. Cross a broad col going E., and meet a cross-road from Hazro to Pagur. (See Route 106, m. 16.) A large stream from Hantuf and Boshat comes through a rift in the ridge to l. and the hills on the N. become lower and easier. Shailima. 1 m. to 1. is the rocky gorge of the stream from Hantuf. Descend by an easy track. End of the gorge. Descend and ford the stream. Pass Resan on the l. bank. The stream bends E. and joins another from the Shimshim valley and Lijjeh, after which it traverses a narrow valley to join the Kulp Su. Track now skirts the base of a steep, rocky ridge to S. Stony in places. Some oaks. 231 312 LAND ROUTES Miles from Batman bridge 31 341 Pass Bamitani, a small village of Kurds and Armenians (but compare p. 32). The track gets more stony. The country to N. is open and undulating up to the Dārāqol Su, a large stream which enters the Kulp Su below Pasur, Beyond to N. are steep impracticable mountains, draining on the far side into the Marād Su. From Bamituni villages can be seen on the far side of the Dārāqol Su towards Pasur, and tracks stony, though probably passable for wheels, lead to that place. The Lijjeh Su is crossed by a small stone bridge, in a gorge where the track from Hazro by Shimshim joins. (See Route 106, m. 167.) Track now crosses a stony plain, sparsely wooded with oaks, passing Sis, on a hill to the l. There is a stiff climb before Lijjeh. Lijjeh. (By avoiding the ascent to Lijjeh and keeping NW. across the plain the Lijjeh-Chabakchur-Erzerum route can be joined at a broad gap in the hills about 2 m. away.) ROUTE 106 FARQIN-LIJJEH (33 m.) Authority :--Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 194 (report of 1900). There appears to be a route passable for wheels between Farqin and Lijjeh, but nothing is known regarding it except what is given under m. 131 below. The route detailed here was in 1900 a mule- track from that point to where it joins Route 105. No information as to supplies or fuel. Miles from Farqin 0 Farqīn. Road follows the Diarbekr chaussée for 14 m. across the plain ; then keeping NW. and to the r. it goes on as an easy clay track, skirting a bare rocky ridge at a distance of about 1 m. Pass Shevket, a small village on the ridge, to r. Bīr Qal'ah to l. l Acha, 25 Kurdish houses. Some vineyards. ovat 4 ROUTES 105, 106 313 Miles from Parqin 5 104 131 141 167 Pass Bilbil in a valley to l., which, with other valleys, forms the bed of the Sinan Su. Cross a col in a spur and pass Hashta to 1. The track here is easy. Near Bazmar it passes some large springs, the principal source of the Salat Su. Pass Berkhosh and Koli, a few huts. Route then runs abreast of a large gorge from Hazro. Tracks to Diarbekr go off here to l. over easy country The easiest route to Lijjeh now goes straight on by the base of the hills, and joins the Diarbekr-Erzerum route 12 to 13 m. farther on near Fis. (See Route 104.) This road was passable for wheels in 1900. The route described below is only a mule-track. It turns up the gorge by the r. bank, the country on that side being easier. Zughur to r. Route traverses for 400 yds. a paved pathway 9 ft. wide. Hazro, a village of 700 houses, chiefly of Armenians (but compare p. 32), on a hill-side over a wide, cultivated basin. There is a copious water-supply from springs. Saif ed-Din Pasha, an influential Kurd, resided here in 1900. From Hazro a road, pagsable for wheels, goes E. and passes through a gap in the hills to Hantuf (Hanlot) 41 m. farther on, whence a track runs to join the present route at Shimshim (see below). Another track goes on through a gorge to Pasur, forming the most direct route to that place from Diarbekr, and crossing the Batman bridge- Lijjeh route about 11 m. from Shailima. (See Route 105, m. 232.) It is reported to be probably passable for wheels without much difficulty. See also Route 112 a (i). Route now follows a rough hill-track leading N. over the hills to Shimshim, in a stony valley with stream flowing W. Cross the stream. Amtaka, small place with the ruins of an old town and fort on the steep, rocky ridge to N. The track now turns N. through the rocky gorge of a branch of the stream just crossed. Emerge from the gorge and join the Batman bridge- Lijjeh route (see Route 105, m. 343). Lijjeh, 24 25% 33 314 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 107 DIARBEKR-HAINI (40 m. ?) Authority :-Militury Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 204 (Report of 1910). This route seems to be easy except between m. 24 and m. 28, and between m. 37 and m. 373. Miles from Diar- bekr Diarbekr. Follow Lijjeh road to Qādi Köi (see Route 104). Qādi Köi. Continue N. over broad ridge between the Tigris and the 'Ambar. About here plateau ends abruptly in a flat-topped, narrow ridge commanding country to N. Easy descent into plain. Easy track over plain. A few small villages. Grass in spring. Aghmeshat, 25 houses, near spring. Dirnik, hamlet near spring. Aq Veirān Saghīr, village near spring. Aq Veirān Kebīr, village (given as 251 m. by another authority). Some good wells and springs, the latter dry in summer. Nature of country changes abruptly. Enter belt of rough limestone country, waterless in late summer. Track would require improvement in places for guns. Stony area ceases. Proceed over cultivated plain. Two good wells lined with stone, water 10 ft. below surface. Some stone troughs for watering horses. Proceed NE. over plain. Pass well similar to last. Cross stream-bed, dry in August. Reach the 'Ambar Chai, where it emerges from rocky gorge in ridge to N. Cross stream (15 ft. wide and 6 in. deep in August) and follow rough stone track up gorge, which would require improving for guns. The gorge is only 50 yds. wide: boulders and trees. Pass ruins of stone bridge. Emerge into well-cultivated valley. Clay track. Cross irrigation cuts. Haini, 700 houses, mostly Armenian (but compare p. 32). Large spring of good water, irrigating the plain, and extensive gardens and orchards. 361 ? 37 ? 371 ? 40 ? ROUTES 107, 108 315 ROUTE 108 DIARBEKR-PĪRĀN (361 m.). Authority :— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Routes 202, 201, and 203 (reports of May, 1902). This route is easy as far as Ruban by either bank of the Tigris, the only difficulty being the heaviness of the soil in wet weather. From Ruban it is a stony track through difficult rocky country. Supplies scarce. Water scarce, except from river: brush- wood plentiful. The route is closed during the spring and autumn floods. Miles from Diar- bekr 0 15 192 241 Diarbekr. Ascend l. or (preferably) r. bank of the Tigris. The r.-bank route runs over level cultivated ground at the foot of steep, rocky bluffs. Several small villages are passed. Here if the r.-bank route is followed the Tigris is forded, at a point 1 m. below the junction of the Deveh Gechid Su. The Tigris is unfordable in spring for 2 or 3 months together. Route proceeds N., cutting off bend of river to W., over open, undulating country. (For alternative route see note below.) Ruban, small village 4 m. to 1. Route proceeds over rocky ground. Reach I. bank of Dibeneh Su just above its junction with the Tigris (Arghana Şu). Cross to r. bank. Recross river to l. bank. Recross river to r. bank. Ameni, Kurdish village of 30 houses. Follow high ground on r. bank of the Dibeneh Su, which here flows in a deep valley. Wind through low, rocky hills. Zeidān, small village to r. Route now lies over easier, undulating ground, going NW. Pīrān, large village at the foot of steep, stony hills, with open ground to S., surrounded by vineyards and a well- cultivated plain. Water-supply good. 25 261 301 321 36% 316 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr A stony hill-track leads to Arghana Ma'den, about 35 m. distant, crossing the Qazāq and Khān rivers, which would be unfordable in flood. NoTÉ.--A longer and more difficult track to Pīrān, via Eghil, diverges from the above road at m. 15. It crosses the Deveh Ge- chid stream by an old seven-arched stone bridge, or, when the river is not in flood, by a ford. The track keeps along r. side of Tigris valley, until, 41 m, farther on, the road bifurcates, the l. branch, which is shorter and easier, leading up a broad valley to Eghil, while the r, branch winds over rocky, undulating ground among low hills covered with scrub, about 1 m. from the Tigris, past Salmanna. On this latter branch a steep, rocky descent, the worst part of the track, leads to Eghil (32) m. from Diarbekr). The water-supply in summer is here apt to run short. Thence the track proceeds N. over rolling, stony ground for a m. to the Arghana Su, which is here easily fordable except in food. Follow bed of stream for 23 m., then cross river, and m. further on leave valley, and after ascending steeply reach rocky up- land. The track becomes easier about 21 m. from Pīrān, which by this road is about 41m. from Diarbekr. A third route to Pīrān follows the Haini road to Aq Veirān Kebir (see Route 107, m. 23), and thence by a fairly easy track. Stony, brush wood-covered undulations to Dibeneh (15-16 m. from Aq Veirān). This village has a good water-supply. A mile farther on the Dibeneh Su is reached, and its I, bank ascended for 2 m. to a two-arched stone bridge. The river is here 40 yds. wide, running strongly through a gorge. Follow the r. bank for 13 m., then turn half right up a cultivated valley leading to a plain which is crossed to Pīrān (48-50 m. from Diarbekr by this route). ROUTE 109 DIARBEKR-ARGHANA MA'DEN (50 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 196 (Reports of 1886 and 1900). This road is a chaussée, being the first part of the main line of communication Diarbekr-Kharput-Sivas. Miles from Diar- bekr 0 Diarbekr. Leave by the Kharpūt gate, along a metalled road in good order, 25-30 ft. wide, over gently undulating plain of rich soil, well cultivated. T.L. (3 wires) follows road. Pass barracks to r. ROUTES 108, 109 317 Miles from Diar- bekr 32 Road trends more W., the river going N. Pass Sunon, some houses on a mound. Water from a shallow well. Less cultivation. 111 Enter shallow valley with steep sides. Descent lin 12–15 for a short way. Cross the Deveh Gechid Su, a tributary of the Tigris, by a masonry bridge 145 yds. long, with 2 main and 5 subsidiary arches. There were only a few inches of water in the river in November. A khan near the bridge. 121 Cross a smaller stream (one of the minor streams forming the Qizil Chibug Chai) flowing towards the Euphrates. The plain is scantily cultivated, except for millet-fields near the villages. The soil is fertile with good grass in the spring, without trees or shrubs. 18 Pass Qara Khān, a poor village. Half-a-dozen small villages on the plain. The ground is better cultivated. Stacks of millet stalks round the villages in November for fodder and firewood. Numerous flocks of sheep. To W. the plain extends a considerable distance, to Ē. the outliers of the hills are a mile off. Tarmil, a few miserable burrows, with surface wells. Some larger villages on the plain. Cross a low hill by a col. Alt. 2,680 ft. Roadway 20 ft. wide, with easy gradient 1 in 15-20.. Descend gently, crossing basin among low hills draining towards the Tigris. Bridge of two arches over watercourse 50 ft. wide, dry in November. Road gently undulating. Millet cultivation on plain. Bagur (alt. 2,800 ft.), with spring and khan. 'Osmaniyeh, some farms and T.O. This is used as a halting. place, Arghana being off the road to the l. 5 khans, 20 houses. A few sheep are kept. There is a track from Arghana through Chermuk to Seyerek. Cross a well-tilled plateau. Road becomes stony for a short distance. Skirt the border of the Arghana hill, where the chaussée is cut in the shaley hill-side. 38* | Cross a col (alt. 3,500 ft.), and wind down the l. side of a rocky valley Roadway 20 ft. wide, cut out of the hill. 36 318 LAND ROUTES Miles from Diar- bekr 411 44 Gradient 1 in 15 to 1 in 20. Masonry culverts over small streams. Vines on the hill slopes, and some villages with fruit-trees. Kalām Khān. Cross a stream by a bridge of three pointed masonry arches, the greatest span being 40 ft. The bridge is 90 yds, long, and the roadway 15-18 ft. There was only a little water in the stream in November. A few poplars and some cultivation in the valley. Hills down-stream are much tumbled and difficult to traverse. A direct but steep road branches here to Arghana Ma’den. Wooden bridges and culverts on the small ravines. Ascend through a mass of rugged intricate hills. Pass over col (3,500 ft.), and wind down a gradient 1 in 12 to 1 in 15. Shortly afterwards enter the well-cultivated valley, 200 yds. broad, of the Tigris, which is here a plentiful stream, some 20 ft. wide (November), flowing over a pebbly bed. Vines are planted on the slopes in places. The river-bank is lined with willows and poplars. Arghana Ma'den (alt. 2,900 ft.) 1 m. to l., to which a branch track ascends from a khan on the river-bank. Arghana Ma'den is a place of some 1,100 houses (the inhabitants being mostly Greek and Armenians, but cf. p. 32), under a Kaimmakam. Copper mines on the hill. side near the settlement. A track goes to Chermuk. NOTE.–Beyond Arghana Ma'den the valley narrows, and the road contracts to 10 ft. Revetment has been used in preference to rock-cutting, and the road at several points could be blocked or destroyed. Several culverts of some 6 ft. span. At about 3 m. from Arghana Ma'den the valley narrows to 30-50 yds., and is almost wholly taken up by the river. In 1900 the road here crossed a wooden bridge of about 20 ft. At 73 m. from Arghana Ma'den the valley widens slightly at Bakhinet Khān. The road is still 10 ft. wide, revetted 10-15 ft. above stream, and winds a good deal. It crosses some bridges (wooden in 1900) over side- streams. At 12 m. from Arghana Ma'den the valley widens to 200 yds., and 1 m. farther on the defile ends at Burnus Khān. 50 ROUTES 109, 110 319 ROUTE 110 DIARBEKR-CHERMUK (452, m.) Authority :— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 199 (report of 1902). This route is generally practicable for vehicles, but it would be almost impassable after heavy rains. For 17 m., up to Bek Tāsh Deghirmen, the track is winding, and very stony in places where old lava-flows are crossed. The country is almost level, generally pasture, but cultivated in places. After passing Bek Tāsh Deghirmen the country is much less stony, and continues to be nearly flat to about 4 m. beyond Qaba Saqal, where the route enters an open, grassy, undulating tract, after which it crosses the foot-hills of Kharto Dāgh, which is steep and rocky, but has its lower slopes covered with corn- fields. Thence the track is easy, descending gradually to the valley of the Hammām Su, and so on to Chermuk. Villages throughout are small and poor. Good water is rather scarce. Supplies would be fairly abundant. No fuel till close to Chermuk. All the country is treeless and somewhat unfruitful, supporting a hardy population of Kurds under little control by the Government. Miles from Diar- bekr 0 Diarbekr. Leaving the town by the Aleppo gate, follow the chaussée until just before 'Ali Punār, and then branch off r. Hamervat aqueduct. Cross this aqueduct, the principal source of the water-supply of Diarbekr. Wind, over stony, cultivated plain. Tala Hills. Pass between two isolated rocky hills, that to the S. being called Tala, that to the N. Tala Būkeh. Jujug, small Kurdish village with one well. Kavancheh bridge, of stone, over a small, marshy stream. 1 m. r. is village of Deingejug. Col, 2,350 ft., between two low isolated hills, the one on r. having a shrine called Tala Hamzeh Bābā on the summit. Bek Tāsh Deghirmen (or Qara Dubeg), a mill on a small stream flowing into the Deveh Gechid stream. | Kaudeh. Two wells. Thence over a level plain, cultivated, and grass land. Eshat Khān. One spring. 21] 320 LAND ROUTES 231 271 324 Miles from Diar- bekr Kot Su, a small stream crossed by an old six-arched stone bridge; village of Kot Sutor. 25 Qaba Saqal, small Kurdish village, two springs. Follow a winding track over a grassy plain. Pass Gozeh, à m. to r. 29 Aq Jemirk, on 1. Türbeh Spi. Ascend a wide, grassy, and gently sloping valley. Mezrā. Over undulating grassy country, cultivated in places. 34 Pass Chaqmaq. 391 Kezban, a small village { m. to l. Route winds over the lower slopes of the Kharto Dāgh, a bare limestone ridge about 3,700 ft. in altitude. 401 Col, 2,800 ft. Path now winds down mountain-side. Hot baths, situated on 1. bank of small stream called Hammām Su, which in ž m. is crossed by a single- arched stone bridge. 451 | Chermuk. A hill-track with no difficult gradients leads from Chermuk to Chunkush (15 m.). It was reported in 1902 that if the rough stones were covered with earth, the road could be made passable for wheels. Across the Sinek Chai (at 24 m.) there is a ford, passable in May, about m. below a Roman bridge described as still in good condition. down molall strepta si ROUTE 111 a SEVEREK—CHERMUK (313 M.) | Via AGHAI KHĂN Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 151 (reports of 1901, 1902). This route is said to be the best track between Severek and Chermuk. It is winding, stony, and bad, very heavy in wet weather, but considered practicable for guns in dry weather. The worst part is that over the Kervan Chemen Dāgh, which is almost impassable after heavy rain. The country generally is open, rolling, and very stony. As far as Aghaj Khān there is little cultivation or fuel, but grazing is good. Beyond that point supplies, water, and fuel would be plentiful. ROUTES 110-111 b 321 Miles from Severek امام احم 1 15 Severek. Track leaves Severek over open, rolling, stony ground. Alrush, small village to r. Guverjinli, small village to r. Cross the Qātirquyu Chai, a small stream. Pass Qara Khān Chai, a small stream. Rolling, stony, grass country now gives way to stony flat, thinly covered with brushwood. Aghaj Khān (alt. 2,650 ft.), a small village. Track becomes very bad and stony, over low hills, the Kervan Chemen Dāgh. Alt. 2,750 ft. Begin a stony, winding descent. Cross the Rutan Su, a tributary of the Qizil Chibuq Chai. Cross the Qizil Chibuq Chai, a small stream in a deep, stony valley 300 yds. beyond the Rutan Su. Alt. 1,850 ft. Rough, stony, difficult ascent. Tilliberz village. Mūsa Khānlar, small village 1 m. to r. Track now approaches the Sheikhān Su, whose l. banks it follows. Cross the Hammām Su by a two-arched stone bridge and enter Chermuk. 241 312 ROUTE 111 b SEVEREK—CHERMUK Via Sola KHĀN Authority as for Route 111 a. The following is a list of places on this road, which is inferior to Route 111 a. No other details are available, except that apparently there is an alternative track between Qatirquyu and Kharabeh Bistin passing by Kushtian and Ruhman. Severek. Dīndār. Kelrushk. Qātirquyu. Solo Khān. Kharabeh Bistin. Nishenik. Chermuk MES, IV 322 LAND ROUTES ROUTES 112 a, b ACROSS THE EASTERN TAURUS BETWEEN THE REGION OF DIARBEKR AND THE MURAD VALLEY The region of Diarbekr is separated from the Murād Valley by a high precipitous mountain range extending from Bitlis to the Euphrates Valley near Chunkush. The east end of this range is traversed by the Bitlis Pass (see Route 85, m. 823) : towards the west, at Arghana Ma'den, the Tigris (Arghana Su) breaks through the mountain in a defile which is followed by the Diarbekr-Kharput chaussée (see Route 107 at end). Apart from these two crossings, there are but few passes over the hills, and most of those that exist are difficult. The following routes are mentioned : (a) MOUNTAINS BETWEEN BITLIS AND ARGHANA MA'DEN (i) By the Kulp Valley, from Diarbekr or Zokh to Mush (through Pasen). When reported on in 1899 this route was not passable for guns. Near Kulp the track was difficult even for baggage animals. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 192. It was reported in June, 1916, that a direct road from Diarbekr to Mush via Hazro (see Route 106, m. 161) was under construction. (ii) By Korka and a col in the Ziyāret Dāgh, leading from Lijjeh to Dār-i-Yeni in the Murād Valley (and thence on through the Chabak- chur plain by the Günek Valley and Oghnat to Erzerum). This route before the war was a mule road much used by caravans in summer when good pasture was obtainable. It apparently crosses the mountains at the easiest point between Bitlis and Arghana Ma'den. When reported on in 1899 it needed improvement in places for guns. Routes from Kharput and Mush join it in the Chabakchur Plain. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 195. (iii) By the Kolishan (Kosh Kilan) Pass and Kashan from Lijjeh to Palu (round E. side of the Aq Dāgh): a rough hill-track not passable for wheels. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 205. (iv) By the Qara Beighan Basin from Haini to Palu (through Kazak): a hill-track not passable for wheels, apparently rough and difficult in places. A track from Arghana joins this route at Kazak. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 204. (6) WEST OF ARGHANA MA'DEN (i) Arghana Ma'den-Kharput, by Pusherto and W. side of Göljik Lake. This gives the shortest line between Diarbekr and Kharput. ROUTE 112 a, b 323 When reported on in 1901 it was but little more difficult for horses than the chaussée, but was not passable for wheels: it could be improved into a cart-road without difficulty. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 197. (ii) Chermuk-Kharput, by Pusherto. This joins the last-men- tioned route near Pusherto. It is said to be easy. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 197. (iii) Chunkush-Kharput, by Sanli. A difficult mountain-track, which could not be improved. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 197. x 2 ROUTES BETWEEN THE LINE DIARBEKR- MARDİN AND THE EUPHRATES ROUTE 113 BIRIJIK-DIARBEKR (148 m.) Via HOVEK AND SEVEREK Authorities :--Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 138 (report of 1902). E. Sachau, 1880. The first part of this route, to Severek, is 6 hrs. shorter than the route to Severek via Urfeh (see Routes 123 a, b, and 120 a). The little cart traffic that there was before the war seems to have gone chiefly by Urfeh. From the plateau above Birijik to 'Osman Magribi (m. 184) the road passes through bare, stony hills, and there were some difficult patches in 1902, passable, however, for guns, though improvement would be required if a regular line of communication were made. Water and supplies apparently scarce. From 'Osman Magribi to Hovek (m. 384) the country is bare, open, and rather stony. The route is quite easy in dry weather. There is a good deal of cultivation, but water is scarce. The country between Hovek and Qara Jüren (m. 651) is bare, open, and gently undulating. The route is easy, and supplies are fairly plentiful ; water fairly good, but no wood fuel. Between Qara Jüren and Severek (m. 85) the soil is heavy, and in wet weather difficult for men and animals. The country is open and easy, rising gradually with many undulations from Mishmishin (m. 70%), and grazing is excellent (spring). Not much grain. Fuel, tezek, dry grass, and straw. Water-supply abundant and fairly good. The road Severek -- Diarbekr was reported in 1902 to be mostly level, a metalled chaussée in a bad state of repair, the surface being very rough and stony. This section, however, was reported in 1916 to form part of the main line of Turkish road-transport between Jerablūs and Diarbekr. The country traversed, except near the ROUTE 113 325 Qarajeh Dāgh, where it is rough and rocky, is a stony plain. Soil fertile and heavy ; supplies fairly abundant; fuel and brushwood from Qarajeh Dāgh. These hills are said to have a bad reputation for severe climate ; von Moltke found snow on them in April, 1837. (The distances given below are perhaps a little under-estimated.) Miles from Birijik Birijik. Leaving Birijik, ascend by a zigzag, metalled chaussée up the cliffs leading to an open, rolling plateau. Several small, stony ravines. Cross aqueduct supplying Birijik, which comes from SE. The source is 1 hr. distant. Thence water is conveyed underground to this point, after which it runs close to surface and is open in many places. Summit of steep ascent. Metalled chaussée is said (1902) to cease. Road winds over bare, open plateau intersected by deep ravines. Branch road r. to Urfeh via Serūj (see Route 123 b). Branch road r. (according to W.0. map) to Urfeh via Char Melik (see Route 123 a). Winding ascent following the line of a small ravine. Reach a crest of low hills, then descend winding. Hills stony and steep. Yuvajīk. 3 wells. ‘Osman Magribi, small village. 3 wells, of which 2 are generally dry in summer. Stony hills now cease, and an open, cultivated country is entered. Öküz village with 1 well. Khān Hosher (Khānli Haosher). 3 good wells. Country open and undulating. Sizan, with 2 good deep wells. Pass Sinekli, 1 m. to l. Enter low, stony hills. Pass Tunali. 1 good well. Pass Kirghali, è m. to r. 1 well. Kirik, 14 m. to l. Large spring (alt. 1,850 ft.) forming a pool. Good water, the source of the Hovek stream. Track now descends a well-watered, fertile valley, with several mills. Low, bare hills on either side. Hovek, large Zingari village with good water from the stream, which is perennial at, though not below, the village. Route 122 (m. 28) crosses here. Track now follows the Hovek stream. 261 281 32 34 373 382 326 LAND ROUTES 523 61 Miles from Birijik 411 Cross the stream by a fine 10-arched stone bridge (new 1902). 441 Pass Bughdika, village and mound. 1 well. Track now 1 runs through low, bare hills. 47 Merjaniq, a small village with 2 large wells worked by windlasses ; water slightly brackish but quite drink- able. There are 3 similar wells on the other side of the road. These are the only wells noticed with regular fit. tings for drawing water. The usual method is by handline and bucket. This would be a good site for a large camp. Track now over open, cultivated ground. Pass Aq Veirān, žm, to l. Good spring and well. 493 Titrish, with a good spring (alt. 1,500 ft.). The village stands in the plain near a fair-sized hill. Aqcheh Mejīd, small village with 2 wells. Road enters low, bare hills, between which it winds (alt. 1,700 ft.). Pass Malveirān (Arab Köi). 1 well. Cross a cultivated plain. Low hills 2 m. to S. Qara Jüren (Jurn-i-resh in Kurdish). Fair-sized Kurdish village. 1 well, 36 ft. deep; fairly good water. The route from Urfeh to Severek joins here (see Route 120 a). 702 Pass Mishmishīn, village on steep spur to l. No spring or well, but water from a small stream close by. Near this point route from Rūm Qal'ah joins (see Route 115, m. 85). 73 Follow the l. bank of the Chem Chai up-stream. 733 Cross the Chem Chai by a fine five-arched stone bridge called Haji Kāmil Köprü. The stream is small and shallow, but the water never really dries up. Valley narrow and stony. Pass Cheltik, small village at the foot of a mound to l. 2 good springs. Pass Qara Quyu, small village on l. near a mound. 3 good wells. Alt. 2,150 ft. Metalled chaussée begins, very rough and stony. Open, cultivated country, with heavy soil, very stony. Road and T.L. come in r. from Urfeh (see Route 120 b, m. 417). Cross a stream, Zenjibār Chai, strong in spring, 20 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep (March). It is crossed by a masonry bridge of three 15-ft. arches. There is a steep descent to the bridge on each side for & m. Several water-mills and groves of poplars. Small spring on the far side of the bridge. 814 ROUTE 113 327 Miles from Birijik 82 85 87 873 891 924 932 941 Awal 4 952 Cross a strong tributary stream which flows through Severek, Severek (alt. 2,665 ft.). Track follows a rough stone chaussée foundation, which in 1902 was for the most part unmetalled as far as Qara Bāghcheh, 31 m. farther on. Through vineyards and cultivated land among boulders piled up into walls. Alt. 2,630 ft. Gently undulating country, mostly untilled ; some dry watercourses ; good grass in spring ; deep, heavy soil. Masonry bridge over small, rocky stream. Alt. 2,430 ft. Tel Baghdād, 4 m. 1. of road (alt. 2,730 ft.). Ascend gradually the long northern skirts of the Qarajeh Dāgh. Ma sonry culyert. Arastūí (alt. 2,700 ft.), small village to r. 2 wells, good water, and a spring. A small stream is then passed, with a bridge. Pass Kharābzerk, small village 1 m. to r. Ūch Quyu (alt. 2,830 ft.), on l.; partly ruined. 3 wells 30 ft. deep, good water; small spring dry in summer. Boulder-covered hills on either side. Open grass hills and wide valley. 10-ft. culvert, road rough. Village 1 m. to l., another 1 m. to r. Cross a valley and 10-ft. culvert. Cross the Kertish Chai, stream in a deep, narrow valley, strong in spring, dry in summer. Masonry bridge, two 10-ft. and one 15-ft. arches. Cross Qainaq Su by a masonry bridge (alt. 3,200 ft.); a wide, shallow stream, stony bed, dry in summer. Small stream with bad water and stony bed. Pass Qainaq (alt. about 3,200 ft.), 20 houses on a mound with a single-storey square stone khan. 2 shallow wells and 1 small spring. A small stream dry in summer. Country gently undulating with fertile soil, though stony. Excellent pasture in spring and early summer. Cross a stream with a 10-ft. culvert. Pass Gölizeh (alt. 3,620 ft.), 10 houses & m. to r. Rough road over boulders. Pass Gedik, small village and mound. Stream and masonry bridge. 98 101 102 1024 1031 105] 1061 106 1081 328 LAND ROUTES Miles from Birijik 113 1131 114 116 117 118 120 1203 1251 1253 Alt. 3,980 ft. Rocky stream 20 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep, crossed by masonry culvert. Old disused causeway branches to Diarbekr (1902). Alt. 4,020 ft. Broad, snow-fed torrent with bridge. Qara Bāghcheh (alt. 4,120 ft.), 50 huts at foot of Qarajeh Dāgh, good springs į m. above village, plenty of fuel from hills. Road now proceeds over rocky ground, the foot-hills of Qarajeh Dāgh. Scattered patches of stunted trees and shrubs on the higher sides of the hills. Reach summit of a spur and cross a boulder-strewn plateau passable only by infantry. Begin descent from plateau. Cross Sheitān Dereh, large stream, by a two-arched masonry bridge. Cross a small stream (alt. 3,220 ft.). Descend the boulder- strewn slopes of the mountain. Cross small stream with grassy banks (alt. 3,220 ft.). A fair amount of ground here could be cleared of boulders to form a camp. Sersing Khān, small single-storey building of stone and mud. Sersing is a small village to l. Water from spring and a small perennial stream, which becomes a fair size in spring and is crossed by a bridge. The Diarbekr plain now begins. Habashi, village on r. Water from a spring. Square stone khan. Plain almost level here, sloping gently towards the Tigris. Fewer boulders. 15-ft. culvert over a stream. Karghali, small village on l. ; water from a spring. Soil now reddish brown. Sirāb Gözlü, 1 m. to r. of road. Chol Gözlü, 4 m. to l. of road. Plenty of good water from springs and also from Hamervat aqueduct to Diarbekr. Cross a broad valley and stream by a bridge. The slopes at the head of the valley are covered with trees; a gentle slope leads down to Diarbekr, whose walls are visible in bold relief. Conical hill 1 m. to r. ‘Ali Punār, on r. 1 m. N. are barracks not completed (1902). As Diarbekr is approached the ground becomes somewhat uneven, with low, stone walls and watercourses. Diarbekr, 1291 1302 1324 1371 1394 1393 1462 148 ---- - - ROUTES 113, 114 329 ROUTE 114 SEVEREK-GERGER (292 m.) Authority :—Humann and Puchstein, May, 1882. It is not stated whether this track is fit for wheels. In places it is difficult and stony, but on the whole seems to present no special difficulties. The Euphrates has to be crossed before Gerger is reached, but no definite evidence exists as to the means of crossing. There is a fair water-supply along the track, but no evidence as to other supplies or fuel. They are probably scarce. Miles from Severek Severek. Leave in a W. direction. 33 Village on a large mound to l. Thiyāleh village, 1 m. to r. Cross a stream-bed and follow its course for some distance. Some large pools in May. Village, 1-. m. to r. Direction changes to NW. 10 Cross a stream from the N. Reach edge of a valley in which a stream runs WSW. Pass Ashkun village, 1 m. to r. 113 Cross the stream mentioned under m. 113. Cross a stream running WSW. Cross a stream running SW. Pass Zerenker village, 1 m. to r. Descend and follow the course of a small stream. Leave the stream and cross another. Direction changes to WNW. Direction here N. 172 Cross a stream running S. in a deep depression. Alt. 1,970 ft. Some distance down it turns W. Direction now NW. 192 Cross a stream running from E. to W. The Euphrates on the 1. Direction now NE. 20 Hadro village. Direction W. ascending for some distance. Cross a stream running SSW. Pass a village. 213 Direction changes to NW. Ascend a valley. 17 330 LAND ROUTES Miles from Severek 223 24 261 28 Direction changes to N. Descend by a zigzag path to the Euphrates. Cross the Euphrates (alt. 1,820 ft.). It is not stated whether the river is at any season fordable here or not. There appears to be a ferry. After reaching the other bank ascend by a winding path. Olbush village. Difficult stony path ascending a small valley. Cross a saddle and begin to descend. Ruins of a tower for defence of the pass. Foot of descent. Direction changes to N. for a short . distance and then to NE. along the N. foot of the ridge just crossed. Gerger (alt. 2,200 ft.). Gerger Kalessi, about 11-11 m. distant to E. (889). From Gerger Kalessi (Gerger Qalah ?) the junction of the Gerger Chai with the Euphrates lies NE. (45°); the Nimrūd Dāgh is W. by N. (279), and behind it are the highest peaks of the Taurus range, between NW. by W. ånd N. by W. (3021° and 3459). 281 291 ROUTE 115 RŪM QALAH-SEVEREK (991 m.) Authorities :Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 149 (report of 1896); Humann and Puchstein (1882); Ainsworth (1839) ; von Moltke (1838). The travellers who are here followed did not start from Rūm Qalah but from Khalfati, further down-stream on the opposite (1.) bank (see Route 135). The distances given from Khalfati have been kept, as the mileage from Rūm Qal'ah would probably be about the same. The track runs through easy, undulating country, with a good deal of wheat, barley, and vine cultivation. The only difficulties in movement are caused by occasional ravines. There are no trees, at any rate on the first part of the route. The water-supply, from wells and streams, appears to be fairly good. ROUTES 114, 115 331 Miles from Rūm Qal'ah Rūm Qal'ah. Here, on the most westerly part of the Euphrates, a Roman castle was built, and there was formerly a bridge. The valley is deep and narrow, and the castle was defended by sheer cliffs on three sides. Rock dwellings. Cross by the ferry, and ascend to the high ground above the river. Argan. 2 wells, water 15 ft. from surface. Plateau has a general slope to the river. Some vineyards; millet and hay. Arakh, 50 huts. Arghil, 2 m. to S. No stream since leaving river. Villages get water from wells. Pass well with water 100 ft. below surface, and enter a small ravine. Fair track with easy gradient. A little farther another well 10 ft. deep. Skirt a small stream. Slopes of valley descend steeply towards Na rsaid. Narsaid, in the Euphrates valley, village of 50 Kurd huts. Euphrates here is 150-200 yds. wide, with rapid current. Route 122 (m. 503 ; leading 1. to Kilik, 7 m.) crosses here. Leaving Narsaid, ascend out of immediate river valley by a 10-ft. track with a gradient of 1 in 7 and 1 in 8. Then over gentle undulations by a good field track cutting off northerly bend of river. On r. bank of river about a mile inland rugged country begins. Rocky descent into and ascent from ravine running N. Jurmis, 25 huts. Qarajeh Veirān, 50 huts. Follow good track over well- tilled undulations. River makes long bend N. Alt. 1,170 ft. Pass large village 2 m. to l. under some barren hills. Yazigeh (alt. 1,450 ft.), 1 m. to r. Well close by, water 15 ft. below surface. Here a direct track from Birijik joins, passing through Yallakh, a large village, crossing a fertile plain growing corn but rather wanting in water, which is obtained chiefly from wells. Ascend gently; track 30 ft. wide between stony undula- tions; cross chalky hill in front and descend towards river again. Alt. 1,250 ft. Descend for 200 yds. (1 in 8) into valley bordering river, flat, and 3 to 4 m. broad. 31 32 331 39 42 332 LAND ROUTES Miles from Rum Qal'ah 441 531 561 61 63 Soil, chalky clay well cultivated; several villages near Į river. Jemsina (Jimjimeh), į m. tol. Follow a 10-ft. field track, muddy after rain. River 100 to 150 yds. wide. Current 3 to 4 m. p. h., between banks of shingle or low cliffs. Cross ravine from r. with steep ascent for 300 yds. Samsat visible on far bank, 1 m. to l. Qantareh, Kurdish village a little above Samsat. Boat ferry. From Qantareh follow a dusty track 30 ft. wide, muddy in rain, across level valley on which are a few villages. Nidar (Lidar ?), Kurdish village, 100 houses. On opposite i bank hills rise steeply. Mayan Valley, 2 m. wide, bordered with chalk cliffs. Cross some small streams generally in ravines with steep descent and ascent. Valley narrows. River 80-100 yds. wide. Skirt border cliffs, following in places a narrow ledge cut in the cliff. | Bāghcheh, a few huts of Kurds. Pine gardens and orchards. Turkish scarcely understood (1886). Koshan (Khojan), ferry of one boat. Kiakhta Su joins on r. bank. About 10 m. up its valley closes in with rocky i slopes, beyond which a higher range is visible. Some rapids in Euphrates above the junction. Follow a path 3 to 6 ft. wide at foot of cliffs. Pass Amaran, on a plentiful stream. Valley widens to 7 m. River flows in a well-marked course; villages and gardens on the slopes. Turn up side valley well cultivated and watered by 2 plentiful streams. Ascend steeply out of valley and strike across gently undulating plain. Broad easy track. Hashin, 100 huts in a ravine with a few fields and vineyards. Alt. 1,600 ft. Small spring near. Beyond the river to N. is a difficult rocky country. From Hashin to Mishmishin route goes through a fertile but sparsely populated district. Time 33 hrs. Descend into a narrow valley bounded by rocky cliffs 100 ft. high. A 6.ft. stream in the valley and springs in the cliff. 672 69 692 원 ​ ROUTES 115, 116 a 333 Miles from Rām Qal'ah 79% 82 Pass Shinar (alt. 1,510 ft.). Ascend steeply out of ravine. Cross undulating country. Pass Fik. Track stony but easy. Cross two plentiful streams; one with a bridge of 3 stone arches. Mishmishīn. For the rest of the route to Severek see Route 113, m. 703-85. 992 | Severek. 85 ROUTE 116 a VEIRĀN SHEHR-MARDĪN (552 m.) Via DEREK Authority:-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 148 (Reports of 1886 and 1902). This is a shorter but more difficult route to Mardin than that by Tel Ermen (see Route 116 b). It is also better supplied with water, and villages are more plentiful. From Veirān Shehr to Derek the country for first 15 m. is a fertile, cultivated plain, which then becomes undulating and very stony. The route all the way is winding and stony, bad for horses and impossible for carts. The five streams crossed are all of the same character, rising in the Qarajeh Dāgh and flowing S. in narrow rocky valleys. They cannot be forded in flood, and are all dry in summer. From Derek to Mardın the track is in many parts rough and stony, and very heavy after rain on the Māzi Dāgh plateau. Water and supplies are very scarce throughout. Fuel is abundant between Derek and Mardin. (The distances given below are taken from sketch-map by the authority of 1902.) Miles from Veirān Shehr Veirān Shehr. Cross the plain. Haji Zeit, small village with spring. Kermeh, small village with spring. Over stony plain to Kermeh Chai, a good stream in rocky valley, dry in summer. 334 LAND ROUTES Miles from Veirān Shehr 81 101 102 + Kilterīgh, ruined village with stream. Mozeh Chai, small stream. Village of Mozeh on r. Qara Küzü, small village with stream. Qara Küzü Chai, good stream, rocky valley; dry in summer. Qanta Chai, small stream, rocky valley, dry in summer (alt. 1,400 ft.). Thence over undulating plain to Arbeta village with spring and Arbeta Chai 1 m. beyond. Over stony plain to Makhāt, a ruined village. Chai Kharar, good stream, rocky valley, dry in summer, thence across a stony flat. Harāmiyeh, village į m. to l. Here the Derek stream is crossed and a winding, stony ascent leads up to Derek, a small town in a deep valley. Olive trees abound and the valley is fertile and well cultivated. Water- supply abundant and good. Hills on either side rise to about 1,500 ft. The sides of the valley are bare, steep, and rocky. Derek is the seat of a Kaimmakam. For track leading direct from Derek to Diarbekr see Route 95 c. Leaving Derek the 5 streams crossed are all of the same character, rising in Qarajeh Dāgh and flowing S. in narrow, rocky valley. They cannot be forded when in flood, but are all dry in summer. Route winds up rocky valley. Large spring which forms Derek stream. Head of Derek valley, (alt. 3,310 ft.). Reach plateau of Mazi Dāgh, and wind amongst brushwood-covered hills. Kharog, alt. 3,000 ft. From here castle of Mardin is seen bearing E. Mahlebi, pond and well 1 m. to r. Kolchiyeh, ruined village, 1. Continue over open, rolling and stony plateau. Chinār, village m. to l. Akaraz, village m. to l. at foot of hills. Meet metalled chaussée from Diarbekr (Route 95 a), which winds uphill to Mardin (alt. 3,050 ft.). 33 457 521 491 552 ROUTES 116 a, b 335 ROUTE 116 b VEIRĀN SHEHR–MARDĪN (59 m.) Via TEL ERMEN Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 148 A (report of 1886); E. Sachau (journey of 1880); Route report of 1908; E. Banse (1908). This is an alternative route to the more northerly track by Derek. It traverses much easier and more level country, but the last few miles are very steep and stony and fit only for pack-animals. The route is reported to be badly supplied with water, except in spring and early summer when there is a fair supply, and pasture is abundant. A traveller who made the journey in 1908, however, was told by his zaptichs that the streams for some miles before Tel Ermen (m. 49) were perennial. There is wheat, barley, and millet cultivation at the villages along the route, and the soil as a whole appears to be fertile. The crops are ripe about the end of June. Fodder is plentiful, but fuel scarce. The heat in the middle of summer is very great, and at that season a different route is followed from near Meshqüq (m. 35). See Route 116 c. (The distances given below from the Mil. Rep. on E.T.A., vol. iv, seem to be a little under-estimated.) Miles from Veiran Shehr Veirān Shehr. Pass Dil Veirān, a collection of huts on a plentiful stream. Alt. 1,650 ft. Soil gets more stony. Cultivation ceases. Little grass. Water scarce. Track leads off to Derek, 18 or 20 m. distant. Tel Helāli mound on the Jirjib esh-Shammār. Village (new in 1908) with large house then belonging to Hasan- i-Kanjo, an influential chief and adherent of Ibrāhīm Pasha. A track branches off here to Derek and r. to Ras el-'Ain (see Route 127). Cultivation in the neighbourhood. Continue over a flat plain. Pass Tel Harāmiyeh, a mound near which are some small villages. Some apparently in ruins (1908). 301 336 LAND ROUTES Miles from Veirān Shehr 35 Pass Meshqüq, 25 Kurdish houses in a rocky hollow. Water from wells 20 ft. below the surface. Some cul. tivation. The Kurds in this neighbourhood Jelong to the Khalejeh tribe. Route 116 c branches to l. Mūsa Haji, large village 1 m. to l. Follow a broad clay track. Amrud, with an olive grove. Most of the villages lie N. of the route at the foot of the low hills 6-8 m. off. Brāhīmh, small village with plentiful stream (the Zirgān), 8 ft. wide. Pass Tel Ermen (alt. 1,670 ft.) to r., 80 houses of Catholic Armenians (compare p. 32) at the foot of a hill. To W. of the hill are the ruins of a mediaeval mosque. Ascend gradually towards the foot of the hills by a hard track, 30 ft. wide, worn into paths. 'Ain Mishmish, village and hill to 1. Some distance farther on Tumeikeh and Guili, Jacobite villages, are seen to r., and near the track the Moslem village of Seyyid Haji Fāris. Reach the foot of a winding, stony ascent (alt. 2,200 ft). Mardin. 52 573 59 ROUTE 116 C VEIRĀN SHEHR-MARDİN (63 m.) Via MESHQŪQ AND HERZEM Authority :-Route Report of 1908. For the first 35 m. this route is the same as Route 116 b. Beyond Meshqüq it branches off to the l., passing through country with a fair amount of cultivation. The description given of Route 116 b applies to this also, except that the present route is said to be the better in summer. Miles from Veirān Shehr 35 45 Veirān Shehr. Follow Route 116 b. 1 Meshqüq. / Cross the Amrud Su. ROUTES 116 b-117 a 337 Miles from Veiran Shehr 48 541 Guermelhebeh, 25 Kurdish houses. In the next few miles the track crosses the Ghurs Su. Herzem village. Good place for a camp. Water from a stream, and shade. There is some irrigation here and a fair amount of cultivation in the neighbourhood. The Kurds hereabouts belong to the Ghurs tribe. Surface of track good, crossing a dry nullah at one part. Begin the ascent to Mardın. Track rough and stony and very steep in parts, occasionally paved in a succession of shallow ledges. | Mardin. ROUTES 117 a, b, c VEIRĀN SHEHR-DIARBEKR GENERAL NOTE The normal routes between Veirān Shehr and Diarbekr would be (a) via Mardin (see Routes 116 a, b, c, and Route 95 a) or by Derek (Routes 116 a and 95 c). The following are cross-country routes, of which 117 a may be the easiest. This route is the most easterly, 117 c being apparently the most westerly of the three. ROUTE 117 a VEIRĀN SHEHR-DIARBEKR BETWEEN THE Mazı DĀGH AND QARAJEH DĀGH Authority :-Information communicated with regard to a journey made in December 1908. This route leaves the Veirān Shehr-Derek road, apparently in the neighbourhood of Arbeta (see Route 116 a, m. 173): but this is very uncertain. It takes a line between the Mazi Dāgh on the E. and the Qarajeh Dāgh on the W., passing W. of Derek. The country traversed is less broken than that on the Derek-Diarbekr road. On the edges of the plain, before the spurs of Qarajeh Dāgh are crossed, a small Kurdish settlement is passed, near which is a limestone cave with a spring having a perennial water-supply and a stream running out of it. This would be a suitable place for troops to MES. IV 338 LAND ROUTES camp in. It may be Arbeta. A wooded region is crossed before the plain of Diarbekr is reached. The Veirān Shehr-Derek road is said to be impassable for carts, but the rest of the route might apparently be practicable for light artillery and carts. By following the southern Veirān Shehr-Mardın road (Route 116 b) as far as Tel Helāli, and thence striking N., crossing the Veirān Shehr-Derek road, a through route passable for wheels might be obtained. No further details are available. ROUTE 117 b VEIRĀN SHEHR—DIARBEKR (58 m. ?) Via KERMEH AND ORTA VEIRĀN Authority :-Account by C. Preussen in Wissensch. Veröffentl. der Deutschen Orient. Gesellschaft, 1911. From the point where it leaves the Veirān Shehr-Mardın road to where it joins the Mardın-Diarbekr road this is merely a hill. track, through country very sparsely populated, the bulk of the inhabitants being semi-nomadic Kurds. The track is often barely distinguishable, and lies over gravelly soil with occasional patches of cultivation. There are no supplies to be had and there is no evidence as to water. Fuel might be got, as the scrub along the track is said to be frequently knee-deep. Miles from Veiran Shehr Veirān Shehr. Leave by the carriage-road to Mardin. Kermeh, small village. Here, or a short distance further on, the track leaves the carriage-road and strikes N. All the villages passed from here until near Diarbekr are small and inhabited by semi-nomads. Pass Checheneh. Yedi Nasaq. Mangesu. Mujeili. Si Ahmad. Bismāreh, Belloti. Orta Veirān. 101 111 181 21 21 321 ROUTES 117 a, b, c 339 Miles from Veirān Shehr 342 42 Susuwar. Cross the Quru Chai by an old stone bridge. Khăn Dilāver Pasha, in ruins. From here the track goes in a general N. direction by Bir Bazan, the Sepri Köprü (a stone bridge over a stream), and Melkish, a small village in cultivated country, to the Mardin-Diarbekr road (Route 95 a). Diarbekr. 58? ROUTE 117 c VEIRĀN SHEHR-DIARBEKR (64 m.) Via AQHIRLI Authorities :-Humann and Puchstein (journey of May, 1882); map by the same authorities. For the greater part of the route detailed below there seems to be no beaten track, the authority followed having lost the way at m. 21. The going is occasionally very rough, and there are some steep ascents and descents caused by ravines or outliers of the Qarajeh Dāgh. Supplies are not to be had, but there appears to be sufficient water, at least in spring. There is no information as to fuel, but it is probably scarce. Miles from Veirān Shehr NN | Veirān Shehr. Leave in a NE. direction by a bad track. Hill 1-1 m. to r. Tel Gaurān (see Route 119, m. 38%) lies about NW. from here. Ruins. Small mound some distance to l. Hill 11 m. WNW. Ruin-field. Herds of camels in the neighbourhood. Direction changes after a short distance to NE. by E. Direction E. Direction NE. by N. Cross a watercourse running S. by E. 71 | Cross a stream running S. Direction N. mitrit Y 2 ROUTE 117c 341 Miles from Veiran Shehr 281 293 311 33 331 34 361 373 383 392 393 | Direction ENE., descending the course of a stream. Leave the stream in a NNĚ. direction. ? Direction W. descending towards an outlier of the Qarajeh Dāgh. Direction E. in the deep ravine of a stream. Alt. 4,920 ft. Direction still E. Stream bends SE, in a shallow valley. Direction NE. Cross a small dry stream bed. Emerge on to level ground. Direction ENE. Reach the foot of a ridge and descend. Alt. 4,100 ft. Tent-village in the neighbourhood. From here the direction to Diarbekr is NE. (42). . Ghiresh hill is about 21 m. E. (between 852 and 92°). Rakird hill is about 41-6 m. ESE. (115). Girzop hill is about 11 m. SE. by E. (1249) and the ridge referred to immediately above lies between W. and NW. by W. (264° and 305). Descend, having a small valley on the l. Ground here level. Small eminence on the l. Cross the valley. Direction NE. Hill to l. Direction N. Direction NE. Rough going. Cross a stream running E. Cross a small stream in a depression flowing from WNW. Follow the stream. Rocky ground on the r. bank. Direction ENE. Cross a canal from NW. Recross the canal and ascend a rocky spur. Descend in a NE. direction. Descend for about a mile. Āqhirli village on a stream running about NNE. Alt. 2,800 ft. From here the hill passed on the l. at m. 403 lies SW. (229°). A flat-topped hill in the Qarajeh Dāgh lies between 232° and 2223', and the highest summit of the range is about WSW. (2521). Cross a stream running towards the l. Village. Steep descent. Stream running to the r. Ascend along a tributary. 41 422 421 462 49 59 59 342 LAND ROUTES Miles from Veirān Shebr 608 Tent-village. 6311 Reach and follow the city.ditch of Diarbekr. 64° | Diarbekr, city gate. ROUTE 118 URFEH_VEIRĀN SHEHR (521 m.) Authorities :- Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv; Route 148 (reports of 1886 and 1902); Military Report on Arabia, Route 20 (report of 1903); Notes by a traveller of 1908; C. Preussen, 1911. This is a limestone region. The route before the war was apparently passable for 2-wheeled carts and guns but not for 4-wheeled vehicles. The most difficult part of the route is in the Tektek Dāgh where the road is rough and stony. After running through the Tektek Dāgh the track passes over level country, crossing a number of streams flowing from the Qarajeh Dāgh. Many of these have steep, cliff-like descents on either side and would require clearing of rocks for wheeled transport. Except near Urfeh where villages are numerous the country is inhabited chiefly by Milli Kurds who come up N. in summer to the slopes of the Qarajeh Dāgh in search of water for their flocks. The heat in summer is very great and water is so scarce that at that season this road would be useless for military operations. The lack of water is greatest in the Tektek Dāgh. Between those hills and Urfeh some of the streams which flow from the Qarajeh Dāgh may have water even in autumn, but most of them apparently dry up in the course of the summer. Fuel is very scarce, but grazing is good and large numbers of horses and camels should be obtainable. (The distances given below from the Mil. Rep. on E.T.A., vol. iv, appear to be under estimated. Compare Appendix, below.) Miles from Urfeh Urfeh. Leave in E. by N. direction. Route proceeds over fertile cultivated plain, by a good track fit for wheels, which stands traffic well, over gravelly soil. Sirin, 50 houses, 1 well, low hills { m. to l. Cross small stream, dry in summer. Villages poor. Flat-roofed huts of basalt plastered with mud. 13 ROUTES 117 c, 118 343 Miles from Urfeh 3 Alw $ Garmūsh, large Armenian village about 2 m. to l. at foot of low basalt hills, with good springs. Alt. 1,500 ft. Sheikh Chābān 1 m. to r. Qara Oghlan, km. to l. 1 well. Authority of 1903 reports stone bridge over a dry river-bed, 1 m. beyond the point where Garmūsh is passed. Hamlets 1 m. and 1 m. to l. Ulu 'Bāgh, i m. to l. 1 well. Over plain, trending slightly S., to Qantareh, i m. to l. 1 well. Mineshir, 12 houses and 20 tents, 1 m. to l., good spring. Hasan Köi, m. to l. 1 well. Yarik Girin, 12 houses and 20 tents, į m. to r. 1 well. Jūlāb Chai. Alt. 1,500 ft. Small perennial stream. Easy crossing except in flood; shelving banks ; gravel bottom. In flood it would be 30-40 ft. wide, and might be impass- able temporarily. Na'lji Khān village, å m. to l. The authority of 1903, who appears to have crossed the Jūlāb Chai at Injirlu, a little S. of the above point, makes the distance from Urfeh 15 m. For the con- tinuation of his route see Appendix to the present route, below. Cross level plain by good field track. Kulincheh, 1 well. Somewhere in this neighbourhood is a hill called Tel Merj, with a stream running W. About 100 yds. SE. of the tel is a spring of clear water. Eghirjeh, 1 well. Route now enters the belt of low bare stony hills, with wide shallow valleys running N. and S., called Tektek Dāgh. This district is deserted and all villages in ruins (1902). Alt. 1,800 ft. Low rocky spur from low hills N. Enter narrow rocky valley, Chābān Bõghāz. Winding track : for further details see Appendix at end of this route, under m. 293. Alt. 2,150 ft. Summit of pass. Through low rolling hills 154 20 221 241 282 Mohammed Khān, ruins. A number of water cisterns generally dry in late summer; plenty of water in spring and winter. Proceed E. through low stony hills and then a fertile but uninhabited plain, which extends N. to the Qarajeh Dāgh. 344 LAND ROUTES Miles from Urfeh 511 382 Shirik Chai, small stream dry in summer (compare Ap- pendix below, m. 44). Track amid stones and slabs of rock, easy for pack-animals, but would require some clearing for wheels. 414 Giaour Hūri, small Kurdish settlement (4 hrs. from Veirān Shehr). An arched cistern 11 ft. broad and 30 ft. long, and some drinking pools. Wells could be sunk. 432 Jirjib Chai, good stream but dry in summer (compare Appendix, below, m. 503). Deep rocky valley. Cross cultivated stony plain. 481 Sāko, Moslem village, on l. 1 well. Veirān Shehr Chai, good stream, narrow rocky valley ; dry in summer. I Veirān Shehr. APPENDIX The authority of 1903 followed a route given below, which, from the Jūlab Chai (m. 121 above), ran generally south of the above route. It is not possible to determine the exact relation of the two routes, as the intermediate points cannot be identified. Miles from Urfeh Jūlāb Chai, at Injirlu. Marich, 20 houses, & m. to r. Cross a stream coming from N., of which much of the water is used for irrigation higher up. Good water ; low banks ; gravel bed; easy crossing. Beyond this the country was laid waste, and no supplies were available, though water could generally be found by digging on sites of destroyed villages. Direction slightly S. of E. Slight ascent. Tel Awar, deserted village, 1 m. to r. 231 Irgeh (Irinjeh ?), deserted village, į m. to r. Girbõz, 1 m. to r. Direction changes to NE. 281 Tabaköi, ancient ruins on r. 291 Enter defile. Direction changes to E. This is appar- ently the Chõbān Bõghāz, but even though this route appears to make somewhat of a détour as compared with the preceding route, the distances cannot be reconciled. The defile, which has steep sides some 300 ft. high, was found impassable for wheels, the path being often 121 161 2 ROUTES 118, 119 345 Miles from Urfeh 311 351 38 392 41° 441 narrow and steep along the hill side. The bottom of the ravine is strewn with large boulders. The rise from the entrance to the summit of the pass is about 220 ft. Summit of pass, near ancient ruins of Qal'ah Chābān. Field guns might be taken over the summit with difficulty. Continue in same direction, crossing an undulating plateau where going is good for wheels. Mohammed Khān, to l. The remainder of this authority's route appears to have followed closely that given above as far as Sesik (m. 501 below). His details are as follows. | Destroyed village on 1. Destroyed village 1 m. to r. Large destroyed village { m. to r. Qal'ah Vehma, destroyed village. Stream, perhaps to be identified with Shirik Chai (m. 38 of main route above). Two good wells in river bed, and any number could be dug. Water 18 ft. from surface. Sebid, 10 huts, 20 tents, on l. Ancient ruins. Hamidieh camps from here onward ; people poor but well armed and mounted. Sasik, 10 huts, 20 tents. Poor well; water 50 ft. from surface. A stream is crossed near here; perhaps the Jirjib Chai of main route, above (m. 484). From this point the authority of 1903 did not proceed to Veirān Shehr, but kept S. of it. From Sasik, he passed Jebir (11 m.); Burub (21 m.) on r., 10 huts, 15 tents; 'Ali Köi (4 m.) m. to r., 20 tents ; Kurbdesuda (7 m.) on 1., 10 houses, 20 tents, poor well with water 50 ft. from surface; Karabtasole (7} m.) on 1., 12 huts, 15 tents. At 12 m. he crossed a dry stony river-bed (Haft- mal or Veirān Shehr Chai?), 100 yds. wide, with wells in it. The banks are 30 ft. high. In the vicinity is Tel Hena, 15 tents. At 15 m, he reached Alta Shan, and continued thence to Ras el-'Ain. (See Route 128, Appendix.) 471 501 ROUTE 119 SEVEREK—VEIRĀN SHEHR (434 m.) Authorities :-Humann and Puchstein, May 1882. This route appears to be little used, and it is not even certain whether there is a marked track over the last 20 m. There is no information as to the practicability of the route. Water and probably 346 LAND ROUTES also fuel are scarce, and there are no supplies to be had, there being few villages along the track and these inhabited only by semi-nomads. Miles from Severek به اهتمام مستحسام Severek. Leave in a SE. direction. Cross a stream in a broad flat valley. Cross a watercourse running WNW. Direction now ESE. Direction now SSE. in a valley running WNW. Ruined village. Low mound on r. Village 21 m. to 1. Cross a stream running W.: į m, further down it bends NW. in a deep bed. Gök Tepeh village 1 m. to 1. Direction now S. Village 4 m. to 1. Daga, tent-village (alt. 2,760 ft.). Direction now SE. Cross a stream running SSW. Mound 7 m. to r. Direction now SE. by S. Mound 31 m. to l. Ruined village. Three tels lying about E. by S., SE., and SSE. (100°, 130°, and 1570) respectively. Small encampment. Watercourse running W. Direction now ESE. Reach the tel observed at 130° under m. 111. It lies in the depression in which runs the watercourse just referred to. Tent-village 21 m. to l. Large depression parallel to the track on the l. Cross a stream-bed, with flowing water in May. Track runs NE. for a short distance. Direction now SE. Small mound. Small tent-village. Mound and ruined village (Prisdāreh ?). High tomb, and cistern. Direction now SE. by S. Mound and ruined village (Salod?). (Here the authority turned off E. to Söluklü, and the direction of the track is uncertain. From the map it seems to go about S. by E. The authority rejoined the track about m. 221.) 12 131 133 153 161 20 ROUTE 119 347 Miles from Severek 24 241 242 26 261 28 281 283 Söluklü, tent-village to l. Direction now S. by E. Slight descent to a watercourse. About here the only authority for this route left the track and it is uncertain where he rejoined it, or even if he rejoined it at all before reaching Veirān Shehr. The rest of his account is quoted, as the directions probably give the general course for Veirān Shehr with fair accuracy. Direction SE. Cross the stream-bed mentioned immediately above. Very little running water in May. Direction E. by S. Direction S. Direction now SE. Mound 2 m. to r. Mound and encampment to r. Direction SSE. Well near the mound just referred to. Encampment 1 m. to l. Line of pools in a shallow depression to SW. Cross through the line of pools, which here runs S. and some distance off bends SW. Mound 1 m. to r. Slight descent. Cross a stream-bed running SSW. Direction SE. Tel Gaurān comes in sight. Direction SE. by E. 'Ali Peighamber, village å m. to r. on a mound. Cross a watercourse running from E. to W. Tel Gaurān, mound and ruined village. Direction appa- rently SE. Direction ESE. Cross a sluggish stream. Direction SSE. Cross a watercourse running S. | Veirān Shehr. 293 29 30 313 321 331 382 401 42 423 431 348 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 120 a URFEH-SEVEREK (474 m.) Via QARA JÜREN Urfeh Authorities :-Military Report, vol. iv, Route 146 a ; Oppenheim's map in Peter- mann, 57 II (1911). This is the post-route, and is also used by carts though there is normally little wheeled traffic. It was reported in 1916, however, that the main line of Turkish road-transport between Jerablūs and Diarbekr passed through Urfeh and Severek, presumably by or near this route. This route is said to be the best for water. Supplies and fuel apparently scanty. According to Oppenheim's map, Qara Jüren is at m. 33. Miles from Urfeh. Ascend over undulating country, rough and stony, apparently following Route 120 b to Qara Köprü (see Route 120 b, m. 3). Country now barren. Pass Chulmen. The country here is cut up by ravines. 121 Ras el-'Ain, 1 good spring. Yedi Köi, 1 well. Karuzlar, large spring of good water. 271 ? | Qara Jüren or Jurn-i-resh. For the rest of the route, see Route 113, m. 651-85. 474 Severek. 10 17 23 ROUTE 120 b URFEH-SEVEREK (461 m.) Via ANZELEH Authorities:— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 146 (reports of 1886 and 1902). This route does not appear to be passable for wheels. The track is frequently narrow and stony, and the country badly supplied with water. No supplies are procurable and fuel is scarce. According to a sketch-map, Anzeleh is at m. 17, Severek at m. 53. ROUTES 120 a, b 349 Miles from Urfeh 1 como 10 Urfeh. Follow the T.L. by a stony track over undulating cultivated country, rising gradually. Alt. 1,980 ft. Follow valley falling S. and SE. Cross stream at bottom of valley, 10 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep; good water from a spring Qara Köprü, 40 houses in centre of valley, which is here 1 m. wide, between steep, stony hills. At, or somewhere beyond, this place Route 120 a and T.L. apparently diverge to l. From the village keep r. of valley. Cross wide valley falling NW., full of vineyards and hamlets. Enter narrow valley in hills. Summit, 2,620 ft. "Cross bare, chalky, grass hills (March), passable for guns with difficulty. Wide valley falling NW., covered with vineyards. Plenty of vine-branch fuel (March). Village : 10 houses, small spring. Alt. 2,400 ft. Small dry chalk stream ; small village with well, water 6 ft. down. Chalk hills with limestone cap on l. Two small villages down-stream, 1 and 11 m. to r. Summit of a ridge. 2,390 ft. Descend valley falling E. Anzeleh (or 'Ain Zelli). Cross small stream 10 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep; very good water. A large spring 1 m. above village and another at head of valley. Patches of wheat and groves of poplars. Cross a ridge. Summit, 2,420 ft. Wide valley, cultivated, falling SE. and cultivated at bottom. Dibihasār, small village, 20 houses, m. tor. Cross numer- ous ravines and hills of reddish clay and limestone falling to main stream to Dibihasār. Āq Veirān, small village, good well, water 15 ft. down. Follow main stream of valley, dry here, but with many springs of good water į m. up. Qarapiyar, small village 1 m. to l. on hill. Good track over stony grass hills ; difficult for guns and cavalry. 3 good springs giving the best water on this route. Head of valley, 2,470 ft. Cross undulating plateau, falling to l. Ruined tower on hiļi į m. to r. Follow narrow valley between hills 500 ft. high. Yaghli Mussa (Aghla Mus), small Kurd village ; a little wheat cultivation. 1 well, good water. Follow valley down and then ascend. Summit. Cross stony hills by good track. 14 164 204 21 241 26 350 LAND ROUTES Miles from Urfeh 281 292 301 311 331 357 361 Tel Fatūs (Tel Ab Fatūs). 18 houses ; 3 good springs. (Another account says only 1 well, poor water.) Churmulu, 12 houses ; good springs. Cross undulating cultivated plain with patches of stones and boulders. Good springs. Hamdūn Su (alt. 1,850 ft.). A strong sandy stream 20 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep (March), flowing in cultivated valley through gently undulating country covered with lime- stone boulders, through which the track is narrow and tortuous. Dereresh (Drabsha ; alt. 1,870 ft.); 10 houses, shallow wells. Small spring: then a small stream. Good mill stream led off from stream at mill. Eslān, 25 houses ; poor water. Keser Köprü, bridge over rocky stream 50 yds. wide and, 2 ft. deep (March); 2 water-mills. Alt. 2,030 ft. Qara Quyu, small village ; 30 houses; good wells. Join and follow route from Birijik (see Route 113, m. 79). Severek. 37 402 403 461 ROUTE 121 URFEH_SAMSAT Authority :-Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iv. No details are available for this route. The track is said to lead over open country, and to be passable for wheels. The plain is fertile in places, but generally barren and wanting in water. Urfeh is reckoned as 12 hrs, from Samsat. ROUTE 122 URFEH-KILIK (571 m.) Authority :-Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam (journey of 1902). From Urfeh to the Euphrates this track is passable for carriages : water is rather scarce. There is no information as to other supplies and fuel is scarce. The distances are from sketch-maps only. ROUTES 120 b-123 a 351 Miles from Urfeh 28 32 357 402 Urfeh. No details are available as far as Hovek. Hovek, large Zingari village with good water from a perennial stream. Route 113 m. 381) crosses here. Leaving Hovek the track runs W. for about 2 m. and then bends N. by W. Pass Sarunjaq village on r. Pass Kaperga village on r. Yallakh village. Qishkan village on l. Narsaid village in Euphrates valley (see Route 115, m. 26). Kilik on the Euphrates : ferry. 461 501 572 ROUTE 123 a BIRIJIK-URFEH (434 m.) Via CHAR MELIK Authorities:-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 146 (reports of 1886 and 1902). Notes by a traveller of 1908. Information of 1914. This is the more northerly of the two routes to Urfeh. It is generally fairly easy, but in places rough, stony, and heavy in wet weather. It was regularly used in 1908 for carts, both for passengers and merchandise. By 1914 the road had not been metalled for the first part of the way except for a short distance outside Birijik. The last third of the road before reaching Urfeh is a well-engineered chaussée, which would be considered good in any country. In 1903 it was reported that it was less used than the route via Serūj (see Route 123 b), owing to the insecurity of the country and the in- completeness of the chaussée, but conditions may have altered in the interval. Between Birijik and Char Melik, 21 m., the country is open, bare and undulating; the soil heavy; much cultivation ; villages fairly numerous but small and miserable. Water from wells; supplies scarce. No wood. From Char Melik to Urfeh the country consists of bare rocky limestone hills ; water very scarce; no supplies. (The distances given below appear to be somewhat under- estimated.) 64 10 10条 ​133 17: 2s ROUTE 123 b 355 les from firijik 23 241 28 Alt. 1,730 ft., edge of plain. 50 villages visible from here. Mizar (Jaslimizar), large village and mound, i m. to r. Small stream along roadside. Cross small stream and masonry bridge, 2 spans of 10 ft. Serūj (alt. 1,700 ft.), 60 houses and one khan. The village lies in centre of rich wheat plain covered with villages 1 m. apart, whose population has been estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000 (1903). Most of the villages have small groves of poplars. Fuel used is corn-stalks and cow-dung. Plenty of grain ; sheep and goats on hills ; some fine 14-hand horses bred here. The language spoken is chiefly Kermanji, but a good many of the inhabitants speak Arabic. Turkish is a little spoken (1903). Serūj is the head-quarters of the Kurds of the Berazieh tribe, who are reputed to have 10,000 warriors and used to be at feud with the Milli. They are partly nomadic, partly semi-nomadic, and partly sedentary. Many wear Arab dress and have adopted Arab speech. They have rather a bad reputation for brigandage, but are industrious and intelligent. Buyük Shavran, small village. 2-ft. culvert over irrigation drain. Küchük Shavran. 3-ft. irrigation drain. Small stream and 5-ft. culvert. Small village (Boztepe ?) and small masonry culvert. Small village. Alt. 1,710 ft. Edge of plain ; enter valley between low hills of limestone; stony and grassy. Cross dry stream. Good well, 75 ft. deep. Cross many low hills and valleys by good track; rather stony country, passable for all arms. Summit of range, 2,250 ft.New masonry-covered rain- water tank (1903), 5,000 gallons. Steep descent (1 in 10) for 1 m. Underground rain-water tank, 5,000 gallons ; dirty water. Cross many low hills and valleys. Country from here difficult for guns and cavalry. Summit, 2,180 ft. Cross wide valley, cultivated. From here many culverts had been built for a chaussée, but no earthwork had been made in 1903. Sharp ascent from valley. 30 303 321 34 352 431 45 z 2 352 LAND ROUTES Miles from Birijik 64 r tot 143 15% 163 Birijik. The road is at first the same as that of Route 113 (which see) and Route 123 b. Here, according to W.0. map, road turns r. from Route 113. Cross ravine with steep descent and ascent which would require repair for wheels. Bare stony hills on either side, path rough and stony. Country is cut up by several ravines, and at times the road degenerates into a narrow stony track for a short distance. Reach crest of plateau called Arab Dāgh (alt. 2,380 ft.). Harar is a small village on 1. of road with 1 well. After Harar road traverses bare rolling plateau ; soil heavy and stony. Golaksiz, small village with 1 deep well. Jerdo (alt. 2,000 ft.), small village 1 m. to r., with 3 good wells. Road is a collection of several paths, and is easy. T.L. (2 wires) follows road. Madrabas, small village, with 1 well. Road goes down cultivated valley Haji Köi, small village with 1 well, m. to r. Tabam village, 1 well, m. to l. Qazan, spring, 1 m. to l. Abanor, well and spring, 1 m. to r. The tops of undulations here are bleak and stony. Otherwise the soil is a good clay. Wādi Abu Mardan (Abanor Chai), dry in summer, crossed by culvert. Shallow well on r. of road. From here cross undulating country. Rich soil; much cultivation. Aghaji Kurgu, 1 well, a m. to l. Zekki, 1 well, 1 m. to r. Qara Jüren or Jurn-i-resh (not to be confused with place of same name on Route 113). Well. Char Melik (alt. 1,750 ft.), a small village with bee-hive huts, 2 wells and a small stream. Solidly-built old khan 65 yds. square. The village is Kurdish. Road proceeds as a broad track over fertile undulations (alt. about 2,400 ft.) for 6 m., after which the ground becomes more stony. The road winds a good deal among small hillocks, but track improves and a few small villages are visible. Water has to be sought some 50 ft. 163 173 ROUTES 123 a, b, 353 Miles from Birijik 33 38 below surface. At some points the track is slippery over rock. Several flocks of goats and sheep to be seen. Yugum Burj (Oghumburj). Small village: water-supply from rain-water cisterns. Road now ascends a winding, muddy, and stony ascent for 2 m., and thence winds through stony hills. Southern route from Birijik to Urfeh by Serūj joins here. See Route 123 b, m. 48. On l. large rain-water cistern 25 by 5 yds. cut in the limestone rock, holding 20,000 gallons. Water very foul in summer; sometimes dries up. Road crosses a deep rocky valley here. From here to Urfeh there is a well-engineered chaussée through difficult rocky limestone hills intersected by deep rocky ravines. Good well 180 ft. deep in small cultivated plain. 20-ft. culvert over deep ravine. Masonry-covered water- tank 200 yds. to r. Steep descent by cliffs and ravines to the Urfeh valley. Summit, 2,280 ft. Small rock cistern. Descend a steep valley by zigzag chaussée. Spring in valley 50 ft. below road. Urfeh (alt. 1,720 ft.). 401 41 431 ROUTE 123 b BIRIJIK-URFEH (531 m.) Via SERŪJ Authorities:-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 147 (report of 1903) ; Reports by travellers, 1908-12; Oppenheim's Map in Petermann, 57 II (1911. In 1903 it was reported that most of the traffic to Urfeh, including arabehs, went by this route, owing to the incomplete state of the chaussée by Char Melik and the insecurity of the country. Con- ditions may have changed in the interval, as the Char Melik route now appears to be fairly good (see introduction to Route 123 a), and the death of Ibrāhīm Pasha may have been followed by greater security. It is, however, inhabited by Berazieh Kurds, who were MES. IV Z 354 LAND ROUTES formerly predatory (see under their head-quarters, Serūj, m. 27. below). The route should be passable throughout for wheels, though heavy carts might have difficulty in using it in winter, when there is a good deal of mud. In summer they should have little difficulty. Moreover, it was reported in 1916 that the main line of Turkish road-transport from Jerablūs to Diarbekr passed through Serūj (m. 27) and Urfeh. There are a good many streams and water is plentiful in winter, while villages are numerous, and there is much cultivation, at any rate in the neighbourhood of Serūj. There is hardly any wood along the route. An authority of 1912 says that there is a longer but better route which makes a sweep SE. through the plains, skirts the Serūj Dāgh, and then runs N. along the E. side of the Nimrūd Dāgh. This is perhaps the r.-hand route which branches off at m. 61, but there is no further information available regarding it. (The distances given below seem to be fairly accurate, and agree with the times given by a recent traveller, 16-17 hrs. from Urfeh to Birijik.) Miles from Birijik 2 4 101 Birijik. Follow Diarbekr road (Route 113) for about 2 m. Turn r. from Diarbekr road (Route 113). Large spring and ravine. Alt. 1,480 ft. 2 good springs and ravine. Ravine: masonry culvert (15 ft.) over small stream. Road now crosses uncultivated chalk downs covered with grass (March). Valley; small village 3 m. to l. Track divides: keep l. Cross bare hills covered with grass and scented shrub. Small stream; mound, caves, and a little wheat cultiva- tion. Steep ascent up range of hills bearing SW. Small spring. Summit, 2,250 ft. From here red clay soil and limestone, rocky, bare, grassy hills. Descend gradually to 1,880 ft. in a wide valley or plain with wheat cultivation and 4 villages. Tel Erba'in, large Kurdish village 11 m. to r. in centre of plain near a flat-topped mound. Wells and stream. Slight rise over low ridge. Summit, 1,900 ft. View over cultivated plain of Serūj. Sharp descent. 13 143 221 ROUTE 123 b 355 Miles from Birijik 231 Alt. 1,730 ft., edge of plain. 50 villages visible from here. 24 Mizar (Jaslimizar), large village and mound, i m. to r. Small stream along roadside. Cross small stream and masonry bridge, 2 spans of 10 ft. Serūj (alt. 1,700 ft.), 60 houses and one khan. The village lies in centre of rich wheat plain covered with villages i m. apart, whose population has been estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000 (1903). Most of the villages have small groves of poplars. Fuel used is corn-stalks and cow-dung. Plenty of grain ; sheep and goats on hills; some fine 14-hand horses bred here. The language spoken is chiefly Kermanji, but a good many of the inhabitants speak Arabic. Turkish is a little spoken (1903). Serūj is the head-quarters of the Kurds of the Berazieh tribe, who are reputed to have 10,000 warriors and used to be at feud with the Milli. They are partly nomadic, partly semi-nomadic, and partly sedentary. Many wear Arab dress and have adopted Arab speech. They have rather a bad reputation for brigandage, but are industrious and intelligent. Buyük Shavran, small village. 2-ft. culvert over irrigation drain. Küchük Shavran. 3-ft. irrigation drain. Small stream and 5-ft. culvert. Small village (Boztepe ?) and small masonry culvert. Small village. Alt. 1,710 ft. Edge of plain ; enter valley between low hills of limestone; stony and grassy. Cross dry stream. 352 Good well, 75 ft. deep. Cross many low hills and valleys by good track; rather stony country, passable for all arms. 392 Summit of range, 2,250 ft. New masonry-covered rain- water tank (1903), 5,000 gallons. Steep descent (1 in 10) for 1 m. | Underground rain-water tank, 5,000 gallons ; dirty water. Cross many low hills and valleys. Country from here difficult for guns and cavalry. 431 Summit, 2,180 ft. Cross wide valley, cultivated. From here many culverts had been built for a chaussée, but no earthwork had been made in 1903. 45 Sharp ascent from valley. 25 29 303 321 z 2 356 LAND ROUTES Miles from Birijik 452 48 Summit, 2,400 ft. Traces of ruins on r. Small spring, good water. Descend valley by stony track among steep stony hills, only practicable for infantry with difficulty. Join chaussée and T.L. from Birijik via Char Melik. For continuation see Route 123 a, m. 38-434. Urfeh. 53] ROUTE 124 URFEH-TEL AHMAR Authority :-Information regarding a journey in December 1908. There seems to be no available evidence as to the details of the route between Urfeh and Tel Ahmar. The track is said to diverge from the Urfeh-Birijik road (via Serūj) not far from Urfeh. It passes over some stony undulations, but runs mainly across stoneless plain, where there is a good deal of mud in winter. The route should be passable throughout for light or moderate wheeled traffic, though the heavy going might cause difficulty for heavy carts in winter. In summer the route for such transport should be easy. It might be made passable for motor-cars but not for lorries. There are numerous stream-beds and water is plentiful in winter. In December 1908 there was a large pond some hundred yards in diameter to the 1. of the track just where it left the Serūj plain. This looked as if it might provide a good water-supply at all seasons. There is a good deal of cultivation and villages are numerous. There is hardly any wood along the entire route. This region is inhabited by Berazieh Kurds, a strong tribe that some years ago were on bad terms with the Milli. INTERIOR OF NORTHERN JEZĪREH, WEST OF THE JAGHJAGHA SU ROUTE 125 DEIR EZ-ZOR-NISIBIN (160 m.) Via THE JAGHJAGHA SU Auihorities : - Oppenheim, August 1893 ; Sarre and Herzfeld, Archäologische Reise (journey of 1907). The route from Tel Hesekeh runs generally close along the r. bank of the Jaghjagha, which in low-water has an average breadth of only 20 ft., but even in August is so deep that it can be forded only at a few points. The water is fairly clear and the bed of the stream is not nearly so deeply cut as that of the Khabūr, so that in flood the neighbouring country must be flooded to a great distance. Even in summer the banks are nearly everywhere covered with reeds or low tamarisk scrub. It is fed by streams from the Tur Abdin. The country N. of Tel Hesekeh is for some miles flat like that of the Khabūr, and then becomes undulating. It rises gradually towards Nisibin, and is drained by several small streams. Miles from Deir ez-Zor 0 Deir ez-Zor. For the first 102 m. from Deir ez-Zor to the Wadi Mehleibiyeh see vol. iii, Routes 49 b, m. 2231-153, and 49 c, m. 83-511. This part of the route ascends the W. side of the Khabūr valley. From the wadi there is no defined track. The ground rises gradually northward. 102 | Wādi Mehleibiyeh. 1091 Reach the r. bank of the Khabûr. Tel Hesekeh on the I I. bank. Some distance below the tel there is a ford. ! The Jaghjagha enters the Khabūr about 1 m. to E. At Tel Hesekeh there is a large qishlaq with a zaptich post under the mutessariflik of Deir ez-Zor. 358 LAND ROUTES Miles from Deir ez-Zor 1131 1141 1152 116 1171 1274 1291 1292 1333 Tel el-Aswad to r. on the l. bank of the Jaghjagha. · Tel Selmani to r. on the 1. bank of the Jaghjagha. Cross a stream (dry in low-water) called Nahr A‘waj. Tel el-Barazeh to r. on the l. bank of the Jaghjagha. Ruins of an old stone bridge called Es-Sufiyeh which formerly spanned the Jaghjagha. Remains of piers in the stream-bed. This bridge possibly carried the Roman road from Ras el.'Ain to the Khatuniyeh lake. Direction now E. following the course of the stream. Trees now begin to be seen. Direction changes to ENE. Direction now NE. Cross the Nahr el-Baqar, a small tributary of the Jagh- jagha. Not dry in August. Small group of mounds called Tulūl Hawāij es-Sa'id. Track now runs due N. Track bends a little to E. Hill to r, on the l. bank of the Jaghjagha. Large mound called Tel el-Burāq (Pond Hill) to r. on the far bank of the river, which apparently curves E. about here, and at some point during the next 6 m. is joined on the l. bank by a tributary, Er-Radd (Hasavi). Tel esh-Sharaibeh, a large ruin-mound with flattened summit immediately overlooking the Jaghjagha. Some distance on, several hills are seen to r. on the other side of the river. Tel Humeideh to r. Nahr Abu Ra'sein, a marshy stream. The volume of water it contains suggests that it has a long course. Nomad encampments may be seen in the neighbourhood. In the angle formed by the junction of the stream with the Jaghjagha is a large ruin-mound Tel edh-Dhahab (Gold Hill). The country here is extremely fertile and might be extensively cultivated. Village (uninhabited in August 1893) on the N. slope of some rising ground E. of the river. It belonged to nomads of the Tai tribe. Cross a western arm of the Jaghjagha called Khunes. Some distance to l. is a hill round which this branch flows in a crescent towards the S. Tel el-Haji Bedr some distance to r. 1391 1434 1483 152 1524 1532 ROUTES 125, 126 359 Miles from Deir ez-Zor 1561 157 Tel Tartab and Tel Teratib to r. Tel Fāris to l. Scattered village on the slopes which had been recently built in 1893. Nisibin. 160 ROUTE 126 MARDĪN-RAS EL-AIN (56 m.) Authorities :-Taylor in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxxv, 1865 (journeys of 1861-3); Military Report on Arabia, Route 21 (journey of 1903). Hinrichs (journey of 1911). There is said to be a well-used road between Mardın and Ras el. 'Ain, but it is not clear which of the alternatives below is the more important. The first few miles are very rough and steep, but after the plain is reached there do not appear to be any serious difficulties. Water is probably scarce in the l.w. season when the jirjibs are dry, and no supplies or fuel are available. The stage (reversed) from m. 56 to m. 12å probably represents approximately part of a Turkish line of march between Ras-el-'Ain, Nisibin and Mosul reported in January 1916. The 'marching time from Ras el-'Ain to Tel Ermen was given in two stages of 7 hrs. each. From Tel Ermen the march was continued to 'Amūdeh (Route 94, m. 17), leaving Mardin to the N. The railway from Ras el-Ain has reached Tel Ermen (Feb. 1917). Miles from Mardin | Mardīn. Descend by a steep rocky road. 3. Reach the Mesopotamian plain. Khirzum village to r. on the Ghurs river which rises behind the Jebel Ghurs about 20 m. distant and falls into the Serjan Su. Cross to the r. bank of the Ghurs stream near 'Ain Mish. mish village. 123 Goch Hisār near Tel Ermen (see Route 116 b, m. 49). Ford the Ghurs near the village. The stream here makes a bend E. Track now across level plain. Korījeh and Hori mounds on the l. bank of the Zirgān Su which flows round the W. base of the mounds in a semi-circle. All 192 360 LAND ROUTES Miles from Mardin 20 Cross the Zirgān Su near the ruins of an old bridge. Track now leaves the river and strikes across the desert. Pass Hei Shehri mound and ruins. Pass a large mound in a valley. Cross a jirjib or stream dry at certain seasons, the Jirjib esh-Shammār. The authority of 1903 found this stream 20 ft. wide, 11 ft. deep, current , m.p.h. ; banks 20 ft. high and steep ; passage difficult for wheels; ramping would be needed, and in wet weather passage might be impossible. Ruins of an old bridge, of which only the foundations are visible. Track now leads over a slight elevation. Hereabouts track from Derek (Route 127) joins on r. Regain the level plain. Pass close to some large mounds and ruins. Gradual descent. Cross the Jirjib el-Humur; shelving banks, stony bed, no obstacle: strong stream when in flood. Ras el-'Ain. Railway: see p. 417. Circassian village: Armenian deportees (1915). Ample water-supply. The source of the Khabūr (in a wood of poplars) is warm and slightly sulphurous. 471 48 49 ALTERNATIVE ROUTE The authority whose route is detailed below appears to have kept for the most part E. (and later S.) of the route described above. It does not cross the Zirgān Su till a point much nearer to Ras el-'Ain. The route, once clear of the Mardin hills, follows an unmetalled cart. track through open country : open ground is available for camping, and plenty of water and grass is found along the Zirgān Su (the season is not stated). Water is also to be found not far from the surface by digging in easy soil. Some few supplies are obtainable as far as m. 20; none thereafter. Miles from Mardin. Descend by a zigzag cobbled track, impassable for carts. 31 Reach the plain, some 1,500 ft. lower than Mardin. Gil Haren, large village, on l. Wells. Tel Fadeh village, onl. Wells; water 50 ft. from surface. Muzzili on r. Teshirez, 40 houses, on 1. . Tel Ermen is said to be here 3 m. to r. (see under m. 18). Mardin 14 ROUTES 126, 127 361 Miles from Mardin 18 19 20 211 224 26 261 Keliban, 30 houses, on l. Goch Hisār is said to be here 3 m. to r. If this is so the distance of this point and Tel Ermen from Mardın, as given above and in Route 116 b, m. 49, is doubtful. 'Ain Sibir, 35 houses, on r. Wells and stream. Awen (Avineh?), 60 houses, on 1. Ghanesur, deserted village, å m. to r. Deserted village 2 m. to l. Khirbet Amush, deserted village, à m. to l. Anta, deserted village, 2 m. to r. Deserted village on l. Deserted village on r. Hereabouts the Zirgān Su is reached, and its l. bank is followed more or less closely for 197 m. Deserted village on further (r.) bank of the Zirgān Su. Deserted village, m. to l'. Deserted village on r. Hasan Dervish, deserted village, on r. wells. Deserted villages on I., and m. to r. Deserted villages, Kazzon à m., Dahoreh 1 m. to r.. Deserted village on r. Cross the Zirgān Su, 20 ft. wide, 27 ft. deep, current 12 m.p.h.; difficult for wheels, and if flooded would need bridging for all arms. Deserted village on r. Deserted village on l. Cross the Jirjib esh-Shammār, and continue probably along, or close to, the line of the route given above to Ras el-'Ain. 31 35 36 361 44 ROUTE 127 DEREK-RAS EL-AIN (462 m.) Authority :--Hinrichs (journey of 1911). Miles from Derek Derek. Follow stream in a SSW. direction. To Tel Helāli, track is good in parts, but is impeded by volcanic rocks. Some olive plantations are seen. Pass Greko, volcanic hill, to r. Country otherwise level, with signs of cultivation. 31 362 LAND ROUTES Miles from Derek 111 147 About here the track leaves the stream. | 'Ain Gil. Basalt rocks. Deshi. Basalt rocks. Tel Helāli on the Veirān Shehr- Mardin road. See Route 116 b, m. 22. Follow the course of the Jirjib esh-Shammār in a S. direction. A short distance beyond Tel Helāli cultivation ceases, and the track runs through undu- lating steppe. Low basalt hill to r. Cross Jirjib esh-Shammār: continue to follow it. 261 Ruins of large settlement to l. 28 Stream passes out of sight of track, but its direction is still followed. 'Ain es-Sirāf, village 2 m. ESE. 372 Join road from Mardın to Ras el-Ain (Route 126, m. 47), and follow it to 463 | Ras el-'Ain. 213 22 36 ROUTE 128 VEIRĀN SHEHR-RAS EL-AIN Authorities :- Military Report on Arabia, Route 20 (journey of 1903); T. H. Smith (journey of 1904). Note by a traveller a few years before the war (exact date uncertain). This is a desert track through dreary wastes of uncultivated land, and few details are available regarding it. The distances may be under-estimated. Miles from Veirān Shehr Veirān Shehr. Leave by a track passable for wheels. Alta Shan, settlement of semi-nomads, 40 tents. Ancient ruins; two wells ; water about 45 ft. below surface ; good supply. Tel Kakhurt, mound. No village. Track passes between Tel Janaini on the l. and Tel Zatum on the r. Ras el-'Ain. ROUTES 127-129 a 363 PENDIX 118, Appendix), did not reach Veiran Shehr, but came to Alta Shan The authority of 1903, who was travelling from Urfeh (see Route 118, Appendix), did not reach Veirān Shehr, but came to Alta Shan from W. He proceeded as follows: his line of route cannot be identified with that given above. Miles from Veirān Alta Shan. Qabr el-Abait, destroyed village. Six wells choked up, but water is easily found. Destroyed village on 1. Destroyed village on r. Ras el.'Ain. Shehr 8 24 ROUTE 129 a HARRĀN-RAS EL-AIN (624 m.) Harran Authorities :-Hinrichs, 1911; Notes by a traveller who traversed the route a few years before the war (exact date uncertain). This road appears to be little used. The track is badly defined and is very trying owing to scarcity of water. No supplies. Miles from Harrān. Cross the plain. Occasional cultivation. 9 Reach the summit of the Jebel Tek-Tek by a steep ascent. 104 Ruins on the hill-slope. Winding track following a narrow valley. Emerge from the valley. Direction now E. No defined track. Stony broken country. Track here in a broad valley. Large Kurdish encampment seen here in April 1911. Khān el-Barʻūr, ruins 1-11 m. S. Direction of track now NE. 191 Tel Tarbeh. Water found here in April 1911. Shu'eib Shehr, large ruins. Each house has a cellar hewn in the rock. No water. 241 Ruins of a hexagonal building, possibly the Qasr el-Bint of another authority. Country now becomes less hilly 11) 15 364 LAND ROUTES Miles from Harrān and at length reaches the level plain, broken only here and there with tels. 341 Khān ed-Dujeil, ruins. Pools here dry in April 1911. 36? In this neighbourhood (the position cannot be exactly determined) track reaches Jerablūs-Ras el-'Ain railway, and apparently crosses and runs within 1 m. S. of it. 361 | Cistern with a scanty supply of water. Another account speaks of small water-holes called Shaharib, probably identical with this cistern, about 4 m. from Sheikh Nāsir. Track now ENE. through uninhabited country. Tel Sheikh Nāsir, high mound. Several good water-holes. In this neighbourhood track approaches railway, and may cross and follow its N. side. | Pass a small mound. In this neighbourhood is Tel Hammūd railway station. Water-hole; supply scanty. Track now across undulating desert. 573 | Reach Tel Harbeh on the r. bank of the 'Ain el-Hasan, a r.-bank tributary of the Khabûr. There is a ford across the stream in this neighbourhood. Track runs E. 60 Tel Halaf to r. Track bends NE. 624 Ras el-'Ain. ROUTE 129 b JERABLŪS—HARRĀN (73 m.) Authority :-Military Report on Arabia, Route 18 (report of 1903). This route was described in 1903 as suitable for pack-animals only, but much of the country is open and passable for field artillery or strong light carts in dry weather. The soil is generally a dark brown earth which would be very heavy after rain, but the ground is stony in the hills from m. 6 to about m. 152, and in parts at least between m. 41 and m. 55. Supplies in 1903 were almost wholly lacking everywhere except in the Migteleh valley, where they were abundant. Probably cultivation had increased somewhat between that year and 1914. The soil is naturally fertile near Harrān, but cultivation has ROUTES 129 a, b 365 been hampered by insecurity. The water-supply is fair up to about m. 41 (Kharāb Nas), but from that point to Harrān there are only poor wells. There is no wood anywhere. In the summer the country is hot and dried up. In winter there are fair camping-grounds near any of the rivers. Migteleh valley is said to be a good camping-ground at all seasons for an army corps. Miles from Jerablūs 14 141 Jerablās. Good spring, 1,000 gall. p.h. Railway bridge (see p. 416). Cross Euphrates, and proceed NE. Zormagheh (Zormara), 1 m. from landing-place. Charegli, 20 houses, on 1. Wells. Direction changes to E. Begin stony and steep ascent of hills. Summit of a col. Descend by winding stony path with easy grades, going E. by N. Qara Köi, 15 houses. Wells. Hamlet and Kurd camp. Wells. Foot of descent. Ascend easily in the same direction (E. by N.). Sūsān, small village, on 1. Col. Descend by easy slope into the fertile, well-cultivated valley of Migteleh. Proceed down valley, direction E. N. Tel Shai, 40 houses, on l. Wells. Pass Yedi Ku, 50 houses, 1 m. to r. 'Ain el-Arab, to r., pond of good water, fed by many springs. It is 120 yds. long, 100 yds. wide, and 6 ft. deep. Cross stream, running from pond, 6 ft. wide, 12 ft. deep, current 13 m.p.h. ‘Arab Punār or 'Ain el-'Arab village, 60 houses, on 1. Water from stream and a karez with 600 gall. p.h. Railway station (see p. 416). Migteleh village, 200 houses. Wells and irrigation channel from 'Ain el-'Arab. Arslan Tāsh, 300 houses, m. to r. Wells. Tel Hājib, 200 houses, on 1. | Tari, 150 houses. Village, 30 houses, on l. ! 'Ain el-Batt village, on r. 'Ain el-Batt springs and source of stream onl. The stream is 20 yds. wide, i ft. deep; current 1 m.p.h. Pass Kharāb Nās, 100 houses, i m. to I. Water from stream. Railway station (see p. 416). Turn SE. over 311 33 36 366 LAND ROUTES Miles from Jera blūs 47 51 511 52 55 slight col into stony ravine, across the spurs of which the track cuts. Qara Hu, 30 houses, on r. Wells and spring; the latter nearly dry in September. Kura, 15 houses, on r. Well. Kuldub, 10 houses, on l. Small village, 10 houses, tm. to l. Small village, 1 m. to r. Bandar Khan, 50 houses. Wells 45-50 ft. General direction changes from SE. to E. ; N. over gently undulating earth plain to Harrān. Pass Argbash village, 2 m. to 1. Village, 1 m. to l. Koperlik, 150 houses, on r. Pass Kirmitileh village, 11 m. to l. Adi Köi village, on l. Bīr Kandah, 60 houses, on r. Pass Jemi Armburj (?), 100 houses, 1 m. to l. Yar Köi, 50 houses, on l. Tel Kedr, 100 houses. Harrān. 56 577 59 60 61 63 64 692 73 ROUTE 130 URFEH-HARRĀN Authorities : Sachau, December 1879; Oppenheim's map in Petermanns Mitteilungen, 57 II (1911). This route seems to follow the line of an ancient made road between Urfeh and Harrān, traces of which may still be seen (see m. 193 below). There is no evidence as to its quality, but probably it is fit for wheeled traffic, though heavy in wet weather. Water, supplies (except near Urfeh), and fuel are scanty. Miles from Urfeh 0 i Urfeh. Leave in a SE. direction, towards the Tower of Harrān. (see under Harrān below), passing through gardens and vineyards. Shrine of Nebi Ayyüb. Well. Gardens now end. Yenijeh village. وه سه ROUTES 129, 130 367 Miles from Urfeh 71 AHAW Qazani village and Qazan Tepesi hill. Khanjar village on 1. Wulli Sheikh 'Abd er-Rahmān, shrine, a short distance to r. Jaghmurli hill and village on 1. Gardens. Tel 'Omar village on 1. Ruins. Kholenjek village on r. Sultān Tepeh, village and mound. Ruins, and a small four-cornered tower. Track has now left the valley of Urfeh and emerged on to the plain. Cross the dry bed of the Nahr el-Kūt. Bridge in ruins in 1879. Pass Bozajaq, village and mound 3 m. to r. Other villages and mounds S. of Bozajaq. Mesjid village. Ruins. Pass Tel Baghdad 14-2 m. to r. Chigran village. Ruins. Alt, about 1,270 ft. Salmān village 3-4 m. E. Direction now SSE. Pass Bāleh village 11 m. E. Traces of an ancient road to be seen here on the line of the present route. Manāreh village on the r. El-Kumreh village 3–4 m. to l. Pass Tel Hinteh hill and village 1 m. to r. Tel Nāsir hill 3-4 m. to 1. Cross a dry stream from the N. by a small single-arched bridge, and reach Harrān. The modern village occupies the site of the ancient Carrhae, of which there are still some ruins to be seen, largely buried in sand. The most prominent building is a high four-cornered tower, the lower part of which is built of large hewn blocks, the upper of bricks. It forms a land-mark all the way from Urfeh. 191 192 203 21* ALTERNATIVE ROUTE Authority:-Military Report on Arabia, Route 19 (Journey of 1903). It is not clear how far, if at all, this route coincides with that given above, but it runs probably for the most part at no great dis- tance from it to the W. It is described as a good unmetalled cart- 368 LAND ROUTES road, which has a sufficiency of stones and gravel on it to prevent its becoming very heavy in wet weather. There are no severe gradients. The country is open. Well water only, and this is scanty, elsewhere than at Urfeh and Harrān. For the first 19 m. abundant supplies were reported : here the villages were Kurdish, or settlements from Urfeh. Beyond this point there were only settlements of semi- nomad Arabs, except at Tel Feddān and Tel el-Hamed. (According to the authority's map, the total distance is about 28 miles.) Miles from Urfeh 12 14 15 151 16 17 171 18 Urfeh. Proceed through gardens for a mile. Seruji, 200 houses, 1 m. to 1. 'Abd er-Rahmān, 100 houses, 4 m. to l. (Compare m. 61 on main route.) Shamurli (? Jaghmurli, m. 71 on main route), á m. to 1. Deh Sultān (? Sultan Tepeh, m. 104 on main route), 50 houses, i, m. to l. Kodem, 60 houses, to l. 'Ali Beg, 1 m. to l. Well on r.; plentiful water 30 ft. below surface. Hāji Hasan, 10 huts, on 1. Ruined village and Arab camp, 1 m. to r. Gardneh, 50 houses, 2 m. to 1. Tel Aswad, 40 houses, on r. Girbel, 60 houses, on r. Wells ; water 45 ft. from surface. Girif Husein, 10 huts, å m. to I. Mazraheh, ruined village, on 1. Tel el-Hamed, 100 houses, 13 m. to l. Treimpsi, 40 houses, on r. Tel Feddān, 70 houses, 12 m. to l. Mishirifi, 20 houses and 15 tents, á m. to 1. From this point to m. 28 a number of villages are passed within 1-2 m. of the route. Misawal, á m. to r. Spring forming pond, 1 m. to l. Another spring forming pond, 1 m. to l. Another similar spring, 1 m. to l. Each of these three ponds is about 50 yds. in diameter, and 3-6 ft. deep. Harrān. 20 201 21 ROUTES 130-132 a 369 ROUTE 131 SHEDĀDI-HARRĀN Authority :-Sachau, 1880. The following stages from Shedādi to Harrān, without distances, are given from native information. The authority of 1880 states that the inhabitants of the Belikh valley knew of no routes between that district and the Khabūr, and the region is still little known. The journey is reported to take 6 days by camel, allowing 6-8 hrs. per day, but whether the speed is that of a pack-camel or not is not stated. Shedādi. Marfiyeh, spring and mound. 'Ain es-Sihl. Agageh. Zihn el-Mibrik. Dibshiyeh. Umm Madfa', spring and stream. Tel Ghesībeh, stream and mound. Chnezir. Es-Suhūl. Esh-Shelāleh, two springs. El-Beidhā, several springs. El-Habbeh and El-Kara biyeh, two springs near one another. Sulūk. Harrān. ROUTE 132 a RAQQAH-HARRAN (69 m.) Via THE E. BANK OF THE BELIKH Authorities :-Sykes, Caliph's Last Heritage (journey of 1906): Hinrichs, 1911 : recent information. The river Belikh, the general course of which is followed from Raqqah to Harrān, is a deep narrow stream, fordable only at a few points even in the l.w. season. It could easily be bridged. A report of 1906 says that the Afadle had built a bridge of twigs and branches bound together into fascines, near El-Hamreh, a short MES, IV A a 370 LAND ROUTES distance above the junction of the river with the Euphrates. The average depth is about 8 ft. and the breadth about 30 ft. The current is moderate and the banks generally soft and spongy. The country on both banks is said to be passable for wheels except in wet weather. The burrows made by jerboas, however, make fast movement impossible. There are two routes to Harrān; one on the E. and the other on the W. of the stream. Both keep well away from the river owing to the numerous canals and the soft nature of the soil. The eastern track runs generally closer to the river, and that side of the valley is said to be higher than on the W., while there are no lakes such as are to be found on the W. bank. The breadth of the valley generally varies from 1 to 3 m., but in a good many places it is as much as 7-9 m. wide. The territory on either bank is divided into grazing districts, each with its own name. These tracts may be 10 m. long. Barley, maize, rice, millet, hemp, and opium can be cultivated with success, and it is reported that with settled government the whole district watered by the river could, as in former days, support a large population. At present the feuds of the Anazeh and Shammār make development impossible. Many of the settlements are tent-villages, and are consequently liable to alter their position from year to year. Miles from Raqqah. Leave in a NE. direction. Ford the Belikh, which here runs in 3 channels, with muddy bottom. Tel Sacheh (Sabkah ?) on the E. bank. | Valley widens. Cultivation on both banks. 17į Track runs in an ENE. direction along a beaten path by the river on the edge of the grassy hill-land. Tel es-Sedd, camping.ground. Some cultivation. Track now begins to run through desolate uninhabited country. Nomad encampments are to be met with. Hereabouts, apparently, near a tel called Hammām, the Julāb stream joins the Belikh from the N., and a stream comes in from NE. (but see under m. 50). Proceed N. along E. bank of Julāb (?). 453 El-Hammām, large Turkoman village. Extensive cultiva- I tion (1911). A report of 1906 says that the Turkomans here had adopted the language, habits, and dress of the surrounding Arabs, though some still talked a Turkish patois among themselves. Track now runs NW. Raqlah! ROUTES 132 a, b 371 Miles from Raqqah 50 Pass Tel Sahlān, high mound on opposite bank of stream. Here a stream joins the Belikh from NNW. (This, according to Hinrichs, is the junction of the Belikh and Julāb.) Follow the Julāb, passing Tel Suweikh. Pass Tel Breri to l. Here the track leaves the Julāb. In this neighbourhood track crosses the Aleppo--Ras el-'Ain railway. Tel Abyadh station to W. See p. 417. 581 | Hills to the E. end. 69 Harrān. ROUTE 132 b RAQQAH-HARRĀN (71 m.) Via The W. BANK OF THE BELIKII Authorities :- Sachau, 1880 ; Sykes, journeys of 1906 and 1908. This route (see introduction to Route 123 a) follows generally the edge of the desert plateau, at first through desert, with a shallow covering of whitish soil and frequent outcrops of mica. Gazelles and water-birds are to be met with. Miles from Raqqah Raqqah. Track leaves Raqqah in general N. direction. Raqqah disappears from view. 10 Direction of track changes from N. to NNW. 121 Direction changes to NW. 141 Crest of a line of hills running from S. to E. The shallow lake of Göl Bāshi or El-Göleh at the foot of the ridge comes into view. Dam, about 20 ft. high, built across the S. end of the lake from E. to W. From the dam a canal formerly led off, probably connecting Tel es-Semn (see below, m. 264) and Raqqah. Track follows this dam W. The place swarms with water-fowl. Leave the dam and skirt W. side of the lake. Reach N. end of the lake. 201 Low mound, probably the site of a former settlement. From this point a hill, called Tel el-Hiln, lies about 21 m. SSE. and near it another called Tel ed-Dibe. General direction of track NNW. 213 Tel es-Semn, village and marsh. The marsh swarms with water-fowl, and the neighbouring plain is extraordinarily A a 2 372 LAND ROUTES Miles from Raqqah 23 24 261 27 29 30 301 fertile and largely cultivated, the numerous marshes and small lakes affording a perennial supply of water. Rice and millet are grown. There are several villages in the plain all bearing the name Tel es-Semn. Mound of Tel es-Semn close to r. Pass a marsh. Leave the plain of Tel es-Semn and cross a fairly broad wadi. Tel Demīr, 24 m. E. From this point Tel Ghādir hill and village lies about 31 m. E. S. of them lies a lower hill, and about 12 m. beyond them to the E. is Tel el-'Adwan. Tel Shāhīn, about 2 m. NE. Enter the plain of Tel Hīsheh, formed by a westward expansion of the Belikh valley. The inhabitants of this plain, in 1880, were Arabs of the Bul-Asaf tribe. The plain is extremely fertile and everywhere cultivated. The soil is of a rich reddish brown alluvium, and the chief crops grown appear to be millet and rice. Irriga- tion is carried on by means of canals from a tributary of the Belikh, the Qaramuk (or Qaramush), which is said to rise in the hills near Serūj and enters the Belikh about 31 m. E. below Tel Ghādir (see above, m. 293). It dries up in the l.w. season. General direction of track N. Tel Hīsheh, on l. Direction changes to NNE. Hīsheh, village. Second village called Hīsheh. Cross a small canal. Track now runs N. Qarayer, ruins. Tel es-Suwān, about 31 m. to r. Direction changes to NNW. Track now runs generally NW. From this point a hill, called Sgheru, lies about 3 m. ESE. According to native information this hill lies about 6-8 m. E. from Sarikamish on the Harrān-Meskeneh track mentioned under m. 59, below. Tel Hammām, about 2 m. to r. on opposite bank. See Route 132 a, m. 42. Track bears to NNW. along Belikh. From this point Tel el-Khashab lies about 7 m. ENE., and more to E. about 10-12 m. off, Tawil es-Suweikh. 301 303 314 321 323 331 371 392 391 42 462 374 LAND ROUTES Miles from Raqqah 581 | Direction changes to NNE. on entering a fertile depression running from W. to E. a few feet below the surrounding plain. At the west end of this depression, about 1 m. from the track, is a hill, called Tel Sululeh, at the foot of which is a spring of good water, called 'Ain Sululeh. The overflow runs down the depression in two small streams. Tel el-Mumbateh on 1. between the two streams just mentioned. 581 Track crosses railway apparently near Tel Abyadh station (see Railway, Aleppo-Ras el-Ain, p. 417). N. edge of the depression. A route between Harrān and Meskeneh is mentioned as branching to SW. near here ; it is used very seldom, by dispatch-riders. The following stages are mentioned from Harrān :-Tel Abyadh, 'Ain el-Vāz, Sarikamish, Hedl or Hadleh, Mehlebiyeh, Meskeneh. Besm Yukla, ruins and well at the foot of a low hill. Qizzeh Kebīr, hill and village about į m. to r. Reach the flat plain of Harrān. Qizzeh Saghīr, small village on the r. Tel el-Qantareh, small village on the S. side of a hill on the r. The whitish ground over which the track has run now gives way to a reddish-brown soil. Cross a watercourse running SE. Tel Qonaq, village at the foot of a hill on r. From this point towards the r. Tel Safar Köi hill and village are 10-12 m. distant. Dibet es-Saghir hill is about 9 m. distant and Dibet el- Kebīr about 7 m. distant. These hills form a crescent stretching in the direction of Tel el-Qantareh (see above, m. 64). 693 Reach the Julāb, a narrow stream, at the point where it is joined by a stream which comes from the N. From this point there are, on the r., Tel el-Marrum, hill about 37 m. distant, Tel el-Mahrūg, hill about 7 m. distant, and Tel esh-Shenān, village and hill about 31 m. distant. On the 1. are Qa'deh, a small village about 2 m. away, Tel el-Halīb, village and hill about 7 m. away, and about the same distance Tel Chirran village. Track now follows the r. bank of the Julāb in a NNE. direction. 71 | Harrān. 684 THE EUPHRATES VALLEY AND COUNTRY WEST THEREOF ROUTE 133 MESKENEH–BIRIJIK (95 m.) Via THE L. BANK OF THE EUPHRATES Authorities :-Hinrichs, 1911; Miss G. Bell, Amurath to Amurath (journey of 1908). This track appears to be little used, though there is a caravan-road all the way to Birijik. There is no evidence available as to the state of the track as far as m. 803. Beyond that point there has been some road-making, and the track is easy and probably passable for wheels. Water is plentiful, either from the river or from streams, and fodder is good in spring. The banks are frequented by the Wudleh, and in the summer by the Anazeh, from whom transport animals might be got. No other supplies are procurable, and there are no permanent villages until Mas'udiyeh is reached (m. 401). Miles from Meske- neh O Meskeneh. Cross by the ferry to the l. bank of the Euphrates and continue in an easterly direction. An alternative track turns NW. following the general course of the river. It passes Tel Muraibet at a dis- tance of about 2 m., Hallaweh ruins about 2 m. further on, and joins the present track after another 6 m. at or before Tel Jifneh, m. 11 below. Reach the caravan-route and turn N. Track now over undulating country. Reach the river-valley. Track now under the cliffs. Some cultivation. Pass Tel Jifneh, mounds with ruins. . 376 LAND ROUTES Miles from Meske- neh 12 151 221 262 30 A broad ridge of hills begin on the 1. between the track and the river. About opposite this point there appears to be a grassy enclosure called Anab. About opposite this point is a ruin-mound called Tel Sheikh Hasan. The river comes in sight again. Ruins near this point. Track now follows the general course of the river. Apparently about here are ruin-mounds called Munbayeh, marking the site of ancient fortifications. Track bends E. following a bend of the river. Pass Tel Guer. Track bends N. still following the course of the river. About here apparently the caravan-track leaves the river, which makes a bend W. This neighbourhood is the head-quarters of the Waledeh and is called Rumeileh. Good grass. Pass Jebel Kuleib, a conspicuous isolated hill å m. to r. Enter a deep ravine in a bare ridge which crosses the track from E. to W. The ridge slopes gently on the N. side. Reach the edge of the Euphrates valley. Cultivation and tent-settlements. Track now runs NNE. Pass two mounds to r., Tel Abu Daſameh and Telel-Banat. Track now through desert. Tel Mas'udiyeh, mound and village. Here the river bends NW. Track now runs along a dry stream-bed through undulating country up to the plateau. Pass Mersil Kebir, tower tomb to r. on the S. end of a ridge. Only the S. wall remains of this tomb. Pass Mersil Saghir, tower tomb to r. Several rock-cut tombs in the hill-side near the tower. Serrīn village and stream in a cultivated plain shut in on three sides by hills which continue in a NE. direction. Qalʼat en-Nejm (see Route 134) lies on the opposite bank. The Arabs to the E. belong to the Beni Sāʻid, a sub- division of the Beni Fahl. From Serrīn there is said to be a track running generally easterly across the little-known tract between the Euphrates and the Belikh ; it crosses near Sarikamish the Harran-Meskeneh track mentioned in Route 132 b under m. 59, and apparently joins that route itself at Tel Jighleh (m. 54). The total distance may be some 40 50 m. 371 / 401 471 401 ROUTES 133, 134 377 Miles from Meske- neh 53 621 NE نام مرN Track now runs NW. Reach the foot of a ridge and enter a narrow valley. After emerging on the other side descend steeply. The river comes in sight again. Reach the river at Churres, Turkoman village. There are said to be several Kurdish settlements to E. Track still runs NW. passing several villages. Road now over a well-cultivated plateau. Tel Ahmar on 1. by the river, opposite mouth of the Sajur Chai. Cross the Urfeh-Tel Ahmar caravan-route (see Route 124) near Kasmiyeh village. Ilijak, Turkoman village on a strong stream. Cultivation by irrigation canals. Direction now NNW. Leave the fertile plain and ascend on to an uncultivated plateau. Jerablās railway bridge apparently lies about W. of this point (see p. 416), and the railway is crossed further on (perhaps 2 or 3 m.). Route 129 b is also crossed. Settlement on a small watercourse to r. Descend a steep valley past two mills. Reach the cultivated river-valley. From this point the road runs along the river-bank and is easy as far as Birijik. In 1911 it had been improved in places. Cultivation wherever the hills leave room for it along the river. Cross a stone bridge. Road now runs through gardens. Birijik. 792 802 ROUTE 134 QALAT EN-NEJM-BIRIJIK (45 m.) Via The R. BANK OF THE EUPHRATES Authority :-E. Sachau (journey of 1879). The track between Qalʼat en-Nejm and the mouth of the Sajur Chai does not lie along the river but through the hills, usually out of sight of the river. The country in 1879 was monotonous and uninhabited, without trace of earlier settlements. 378 LAND ROUTES Beyond the Sajur for some miles there is no account of a route. The limestone cliffs here fall abruptly to the water's edge. There were neither villages nor traces of previous settlement in the neigh- bourhood. After about 5 m. the country was less desolate, and there were some villages, gradually increasing in number, as Birijik was approached. Miles from 1 Qal'at en Nom 2 Qalʼat en-Nejm. The track is narrow and runs NW. up into the hills, which are 600-1,000ft. above the Euphrates. After the high ground is reached the track runs NNW. at the W. foot of the ridge parallel to the river. Hill called Jebel el-Tin (Fig hill) on the W. Ruins on the slopes. Cemetery on the W. Shortly after this cemetery is passed the hills on the W. end, and a clear view is obtained across the plain to the Sajur. Gap in the ridge between the track and the river. A track runs down it to the Euphrates. The hill on the N. side of this ravine is called Jebel el-Hammām, near it on the other side is a sulphur-spring. Second gap running to the river. Mouth of the Sajur Chai. On the ground from here to Shareshat there is no information. There was in 1879 a ford over the Sajur, 20 min. ride up-stream. It is not stated whether the Sajur is fordable at any season at its mouth. Kirk Maghāreh is about 3 m. N. of the Sajur mouth. There seems to be no track along the Euphrates bank, which here rises in limestone cliffs. Kirk Maghāreh, on the slopes on the N. side of the mouth of the Sajur valley. Shareshat, tent-village in 1879, near a plateau about 300 ft. above the river. There is here a valley down which a stream runs E. to the Euphrates. Near the mouth of the stream the authority here followed observed an artificial cut 5-10 ft. broad, about 20 ft. deep, and 40-50 ft. long. It was conjectured that this was an ancient cistern. The track here apparently runs down a ravine for about a mile. Foot of the hills. The track now runs across the plain. 18? 20? ROUTE 134 379 Miles from Qal'aten- Nejm 23 ON 25 263 Tel el-Ghanim, hill and tent-village about 1 m. W. of the track. Esh-Shukh, village on the l. bank of the Euphrates. Tel Halao, on the l. bank of the Euphrates. Tāshatan, village about 2 m. W. of the track, on the slope of the hills to the W. Tel el-Aiaviyeh, single hill. There is a cemetery near, as well as ruins. Jerablūs, village on the E. side of the track. The whole of the area as far as the great mound appears to be known by the inhabitants as Jerablūs. Railway bridge over the Euphrates (see p. 416). The railway line runs along the S. side of the mound, to the E. of which is the station. Small stream running to the Euphrates. This stream runs from Jahir village which lies on the hills to the W. Jerablūs mound. Cross the Chutluk stream at the N. foot of the mound. Track runs through hills which obstruct a view of the river. Cross a stream running to the Euphrates. Merj Khamis, village on the N. bank. Track begins to descend. Tel Gilauk, mound to r. near the Euphrates, also called Agha Tepeh. From here the track runs between the river and the bluffs overlooking it. Kelekli, village im. to l. Tel Kelekli to r. on the Euphrates bank. Cross a stream running from Kelekli to the Euphrates. Alif Oghlū, Turkish village. Reach the Kerzin, a stream of good water. Average breadth 10 ft. No great depth. Follow it up-stream. Shrubs and trees on its lower reaches. Cross the stream at a point where its direction is NW. Track now runs through an undulating plain. Occasional cultivation. Tel Beyindur, hill to r. Beyindur, village to r. Cross a stream, Kufr, village to r. Track now emerges from the hills and Birijik comes in sight. Descend to the river-level. Birijik ferry. 35 361 38* 392 40 44 45 380 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 135 BIRIJIK-RŪM QAL'AH (202 m.) Via The L. BANK OF THE EUPHRATES Authority :-Hinrichs, 1911. This track keeps generally either along the river or in sight of it. At two points only the river is hidden by the hills through which the track passes after m. 7. The track is easy except at the steep descent to Kefr Qab, and fair supplies could be obtained at villages. Miles from Birijik Birijik. Follow the river N. The cliffs come close to the river. The hills recede at a bend in the river. Track now through fertile country, with vines and wheat-fields. Track ascends into the hills. Several villages in the valley surrounded by orchards. Descend from the plateau by a very steep path to Kefr Qab on the river. On both banks here the hills rise precipi. tously, leaving only a small strip along the river which is covered with gardens. 17 Khalfati, village. There is a ferry here. Track now ascends. Arrive opposite Rūm Qal'ah. Ferry. 204 Rām Qal'ah. ROUTE 136 MESKENEH–ALEPPO (54 m.) Authorities :--As for Route 46 (vol. iii); reports 1896–1910. The route runs over a plain which is on the whole well cultivated. Villages are fairly numerous. See further under the two branches of the route described below. Miles from 151 20 Meske. neh 12 Meskeneh. The river is here 11 m. distant. The road here leaves the river and proceeds W. by N. Sulphur pool and ruins of a khan (Abu Karmess ?). Near here the road divides. ROUTES 135, 136 381 Miles from Meske. neh (i) LEFT BRANCH This is said to be better supplied with water than the other. It crosses a rolling plain growing scanty, stunted barley, harvested in May. Villages of beehive-shaped huts, tents and flocks are seen, and water is got from wells in the limestone, 2–3 ft. below the surface. Some of these wells are brackish. Tel Aghul, a beehive hut village of Haddidin Arabs. There are good water and grass here (May-June). The road now continues over stony soil, well cultivated. Jebbal, large village and zaptieh post, with streams on both sides and good grass camping-ground to N. The salt in the neighbourhood is worked by the Government. Road still through cultivated country, but rough with loose stones. Aleppo. (ii) Right BRANCH The usual caravan-route. Heavy going in wet weather. Pass a village, and shortly after cross a stream flowing from Ala. 171 Pass Ala village. Deir Hafir, village with khan and a few shops. Spring and stream of good water. Country covered with grass in spring ; numerous Arab camps. Pass a small marsh. 26 Pass an isolated mound. Spring of good water. Safīreh, village in a fertile and well-cultivated district. 'Ain Safíreh, a spring in a hollow, lies about 12 m. from the village (see vol. iii, Route 57, m. 1231, 125, where another, older, account of a route from this point to Aleppo is given). Mounds at long intervals. 45 Terekiah. Many old dry wells, vaults in the rock. The mouths are open and they are therefore dangerous in the dark. One, with a well-head over it, held water in 1907, at an estimated depth of 40 ft. 48 Long lake at the foot of a chain of hills. 54 | Aleppo. 16 19 192 35 382 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 137 ALEPPO—TEL AHMAR (65 m.) Via El-BĀB AND MEMBIJ Authorities : -- Miss G. Bell (journey of 1908), E. Sachau (journey of 1879). This was formerly a regular caravan-route for Urfeh and Mosul, but for some years fell into disuse owing to danger from nomads. In 1908, however, it was coming into use again as a result of strict measures taken by the Government. There is no made road, but the surface is good, over undulating loamy country as far as the Euphrates, and the going is good except in wet weather. A Roman road, probably constructed by Septimus Severus, apparently followed this route, and Roman milestones have been found at Arimeh (see below, m. 401). This Roman road probably followed the line of an earlier road of Seleucid times. The country is thickly set with villages, of which very few are marked on the maps. The district is naturally very fertile with an adequate rainfall, and sub-soil water at no great depth nearly every. where. Deported Armenians have been settled (1915) in the aeigh- bourhood of El-Bāb and Membij. Miles from Aleppo Aleppo. Sheikh Najjār, village on the N. side of the track. Sheikh Ziyād, village N. of the road. Small chamber- shrine and tomb on the hill-top adjacent. Serbes, village, behind a ridge S. of the road. Tel el-Hāl, mound and village. Ruins in the neigh- bourhood. El-Bāb, village. T.O. The place lies in a valley and has a bazaar and several khans. There is a shrine of Nebi Hashil on a steep hill W. of the village. Attached to the shrine is a minaret which is a prominent landmark. A little beyond El-Bāb is the source of the Deheb, a stream which flows S. through a shallow fruitful valley into salt marshes (El-Sabkhah), "15 m. S. On the opposite side of the valley from El-Bāb is a large mound and village (Tedif ?) on the site of the ancient Bathnae. It is a summer resort of the inhabitants of Aleppo. From here the road rises gently towards Membij. 62 ROUTE 137 383 Miles from Aleppo 402 54 Arimeh, small Arab village on a conspicuous height. Two Roman milestones, attributed to A. D. 197, probably the year in which the Roman road was completed, were found here in 1908. Ruins in the neighbourhood. Road now lies across a depressed plain. In 1908 the whole of this district as far as Membij was under the Dā'irat es-Sanīyeh, and occupied mainly by Circassian colonists planted here by the Sultan, who had acquired the land gradually. In ancient times the district was the domain of the Syrian goddess Atargatis and produced a large revenue. Membij, Mumbij, or Bumbij, a Circassian village (T.O.) on the site of the ancient Hierapolis, the sacred city which was the chief centre of the worship of the nature-goddess Atargatis. | Just inside the walls is a large pond, choked with masonry, and showing the remains of stairs by which the worshippers of Atargatis used to descend in order to swim out to the altar in the middle of the pool. The temple was sacked by Crassus on his Parthian campaign in 53 B.C. In the third century the city was one of the great cities of Syria, but was in ruins when the Emperor Julian marched through to Mesopotamia in 363. Later it fell into the hands of Chosroes I (Nushirwan the Just), and was restored by Harun el-Rashid at the end of the eighth century. The Crusaders captured it from the Seljuks in the twelfth century, Saladin retook it in 1175, and it was finally ruined by the Mongols under Hulagu. Nearly all the remains visible are of late date. From Membij the road lies across country thickly dotted with villages. Very few of these are marked on the maps. Manqabeh and Wardāneh are named as two villages on the N., and 'Ain Nakhleh as a third on the S. side of the road. Chad is another village in the neigh- bourhood, but whether it is on the caravan-route or on a side track is not certain from the evidence available. It is on the S. bank of the Sajur river, which flows E. to join the Euphrates. 'Osheriyeh village. Tel Ahmar on the l. bank of the Euphrates, mound and ruins, including Hittite and Assyrian remains. 64 65 384 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 138 MEMBIJ—QAL'AT EN-NEJM (194 m.) Authority :-E. Sachau (journey of 1879). Miles from Mem bij Membij. Highest point between Membij and Qalʼat en-Nejm. Hill called Jebel Dür Dādā, 1,000–1,500 ft. high, about 3 m. S. This hill has two peaks. On the northern and higher are ruins. 1 m. distant is the NE. end of the Jebel es-Sirj. 6 Abu Ghalghal, hill about 21 m. S. A little E. is Jebel Qishlaq, a ridge with 3 or 4 peaks running roughly N. and S. A little N. of this ridge is another called Jebel es- Sandeliyeh. | Well; tent-villages in the neighbourhood. The valleys between the ridges round are well cultivated, and produce corn, wheat, and barley. 111 Track here runs NE. 141 From this point the track descends gradually to the Euphrates. Ruins of a Mohammedan cemetery. | Qal'at en-Nejm. ROUTE 139 ALEPPO-BIRIJIK (73 m.) Via AKHTERIN Authorities :- Military Report on E. T. A., vol. iv, Route 144, 145 (report of 1886); some recent information. This route is passable for wheels, and is probably still the main caravan-route towards Urfeh and Diarbekr, though the route by El-Bāb, Membij, and Tel Ahmar, abandoned for some years owing to the unsettled state of the country, has been coming into use again recently. For the line of the railway which runs from Aleppo to Jerablūs see p. 412. Agriculture has been considerably developed between Aleppo and 386 LAND ROUTES Miles from Aleppo 39 46 | Papilul, with a well with water 60 ft. below the surface. Track now across a fertile plain with a good many small villages. Low hills 8 m. NW. Easy descent into a wide hollow. Cross a stream 10 ft. wide. Cross the Sajur Chai, 40 ft. wide, 21 ft. deep. (For description of the Sajur valley, see Route 140, introduc- tion.) Rapid current. Ascend steeply for a short distance on the far bank and keep on over the plain. Zambur (alt. 1,820 ft.), 30 Turkoman houses. Well with water 40 ft. below the surface. Follow a broad easy track. Much fallow ground growing poor grass. Pass Izām, 20 flat-roofed mud-huts. Hills now about 4 m. NW. Ekizjeh, 30 huts. A track branches off here to 'Aintāb. Pass Seri Qoch, 15 huts. Water from wells. Alt. 1,620 ft. Follow a good 30-ft. road. Country becomes a little more broken. Cross the Kersin Chai by a masonry bridge of 3 arches; length 40 ft., roadway 12 ft. The stream is 30 ft. wide, bordered by low cliffs of limestone and chalk. Alt, here 1,400 ft. Begin a long gentle ascent over undulating country. Pass low limestone hills to N. Pass Telmin, 50 huts, on a stream about 3 ft. wide. Alt. 1,350 ft. Descend gradually and reach the flat valley of the Euphrates. Cross river by a ferry. | Birijik. 70 711 73 ROUTE 140 TEL AHMAR-ZAMBUR (37 m.) Via THE SAUR VALLEY Authorities ;E. Sachau (journey of 1879); D. G. Hogarth, Accidents of an Anti- quary's Life (journey of 1908). The Sajur valley is nowhere broader than about 3 or 31 m. and consists of fertile alluvial deposit which produces excellent crops of ROUTES 139, 140 387 hemp, millet, wheat, and barley. There is a good deal of artificial irrigation. The inhabitants in 1880 were chiefly Beni Sa'id Arabs, who possessed cattle, sheep, and goats. The valley also supplied asses for the whole of Syria. Most of the villages are on the l. bank. In 1908 Turkoman camps were met with. . The river during its course winds very considerably between lime- stone hills, but keeps generally nearer the N. than the S. side of the valley. It remains about the same breadth, 15-25 ft., from its mouth up to where the Aleppo-Birijik caravan-route crosses it. In l.w. it is nowhere very deep, and can easily be forded. Holes are to be seen in the rock formation at various points, possibly Hittite quarries. Miles from Tel Ahmar 0 51 Tel Ahmar on l. bank of the Euphrates. Cross Euphrates and ascend 1. bank of the Sajur Chai.. There is said to be also a track by the r. bank. Wadi on the r. bank of the Sajur. At various points within the next few miles the hills on both sides close in on the river, receding after a short distance. Various tent-villages are to be seen along the banks. 121 Small stream flowing into the Sajur river on the S. side. The traveller whose account is here followed crossed to the r. bank at this point. The next stage is extremely monotonous. The track runs NW. or WNW. 194 Spring. The banks become gradually flatter, rising only here and there into low hills. In 1880 tent-settlements here began to give way to houses. Numerous villages. A track here crosses the Sajur from N. to S. This is apparently a mule-track running between El-Bāb (Route 137, m. 29) and Birijik. Lilvāh, village on a small eminence. The track crosses to the l. bank and runs NW. Sibahlar, village. Solitary hill behind. Track joins the Aleppo-Birijik caravan-route (see Route 139, m. 47). 373 | Zambur. 233 264 292 B b 2 388 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 141 a KILLIS-JERABLŪS (68 m.) Authority :-Military Report on Arabia, Route 18 (report of 1903). This route was described in 1903 as suitable for pack-animals only, but it could easily be made fit for carts, except at the Wassa and Sajur rivers, where a good deal of work would be necessary. It is rather stony in parts, as detailed below, and where the ground is plain soil it would become impassable after rain. The neighbouring country is generally open and passable by all arms. Supplies are plentiful near Killis, and from 'Anaz to the Kuweik (m. 19) moderate quantities are obtainable, though the villages are small. Supplies from m. 19 to m. 46 are fair, but from m. 46 to Jerablūs there are practically none to be had from the military point of view. Water sufficient for military purposes. No wood for fuel. Miles from Killis Killis. Follow the main road to‘Aintāb (see Route 142) to 'Anaz. Turn E. off main road over undulating country. Track here good, unmetalled, not passable for carts as it is too narrow at various places, e. g. at streams. But it could easily be improved into a cart-road, and the country. side is open and generally passable for all arms in dry weather. Stream (20,000 gall. p.h.) crosses from 1. Stone foot- bridge: a temporary bridge for carts could easily be made here. Mill on r. Tel Habash, 60 houses. Wells. Small village, 11 m. to l. Zabarān, 40 houses. Gellat, 35 houses. Kuweik Su is crossed ; in autumn 20 ft. wide, 12 ft. deep, current 14 m.p.h.; probably impassable in flood unless bridged. In the dry season it can be forded by carts. Beyond the Kuweik the country is less fertile than near Killis and the ground is more stony. Streams are more numerous. 18 Barakei, 8 houses. Wells. 192 'Yilandeh, 20 houses. Wells. ROUTE 141 a 389 Miles from Killis 211 22 221 23 26 29 354 37" 39 Jazīli Pasha, 20 houses, on l. Wells. Pass Mazanta village, 2 m. to r. Three houses on r. Well. Tirkib, 10 houses. Well. Selminjik, 10 houses, on r. Well. Pass Sheikh Bujab village, km. to 1. Arajuram, 35 houses, on r. Wells. Yona, 40 houses, on 1. Water from the Wassa river and wells. Wassa river crosses from 1. In autumn, 18 ft. wide, 11 ft. deep; current, 11 m.p.h. Its bed is 100 yds. from bank to bank, and it would be impassable in flood-time. The banks are 80 ft. high, and steep; much work would be required to make a cart-road here. Direction ENE. over practically open plain. Pass Yenzipan village, 2 m. to r. Kilauz, 45 houses, on l. Wells. Wassala, 40 houses, on l. Water from wells and the Sajur river. Sajur river crosses from 1. In autumn, 30 ft. wide, 1 ft. deep, current 2 m.p.h. It would be impassable in flood time, and its banks and bed are similar to those of the Wassa (m. 39). Kannab, 15 houses, to l. Water from river Sajur and wells. From this point turn sharp to l., and march over open undulating plain in an ENE. direction by a rather stony track. To m. 56 there is a general slight up-grade with gentle undulations; thence to Jerablūs there is a general slight down-grade, interrupted, however, by ascents and descents over broken hills. Carts on this stretch of the road would find difficulty owing to grades and stones. Cross Birijik-Aleppo caravan-track (Route 139) and T.L. Shibil, 20 houses, on r. Wells. Gach village, 1 m. to 1. Gechili, 10 houses, on l. Nohu, 15 houses, on l. Wells, 30 ft. deep. Pass Shitbik village, 2 m. to l. Pass Germish village, 2 m. to l.. Pass Alayuz village, 1 m. to r. Stream crosses from r., with flow of 400 gall. p.h. ; not very good water. 12 NI 48 49 52 531 390 LAND ROUTES Miles from Killis 61 62 65 68 Pass Qara Koï village, 2 m. to r. Lugluk, 20 houses. Wells. Teklijek, 8 houses, on l. Spring cut in rock, with flow of 2,000 gall. p.h. Jerablās. Spring with very good water, 1,000 gall. p.h. ROUTE 141 b JERABLŪS-ZAMBUR (203 m.) Authorities :-E. Sachau, Syrien und Mesopotamien (journey of 1880). At the time of Sachau's journey this route was merely a cross-track from the Euphrates at Jerablūs to the Aleppo-Birijik road, and seems to have been traversed only by archaeologists visiting Jerablūs or Tel Bashar. There is no information as to road-making in this region since the building of the railway. The country generally seems to be passable for wheels, but there is no information as to water or supplies. Miles from Jerablas 11 NAW Jerablās. Track leaves the plain and runs across undulating country. Yarimje village, about 1 m. to the N. Karintil village, on a low hill. Shortly after this point the undulating country gives way to plain. About 1 m. further on the track bends N. Gavurchik village, about 1 m. to the N. The track now resumes its W. direction. Line of hills running E. and W., 3-6 m. S. Sinseleh village, about 1 m. to the N. Tel Gedaur, hill and ruins. Two isolated peaks forming the E. end of a range of hills. The track runs to the north of the hills. Aq Köi village, N. of the track. Tel Germish, single hill. Germish village. Tel Chutluk, hill S. of the track. Chutluk village, 1 m. N. of the track. In this neighbourhood is the source of a small stream, the Chutluk Su, which flows in a general E. direction to join the Euphrates at Jerablūs. 111 111 131 14) ROUTES 141 a-142 391 Miles from Jerablūs 17 178 189 Serjuman, ruined village. Sachli Khātūn village, 1 m. N. of the track. Kulchan village, about 6 m. N. Tel Hajar (Tel Isān), low ridge running E. and W. Track now runs WSW. Zambur village, on the Aleppo-Birijik caravan-route. (See Route 139, m. 52.) It lies about 600 ft. above Jerablūs. 203 Killis ROUTE 142 KILLIS—BIRIJIK (594 m.) Authority :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 138 (report of 1903). This road is rough for carts, but could be easily improved. It is well supplied with water. Miles from Killis. Start along chaussée to 'Aintāb (Route 152), which runs through undulating hilly country, cultivated and planted with olives. The terrain is passable for all arms except at the streams and olive yards. A range of hills to ENE., about 3,000 ft., runs alongside the road. 4 Perennial stream and water-mill: 10-ft. culvert. Small stream. Two culverts of 20 ft., one of 10 ft. From here the road had been newly metalled in 1903, and the stones had not been rolled. 'Anaz, small village of 10 houses à m. on l. Grove of young poplars. 82? Small stream and 10-ft. culvert. Ascend NNE. up valley of the Sinab Su (which is į m. to r.), through a wide pass in the hills. 102 Leave chaussée and turn half-right to follow a track along the foot of the range of hills, and along the remains of an old Turkish paved road. Ford the Sinab Su, 10 yds. wide (end of March) with sandy bed. The chaussée crosses this stream by a bridge. Kazupli, 40 houses, 1 m. to l. Chaussée 1 m. to l. Track runs along r. bank of the Buluk Su, a broad stream running E. at foot of hills to r. It does not dry in summer. how 15 392 LAND ROUTES PE API 1 Miles from Killis 171 Cross the Buluk Su near Panjerli, a small Armenian village of 5 houses on a mound. Water mill. Cross a bog about 200 yds. wide with stream. Country treeless, grassy, and undulating, with patches of cultiva. tion. Cross the Kuweik Su (30 ft. wide at end of March). | Pass Karmur Kessan, small village, 1 m. to r. on slopes of hill. Portions of old paved Turkish road intact here; two dilapi. dated culverts. Leave the old road to 'Aintāb and turn quarter-right. Bākit, village of 10 houses; small stream. Koti Su, strong stream, 30 ft. wide in March ; sandy bed running through cultivated plain. Tum, village of 40 houses, with pond and wells, and situated in centre of a cultivated plain. 274 Villages (Dahana; Hameli, Qantareh), 1-14 m. to r. ; 2-3 storied houses. Leave main road and turn l. Tel Bashar, small poor village, 30 houses, mixed popula- tion of Kurds and Turks. Perennial supply of water from the Sajur. Fuel used is corn cobs and stalks, and cow-dung. The mound from which the village has its name is 80 ft. high, covered with stones. The top is flat, 100 yds. by 30 yds. Follow r. bank of the Sajur, past a small mosque, and good spring at foot of the Bashar mound. 32 Cross Sajur Chai, a strong stream, 20 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep (end of March); sandy bottom. Old masonry bridge with spans of 5, 10, 20, and 10 ft. Cross a hilly cultivated country. 343 Small stream. End of cultivation. Road rises more quickly over bare hills with easy grassy slopes. 371 ? Keep to r.; village track to l. Good riding road over bare grassy chalk hills. 373 Wide view. Steep slopes to r. 38 Summit of range, about 400 ft. above Tel Bashar Descend steep hill-side scored with deep ravines by an easy track (gradient 1 in 10). Wide view over Euphrates valley. 391 | Olive yards and vineyards. Descent continues. 361 ROUTES 142, 143 a 393 Miles from Killis 411 43 441 47? 481 Mizar, large prosperous-looking village with good stone houses, about 150 in number. It lies on both sides of the valley of the Akar Su and has a mixed population of Turks and Kurds. Cross a broad well-defined track running NW., apparently to 'Aintāb. Cross the Akar Su by a stone bridge with spans of 5, 10, 10, and 5 ft. The stream is perennial, running with a strong current in a sandy bed. The valley has a level bottom, 100 yds. wide, in which there are many poplars. Kiyar (Khizar), small village of 10 houses, on r. bank of river, 500 yds. to r. Valley and small stream. Cross several dry nullahs. Covered masonry reservoir for rain-water. 10.ft. culvert over dry ravine. Cross Nizib Su, a broad stream with 3 ft. of water (March) by bridge of two 10-ft, spans. Paved road from here to Nizib. Nizib, small prosperous town of 5,000 inhabitants. The population is mixed Turkish and Kurd. Some good masonry buildings. Many poplars and orchards, and numerous olives and vineyards. Road runs round E. side of town. A cart-road diverges to 'Aintāb (see Route 143 a). Watershed between Nizib Su and Euphrates. Qara Mahmūd, small village, 10 houses. The track runs over undulating grassy hills almost uncultivated. Covered rain-water tank, with chamber over it. Small mosque at edge of Euphrates. | The Euphrates opposite Birijik. 481 51 521 592 ROUTE 143 a ‘AINTĀB-BIRIJIK (303 m.) Authorities :-M. Blanckenhorn, and W.0. maps. A cart-road, which may be metalled for some 5 m. from 'Aintāb. It is followed by a T.L. The intermediate points are uncertain. 394 LAND ROUTES Miles from Aintāb 'Aintāb. Cross bridge over the upper Sajur Chai (alt. 2,848 ft.) and proceed SE. Nurghan. Babirgeh. Jaghdighin. Leave Sajur valley in easterly direction, and cross plateau country intersected by a succession of valleys draining SE. or S. The Charil Dāgh is ascended and crossed. Giaour, Deirbistan (alt. 2,316 ft.). Durbal to l., on high ground. Nizib. Join Route 142 (at m. 483) and follow it to The Euphrates opposite Birijik. 121 15 20 302 ROUTE 143 b BIRIJIK-MARASH Authority :— Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv (1904). This road, which avoids 'Aintāb, is the usual caravan-route, but is not passable for wheels throughout. Hrs. See OD OCO Birijik. The road is passable for wheels to Nizib. Route 142, m. 597_483. Nizib. Kefr Jebel. Su Boghazi. Mar'ash. ROUTE 144 BIRIJIK-ADIAMAN (764 m.) Authority:-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv (1904); Humann and Puchstein (1883). The Military Report refers to a rather difficult route, closed in winter, between Birijik and Adiaman, leading by Saghpir (9 hrs. from Birijik) and Kahnik (a place not otherwise identified, 5 hrs. from Saghpir and 8 hrs. from Adiaman). The point of crossing the ROUTES 143 a-144 395 173 241 Euphrates is not specified, but part of the route may be that covered by Humann and Puchstein from Khalfati as below. Miles from Birijik ! Birijik. Follow Route 135 along the river as far as Khalfati. There is a shorter and more difficult track over the hills to Khalfati, cutting off the westward bend of the Euphrates. Khalfati. From near this point, follow Route 115 past Argan, and 267 Arakh, where the present track turns l. from that route, and runs roughly parallel to it to the NW. as far as a point about Saghpir. Göklü (alt. 1,870 ft.). Saghpir (alt. 1,935 ft.). | Chikan. Descend to valley of Euphrates. | Kilik. Here or some distance lower down the Euphrates is crossed, and a track leads generally N. by E. across hills with ruins on the summit (alt. 2,400 ft.) and then descends to the valley of the Surfaz Chai, and crosses the stream. 49 Join Route 147 (about m. 26) and follow it. 51. At the point where Route 147 is said to cross the Surfaz Chai (at m. 283), a track enters on l. from the valley of the 'Arabān Chai, and (apparently) from 'Aintāb, about 60 m. distant. Route turns r. (NNE.) up the hill, leaving the Surfaz valley. Talik. Balkeh. Slanting descent down slope of Gök Su valley. Cross the Gök Su. Kayali. Beyond this, pass through a ravine with very steep sides, and descend sharply. Cross a stream near a mill and ascend by another ravine: emerge into a more level plateau, then descend steeply. 64 | Aq Punār. A track is said to cross here, r. to Samsat, 1. to Börgeneki on Route 149 (m. 19). Boyerle on r. A succession of valleys draining SE. to the Ziyaret Chai are crossed between this point and Adiaman. Einab on 1. in a valley ; cross stream. Urkut on l. Kevik on 1. in a valley ; cross stream. A stream in a deep trough is crossed by a bridge. 761 | Adiaman. 396 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 145 a RŪM QAL'AH—AINTĀB (432 m.) Via ZERDAGUN Authorities :-Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 149 (report of 1886); Humann and Puchstein's map; D. G. Hogarth (diary). There is little recent information available with regard to this route. It is rough, but said to be passable for wheels, and is fairly well supplied with water. There is a fair amount of cultivation in the side valleys along the route, but on the whole the country is bare. Fuel also is scarce. The exact relation between this route and Route 145 b is not clear. Miles from Rüm Qal'ah 82 142 Rūm Qal'ah. There are no details available for the first few miles. The distance to Enesh is approximately the direct distance, but more probably it is necessary to follow the river (on the l. bank between Rūm Qal'ah and Khalfati): in this case the distance to Enesh would be about 9 m. Enesh, 50 huts. Gardens and trees in the side valleys. Cross a plentiful stream flowing to the Euphrates. Track narrow in places, over rock. Barren undulations with some scrub. Some good grass in spring. Pass Zerdagun (alt. 1,700 ft.), 12 Turkish houses, in a ravine, with stream. Small strip of cultivation, gardens, and a few olive-trees. A track connects Khalfati ferry, on the Euphrates, with Zerdagun as follows:- Miles from Khalfati. Khalfati. Track starts along river-bank, round fine cliffs, and ascends by steep zigzags to a stony spur with a gorge to r. and l. Balkis Kalesi crowns a rocky height on l. Track follows an open plateau forming the first shelf above the river; rich red soil, cultivated. Köseler, 25 houses. Kurdish settlement of tents within a fence. Good track, narrow, over level upland with patches of cultivation and sparse scrub, but no trees. Steep ascent out of valley at its N. edge, followed by a less difficult descent. 1 11. | Zerdagun. ROUTES 145 a, b 397 Miles from Rūm Qal'ah 161 211 Cross a ravine by a rocky descent and ascent. Cross a mass of stony, barren undulations (highest point, 2,250 ft.), and enter the fertile basin of Khüm. Khüm, 200 poor houses (Turkish) on the Sinek stream. Pistachio trees in neighbourhood ; fertile valley, with corn, vines, and mulberry trees. Another track from Rūm Qal'ah joins here (see Route 145 b). Kerat village, of about the same size as Khüm, is higher up the valley. Cross a strong stream, 6 ft. wide, in valley with gardens. Pass large village 2 m. SSW. Cross a valley i m. wide with vineyards running SE. for about 8 m. Road now over undulating country. Uruz, 200 houses, near a mound with poplars in a culti. vated basin 2 m. in diameter. Cross some gentle undulations and pass through cultivation and vineyards with pistachios and olive groves. Spring and a few trees. Alt. 2,850 ft. Good track 20-30 ft. wide with extreme gradients 1 in 12 and 1 in 15. Few streams and no wells. | Well with water 40 ft. below surface, near which 3 tracks join. Then pass over gently undulating country stony on the summits but with broad cultivated valleys, and then, for 2 or 3 m., through fruit and vegetable gardens. 'Aintāb. 28 352 ne 38 433 ROUTE 145 b RŪM QAL'AH—AINTĀB (351 m.) Via KAKHTIN AND ARŪL Authorities :—Humann and Puchstein, 1882 ; D. G. Hogarth (diary). It is not stated whether this route is fit for wheels, but it does not appear to be specially difficult, and is fairly well supplied with water. Other supplies are scarce, and there is no fuel. Miles from Rum Qal'ah Rūm Qal'ah. Follow Route 145 a to Enesh. Track runs almost due S. following the r. bank i of the Euphrates. 398 LAND ROUTES 71 Miles from Rüm Qal'ah Leave the Euphrates and reach Kakhtin or Sijaq village on the r. side of the Kushtam valley through which the track runs. Occasional vine cultivation. Rock-formation marble, with here and there chalk and limestone. Kushtam village, a few flat-roofed huts. Two springs near one another, forming a small stream. Leave the Kushtam valley and enter another small valley. Enter another valley, the Sinek Dereh, which apparently runs to the Euphrates. Pass Jazil village, 11 m. to l. Track ascends along the r. side of the valley, 173 Khüm (see Route 145 a, m. 211). Cross the Sinek Su by ford or bridge, and pass a small siyāret on hill to r. Track now runs through vineyards, and crosses the Qayu Dereh (valley). Ascend a stony, rough gully to cross a low rocky hill. Arim Köi, 11 m. to l. Track crosses a rich plain. Arūl village, 50 houses and khan, at the foot of a round hill. Good spring. Large olive plantation and vine- yards. Leave the valley. Track now through undulating country, sloping S. Scrub on hills, but no wood. 271 Two vaulted cisterns with water reached by steps. 301 Well with trees, on r., approached up a winding valley with stream dry in summer. Descend to a marshy plain ; wide muddy track through cultivation. Sandstone quarries. Wide stony and winding track, at base of low hills, to 354 | 'Aintāb. 341 ROUTE 145 c ROM QAL'AH—AINTĀB (407 m.) Via HĀJI MORLEH Authority :-Hinrichs, 1911. The route runs generally through hill country, and is for the most part stony. There do not appear to be any serious ascents or descents, ROUTES 145 b–146 399 O except the rise from Rūm Qal'ah out of the Euphrates valley, but it is not stated whether the track is passable for wheels. Water is plentiful, and small supplies might be got, though much of the country is too barren for cultivation. There is no information as to fuel. Miles fromí Rüm Qal'ah Rūm Qal'ah. Leave by a very steep track. Reach the plateau. The track now descends gradually in a WNW. direction through stony country, with some pistachio trees. The plain is well cultivated, and extends up to the Qara Dāgh in the N. Pass Tel Qara Bābā. Traces here of an ancient made road. Keroghlu village. The Merziman Chai, which enters the Euphrates at Rūm Qal'ah, is on the l. Track runs WSW. Cross the Merziman Chai near Ergidereh village. Yeni Köi village. Country becomes more stony and hilly. Haji Morleh, Turkish settlement in a narrow valley. Track now winds through the deep stony valley in a SW. direction. Cultivation wherever the soil admits of it. Reach a rise from which the Nimrūd Dāgh can be seen in the distance. Track now descends through cultivation into the valley. 271 Maghlūt village. Follow a stream, still in a SW. direc- tion. 303 Cross the stream by a bridge. Suvas village. Track now continues SW., crossing valleys and hills with vine cultivation. | Cross the Sajur by a bridge and enter ‘Aintāb. 244 ROUTE 146 KILIK-BEHISNI (281 m.) Authority :-Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam (journey of 1903). Distances to Fal from a sketch-map only. This is a good mule-road. Water is plentiful: fuel scarce : no information as to other supplies. 400 LAND ROUTES Miles from Kilik 41 | Kilik, on 1. bank of Euphrates. Cross the Euphrates about 4 m. below Kilik. Ancient road branches to r. towards Samsat. Zekterij (Zachdarish) village to r. Road runs through a Roman cutting Ancient quarry to r. ; 4 rock-cut tombs. Qizilghāreh village to r. Cross a stream by a bridge of 3 arches. Haji Halīl village to r. Chumak village to r. Fal village. Traces here of an ancient paved road. Route to Behisni now follows the road described in Route 147, m. 373-473. Cross the Surfaz Chai. Surfaz, large village with 3 minarets. Behisni. VW 201 ROUTE 147 SAMSAT-MARASH Via BEHISNI Authorities :-Humann and Puchstein, 1882 ; Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 164 (report of 1902). This track leads through easy country and is said to be passable for wheels with little difficulty. There is plenty of water, and other supplies are plentiful, at any rate beyond Behisni. Fuel is scarce on the first stages, but oak-scrub is plentiful some miles before Belveren is reached. Some of the distances given below beween Samsat and Behisni and between Belveren and Mar'ash are uncertain. Miles from Samsat Samsat. The ancient Samosata : extensive ruin-field sur- rounding the town. The river here is compared by von Moltke to the Oder above Frankfurt. Track runs W. along the Euphrates. Pass Sanjaq (Sindiq). Qantareh. Cross a stream-bed. Jimjimeh village opposite on the 1. bank of the Euphrates. omt ROUTES 146, 147 401 Miles from Samsat 123 137 NAWAW 172 181 204 211 282 Cross a stream in a deep bed and pass through Berferat village. The valley here closes in on the river. Birji village. The valleys now widens again. Cross a stream-bed. Cross the Khal-Burgi Chai. Haiyas village on the r. bank. Track bends N. into a narrow ravine with steep limestone cliffs. Winding track following the ravine in a NW. direction. Reach the high ground beyond the ravine. Track now over an undulating plateau in a W. direction. Follow a stream running SW. to Hulhult village, where the stream bends S. Then descend along a small stream-bed. Trush. Track now runs WSW into the valley of the Gök Su. Village (Gümrük ?) on the r. Cross the Gök Su a little below a village. Ascend steeply on to a plateau. Track now W. following the l. bank of the · Surfaz Chai up-stream, cutting off the bends of the river. Pass 2 villages. Cross the Surfaz Chai. A track passes through the point coming from the N. and leading over the Qizil Dāgh which lie to the S. The present track keeps near the river and passes a village lying to N. of the pass leading over the Qizil Dāgh. Track then bends NW. Pass a village near the river. Fal village apparently some distance W. of the Surfaz Chai on a tributary of that stream. Direction now N. over a · Tow ridge. Then downwards in a NW. direction Cross a stream flowing from W. to E., apparently the Surfaz Chai. Village į m. up-stream. Track ascends N. along a tributary. Pass Surfaz. Track now leads WNW. through bare hills. Behisni. Ascend through vineyards and gardens. Track passable for guns. Cross a ridge and enter a gorge, down which runs a piece of a Roman road, with magnificent paving in perfect repair. Pass vineyards and village above road. Pass a fine fountain, with ancient troughs cut in rock. Alt. 3,650 ft. Emerge from the gorge at the foot of valley. Pass the ziyūret of Mahmûd Dedeh. Eski Köi į m. to N. Pass Mamadikli, 50 houses, á m. N. Water from wells. сс 373 392 402 491 501 513 531 553 MES. IV 402 LAND ROUTES Miles from Samsat 57 571 592 611 67 671 Cross a valley running S. Skirt bare and rocky hill to N. Soil white limestone. Pass small village close to r. Jenzerlu (alt. 2,800 ft.), 60 Kurdish houses. Water from wells. A good road with easy gradient crosses here SE. and over the hills opposite. Track now level. Pass a good well. Alt. 2,650 ft. Uzun Quyu m. to N. Cross a fairly flat open valley sloping slightly SE. joining the Deghirmen valley. Easy country, well cultivated. Cross a low stony ridge ; difficult track. An alternative road seems to pass S. of this track and is much easier. Skirt the lower slopes of the Kara Quyu Dāgh. Oak scrub all round. Several tracks here, one apparently making a detour of 2 or 3 m. somewhat to the N. Cross low hills. Cross ridge of the Gedikli Dāgh, which trends S. Stony track. Fair cultivation. Pass small spring and stream flowing SE. Cross a valley at the head of which is Küchük Naserli, 14 m. distant. The valley of the Deghirmen Chai is to SE., being formed by the junction of two others. Cross a ridge running N. and S., the watershed between the Aq Su and the Deghirmen Chai. Direction W. Belveren, about 100 houses (alt. 3,200 ft.) in a valley on the banks of a stream of the same name. It is an important point on the caravan-route from 'Aintāb to Malatiyeh via Pelvereh and Surgu, and is the seat of a Mudir. The Belveren Chai rises in low hills 11 m. NE. of the village and runs into the Aq Su. N. and W. are low hills. The distances from this point are uncertain. There are apparently two possible routes between Belveren and Mar'ash, with a cross-route connecting them. (For details, see Handbook of Cilicia, &c., in preparation.) (i) A northern route. It is not known to what extent this is passable for wheels, but it strikes the Mar'ash-Malatiyeh chaussée 131 m. from Mar'ash. Continuing mileage from Belveren, this route runs as follows:-- Kiya Olmaz. Charkes Köi. 683 miatt ROUTES 147, 148 403 Miles from Samsat 79 88 95 1081 76 913 Cross the Aq su. From this point to m. 95 the track is probably fit for pack-animals only. Büyük Najjār. Join the Mar'ash-Malatiyeh chaussée and follow it to Mar'ash. (ii) A southern route. This passes through easy country, and could be made passable for wheels throughout with little difficulty. Water and supplies are available in fair quantities. Besides the villages named in the following summary, a number of other villages lie near the route. Jerid. Baghdin. Cross the Aq Su. Fit Ashāghi. Join the Mar'ash-'Aintāb chaussée and follow it to Mar'ash. From a point near m. 79 on the northern route, above, there is a route SW. along the valley of the Aq Su to Baghdin (m. 911 on the southern route); it is not known whether it is passable for wheels. The distance is 15 m. 102 1073 1101 1191 ROUTE 148 SAMSAT-KIAKHTA (392 m.) Authority :-Humann and Puchstein, 1882. This track crosses fairly easy country, though it is not stated whether the road is passable for wheels. Water is fairly plentiful, but there is no evidence as to other supplies. The country is on the whole fertile, but largely uncultivated. Miles from Samsat Samsat. Leave in a N. direction. Track ascends. Pass a mound. Reach the edge of the Euphrates valley. Direction changes to NW. Direction changes to N. Pass Khonuf, small Kurdish village. | Pass a village. CC 2 404 LAND ROUTES Miles from Samsat 10 102 161 162 171 171 Lelia village. Direction changes to NE. Pass Birik village. A track branches off here to the 1. passing through Qamushlu and Kökük, small Kurdish villages, and rejoining the present track at Kolik, m. 221 below. Descend, crossing several ravines. Pass Diata village. Large valley 14 to r. Direction changes to NW. Valley becomes narrower. Cross a small stream from the l. Cross a small stream from the r. Several farms in broader part of the valley. Zig-zag ascent. Pass Kevrik village. Direction changes to N. Cross a stream running to the l. Reach Dalasu village. Track ascends. Top of ascent. Cross a stream running WSW. Pass Qara Göl (Qara Koi ?) village. Near here a track branches off to the r. to Gerger, crossing the Kiakhta Su at a point where it divides into 3 channels and then passing through several villages, over uplands covered with much vegetation. Cross an undulating depression. Pass Sheikh Bābā village. Kolik village. Direction changes to NW. Cross a water-courses. Direction changes to N. Cross a water-course running SW. Some low hills broken by ravines. Qara Qush. Grazing here on meadows sloping toward the Kiakhta Su. Cross a Roman bridge over the Bölam Su, 112-ft. span, 56 ft. above mean water level. Kiakhta, a strong police post and small garrison. The houses are built close together on a platform beneath a castle of great natural strength. The inhabitants are mostly Kurds, with a few Armenians and Turkish officials, and the place is the residence of a Kaimmakam. NOTE.-- According to information of 1895 there is also an easy mule-track from Samsat to Kiakhta up the r. bank of the Euphrates, and then turning up the valley of the Kiakhta Su. The country is open and easy and the track though rough is passable for wheels. There is some brushwood on the hills. 397 ROUTES 148, 149 405 ROUTE 149 BEHISNI-ADIAMAN (30 m.) Authority :Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 164 (report of 1902). This is an easy route over which guns and carts could pass with very little trouble. Towards the E. and S. roads for artillery could be quickly improvised. Caution is necessary with the water as the springs and troughs are often infested with leeches. T.L. follows the road. Miles from Behisni O 9, di 10 Behisni (alt. 3,500 ft.). Cross valley N. of town by an old stone bridge in good repair, and ascend a side valley eastwards to a plateau or ridge, passing over ancient pavement. A good spring of water lies close on l. Begin gradual descent of eastern extremity of ridge. The incline becomes steep for a mile, after which reach the Aq Dereh. Here is a river-bed with little water in October, but a large stream in spring. Cross valley and stream (200 yds.) keeping E. Then begin ascent of opposite slopes. Atmali, 100 houses of Kurds, towards top of slopes. Gradual ascent. Cross a ridge falling SE., with gradual descent to another valley, not so deep as the Aq Dereh. Pass Aq Quyu, 30 houses of Kurds. Alt. 2,550 ft. Spring, vineyards. Follow a good unmetalled road, over hard limestone forma- tion. Bear generally E. Descend towards Shambayad across easy valley. Join the Shambayad-Terbizek road (alt. 2,300 ft.) and follow it down very easy slope. (Another road follows T.L. by Chanaqji and Börgeneki.) Continue down E. side of valley by stream and gardens. Leave valley ; cross low ridge. Shambayad (40 houses) lies m. to S.: fertile soil, cotton and all cereals grown, scanty population. The main barrier of the mountains lies some 6 m. N. Continue over open, low, undulating hills, with no trees. Good soil. Road almost level. 14 406 LAND ROUTES Miles from Behisni 15 151 191 201 Alt. 1,800 ft. Descend narrow valley by an easy road to the Gök Su. Cross the Gök Su. Bed 250 yds. wide; stream 30 yds., water to girths in October; fairly rapid current. In winter the passage is very difficult, but the river is said to be fordable by men joining hands. Ascend opposite bank : easy slope. Cotton is grown. Börgeneki, 50 houses, close to r. Ascend easy slope of valley. Close above the village is a good spring. Level plateau with slight fall s. Alt. 2,350 ft. Good road. Bear NE. Cross road from NW. to SE. The whole country is easy and undulating here to S. and E., as far as can be seen. Cross shallow valley : water and tents. Village of Qiziljeh Öyuk down valley 1 m. to S. Adiaman visible in the distance. Cross good road from S. going towards Malatiyeh in a shallow valley, the Chaqal Dereh, then a small stream with village 1 m. up to N. No trees to be seen. The hill at Urfeh is plainly seen, across easy, open, undulating country. Fine pasture in spring. Cross valley similar to the last. Pass a spring close to r. Cross broad valley with a shallow stream, the Erin Chai, in the centre. A mill near the T.L. m. to N. Cross narrow low ridge, enter small valley, cross another ridge. Adiaman. ROUTE 150 a ADIAMAN-GERGER (52 m. ?) Via KIAKHTA Authority :-Humaon and Puchstein (journey of 1882). From Adiaman to Kiakhta a track runs over easy undulations below the mountains, crossing a number of streams flowing south- wards. A fair number of villages are passed en route. There is no ROUTES 149, 150 a 407 Adiaman Co 1919 precise information as to the condition of the road, but the whole country is easy, and it could probably be quickly made passable for wheels. It is probable that the track from Kiakhta to Urik (m. 32) and at least the first part of the tracks from Urik to Mishrakh are difficult, the country round the Nimrūd Dāgh being apparently rocky and broken. Von Moltke in 1838 gave the marching time from Adiaman to Gerger as 20 hrs., and referred to the difficulty of the hilly parts of the track. Miles from Adiaman. Start somewhat N. of E. Direction NE. (409). Ziyāret Dāgh to,ESE. Direction NNE. (20°). Descent. Cross the Ziyāret Chai by a bridge. Ziyāret Dāgh to S. Ascend : direction SE. (1359). Level ground. Direction NNE. (20°). Direction NE. (409). Cross stream flowing S. Sharbi village 5 min. up-stream. Direction NE. (509). Village (Hesteran ?) 10 min. to l. on rocky ground at mouth of ravine in hills to N. Stream flowing SSW. Then direction NE. by N. (389). Direction NNE. (20%), changing 3 min. further on to NE. by E. (60°). Stream flowing S. Village 10 min. away to r. 4 min. further on direction changes to E. (90°), and in another 4 min. to NE. (509). Stream in deep bed here flowing S., turning W. further down. Stream flowing WSW. Direction NE. by E. (60°). Hilly ground. Stream flowing WSW. Khal Burgi (or Kalpiktyi) village 6 min. to l. 9 Descend. Kerek Köi, to l., a hill to r. Direction N. Descend. Cross a stream here flowing ENE. •Reach plateau beyond stream. Direction NE. (409). Direction NE. by N. (30°). 121 'Omaranli village. Thence descend to stream. Direction E. (90°). Storico oder OP OD T 102 11“ 111 12 408 LAND ROUTES Miles from Adiaman 13 131 15 161 171 173 181 197 19 201 203 211 23 Cross stream: ascend. Direction NE. (409). Direction NE. by E. (60°). Village (Mazel ?) 10 min. to l. Ridges to r., about 40 min. distant. Small stream flowing S. Village on high ground to r. about 30 min. away. Thence over rocky rise running NE. Kamehi village 10 min. to l. Small stream flowing S. Head of a depression to r., running SW. Cross another depression running to that mentioned above. Bibo village. Stream flowing SW. Stream flowing W. Then descend into valley of the Kiakhta Su (or of the Bölam Su, a tributary of the Kiakhta). Direction changes to NE. (409). Ascend valley. Pass Tausu Köi on other side of valley. Direction N. ; continue along valley. Track lies in river-bed. Cross Roman bridge over the Kiakhta Su; proceed NE. (409) out of valley. Kiakhta. Descend, going 45°. Cross the Kiakhta Su by a bridge. (Direction apparently changes to somewhat S. of E.) Ascend the N. side of a short ravine by a very steep and difficult road. The Nimrūd Dāgh lies to NE. Urik village. From here there appear to be alternative tracks to Mishrakh. (i) The northern route leads up the Urik valley for about 11 m. and thence E. across a rocky plateau and NE. over some streams to Petirgo in the Gerger Chai valley (about 7 m. from Urik). Mishrakh lies about 21 m. ESE. of Petirgo on the other side of the Gerger Chai. (ii) The southern route goes SE. to Qara Tut by a hilly track (about 5 m. from Urik), and thence over rolling ground, crossing several hollows and ravines. The track works round to NE. about 2 m. beyond Qara Tut and reaches Mishrakh about 6-7 m. further on. It is therefore about 2 m. longer than the northern route. 32 ? ROUTES 150 a, b 409 Miles from Adiaman 52? From Mishrakh the track leads over undulations on the S. side of the Gerger valley, crossing a number of small streams flowing to the Gerger Chai. Gerger, close to the Euphrates at the mouth of the Gerger valley, about 8 m. from Mishrakh. Ruined castle in an exceedingly strong position. ROUTE 150 b ADIAMAN-GERGER Via TOKARIZ Authority :-Ainsworth (1837). This route, which lies S. of Route 150 a, and for which distances cannot be given, leads generally E. and NE. through nearly level grassy plains which fall to the Euphrates, similar to the country W. of Adiaman but with deeper valleys and larger streams (June). The clay soil, under the heat of the sun, is cracked into large fissures. The route passes a good many small villages with groups of fig and pomegranate trees. There is practically no cultivation, but cattle are pastured. Ainsworth took three days on the journey. At the end of the first day Kerkuneh, Kurdish village with orchards, was passed. A short distance further the Kiakhta Su is crossed by an easy ford; the river is here in three channels (June); when in flood it is over m. wide. The rock-walls on both sides are clothed with wild fig and mulberry trees. Route then traverses uplands covered with luxuriant vegetation of oats, rye, and grasses, peculiarly favourable for horse-rearing. The second day's journey ended at Tokariz, a Kurdish village surrounded by a mud wall. Route continues generally NE. to the foot of the hills, where it descends into the deep vale of Chamuni and ascends a very steep and rocky height. Oldish village. A rude path continues on the side of a rocky acclivity, and a small pass is reached near the crest of the hills, defended by a wall and towers now dilapidated. From beyond the pass is seen the open wooded vale of Gerger Kalesi, hemmed in by the Ashūr Dāgh and other heights, at no great distance, and a descent is made to Gerger. 410 LAND ROUTES ROUTE 150 c ADIAMAN-SAMSAT Authority :-Ainsworth (1837). The country is open and fairly easy for wheels; it consists of rolling downs traversed by streams from N. Route at first follows a stream, crossing and recrossing. At 3 hrs. it reaches Birgami, Kurdish village, whence a very good bridle path continues over rolling hills to Harras, Kurdish village (44 hrs.). At 5 hrs. descend into a plain, and reach Samsat in 54 hrs. from Adiaman. ROUTES 151 a, b, c ACROSS THE TAURUS BETWEEN THE EUPHRATES AND MARASH That part of the Taurus range which lies between Mar'ash and the Euphrates is very difficult, and before the war was not traversed by any good road. (a) The easiest line seems to be that by Pelvereh (or Paurelu), NE. of Belveren. In the basin SW. of Pelvereh, which contains a chain of three lakes (Chinar Göl, Ma'den Göl, and Bash Göl), routes meet from Serai Köi (see Route 147 (ii), m. 781), Belveren, and Behisni. The pass N. of Pelvereh is about 4,500 ft. high. There may be a metalled chaussée throughout from Mar'ash to Malatiyeh (110 m.) -the first 40 and last 30 m. of this route are certainly metalled. See Handbook of Cilicia, &c., in preparation, and Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Routes 156, 156 a. (6) W. of the Pelvereh Pass the following tracks are mentioned :- (1) A very rough mountain track leading from Bāzārjiq to Albistan. (2) From Mar'ash to Albistan along the Jeihan valley by Derbend Khān and 'Ali Shehr: the shortest caravan-route between Mar'ash and Albistan. Very difficult along the Jeihan valley. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 167. (3) From Marash to Albistan by Zeitun, diverging from the ’Ali Shehr route at the Hamidiyeh bridge over the Jeihan river. This is the longer but easier route. The road to Zeitun could be ROUTES 150 c-152 411 made passable for guns with little difficulty. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 171. (4) A hill-track to Göksun by Takir Khān, a mule-track varying from fair to bad in different parts. See Military Report on E.T.A. vol. iv, Route 168. (C) E. of the Pelvereh Pass a number of mule-tracks cross the hills, of which the following are perhaps the most important: (1) From Adiaman to Malatiyeh via Bölam. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 174. (2) From Kiakhta to Malatiyeh by the Tekkeh Dereh : very rough. See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 175. ROUTE 152 ALEPPO-MARASH (For details see Handbook of Cilicia, &c., in preparation.) Between Aleppo and Killis the country consists of rolling culti- vated ground of a reddish loamy soil, over which, it is said, in the neighbourhood of the Tel Arfad road, guns could march in line, even after heavy rain, all the way to Killis. A chaussée runs from Aleppo to Killis via Azaz; another and shorter route more to the E. runs by Tel Arfad, joining the chaussée at 4 m. from Killis. Lastly, easy though somewhat cir- cuitous roads lead to Killis from Akhterin (see Route 139). At Killis the chaussée from Alexandretta joins. From Killis to 'Aintāb the chaussée continues over easy undu. lating country. From 'Aintāb to Mar'ash it was intended in 1904 to continue the chaussée : in any case the country is easy, and little work would be needed to make the road passable for wheels. RAILWAY ALEPPO-RAS EL-AIN–TEL ERMEN Authorities :-For the section Aleppo-Jerablūs and the bridge across the Euphrates, Report on Baghdad Railuay, May 1914. For the section Jerablūs- Ras el-'Ain, a report of January 1916. The line runs over undulating country to Jerablūs. The most difficult portion of this section is the descent to and ascent beyond the Sajur (m. 541), where there is a gradient of 12 per mille (1 in 83 approximately) for 12 m. on each side of the river. This is the ruling gradient of the section Aleppo-Jerablūs. Maximum curve, 500 metres. The earthwork is generally very light. The distances beyond 'Arab Punar are very uncertain. i Stations where completed are all of good solid masonry of German style. All walls are about 231 in. (60 cm.) thick of cut stone (as far as Jerablas) or concrete bricks (from Jerablūs onwards) to, afford protection against armed attack. Stone quarters are built for the staff. The road bed is designed when completed to be 9 ft. 10 in. (3 metres) wide on top and 141 in. (40 cm.) deep. It is generally made in three layers : bottom ballast, 63 in. (17 cm.). Gravel basalt and other local stone is used. Top ballast is broken to 3-in. gauge. The quantity works out at approximately 1 cubic metre per running metre. The ballasting may be scamped in places ; it is asserted that this is the case beyond Tel Abyadh. Gauge, 4 ft. 87 in. The rails are flat-bottomed vignoles, heavy section (about 75 Ib. per yd. ?), 15 cm. (5.906 in.) in height, 40-42 ft. in length. The section of rail will take a very heavy engine. Steel sleepers, 16 to a rail length, equally spaced, except in the case of the end sleeper at the joint. The rails are fastened to sleepers by a clip on the outside, and bolt and flat clip on the inside. Fish plates are of a long heavy angle pattern with six bolts. A portion is cut out of the angle near each end to give clearance for the rail-holding-down bolt. Angle turn-outs are 1 in 10 and 1 in 12 at each station. Block system of working is used, with levers in frame fixed outside station- master's office at the stations. All points are hand-worked. There RAILWAY 413 are home and distant signals, with discs, about 15 ft. high. The dis- tant signal is worked by the same wire as the home signal, double wire being used, which is wound two or three turns round a wheel at the foot of each signal. The main type of truck is of the four-wheeled box type. Trucks are roofed and closed, 33 ft. long, 36 ft. over buffers. All have the following capacity and measurement :- 40 men. 37 cubic metres. 18 metres surface. Tare, 8,000-9,000 kilos ; load, 15,000 kilos. Several have a small guard's seat covered over at one end of the truck as on the Italian and other continental railways. The centre of buffer is 3 ft. 3 in. above rail. Ordinary screw coupling with side buffers. Rails for construction were mostly carried in ballast trucks, low sided shorts of 10 tons. Coaches on this section early in 1914 were of the old Anatolian Rail- way type, with capacity for 50 men. Only 12 or 15 were seen in May 1914. Only a few of the coaches and trucks had the through brake pipes. No full information as to the numbers and types of engines. On the Aleppo-Jerablūs section engines built by Borsig (Berlin), type 2-6-0, are used : probably over 15 tons per axle, with six-wheeled tender. For the telegraph line ordinary fir-poles are used : two wires only. Miles from Aleppo Aleppo. The station (1st class) lies about 500 yds. NE. of the branch terminus, and is connected therewith by a single line 300 yds. long, on a 20-ft. bank, under which pass two roads, about 200 yds. apart: (i) The main road to Alexandretta (metalled) passes under a 30-ft. span steel bridge (2 box girders) with footway. This is at the end of the French station. (ii) A newly constructed road leads from the German station under the line to the back of the goods shed on NW. side: a branch (unmetalled) runs W. This is spanned by a reinforced concrete bridge, 30-ft. span. The buildings of Aleppo station are solidly built of stone and two-storied in the centre, and are about 150 yds. long. There is a main platform 200 yds. long and extensive sidings, with seven main loops, up to 500 yds. 414 RAILWAY Miles from Aleppo 23 in length. In May 1914 only temporary corrugated galvanized iron buildings were in use for engine sheds, &c. At the S. end of the NW. side of the line were a straight engine shed with turn-table, and a small goods shed. The permanent stone engine.shed, circular in form, to hold 12 engines, was being built at the N. end of the station, and a large space, 450 yds. by 100 yds., was being cleared for permanent locomotive shops. There was a large goods shed, 120 yds. long, on the NW. side, approached by road no. (ii) mentioned above. Consider- able stacks of railway material and perhaps 200 tons of coal (briquettes and coal dust). Two gantries. Large water-tower on SE. side, by main station buildings. Easy grades out of Aleppo. At nearly 1 m. (14 km.) line crosses road by a bridge. A short temporary line (May 1914) leading off to W, into ballast quarry (facing points from Muslimiyeh). The railway to about m. 61 follows the contours of the low gravel hills 100 ft. high on the r. bank of the Kuweik river. These form the western watershed. Numerous small cuttings, none greater than 10 ft. General direction N. The Kuweik is about 400 yds. to E. Orchards and gardens in bed of river. Line now diverges from river, and runs N. through undulating open country, treeless but cultivated. Easy rising grade (1 in 200). Muslimiyeh, 2nd class station, and junction of Raju and Jerablūs lines. Stone engine-shed for four engines and turn-table. Water tower. Six loop sidings (the longest 500–600 yds., shortest 280 yds. ; one with two dead ends). From here onwards the country is an open plain, 5-6 m. wide, mostly under wheat, with gently undulating sur- face. On leaving Muslimiyeh the line makes a sweep to NE., rising at easy gradient (1 in 166) for rather over m. The undulations become more definite, and one or two villages are passed in the folds of the ground to SE. There are hills rising 200 ft. above the plain. The line falls slightly for over 1 m., and strikes the valley of the Kuweik, here flowing SW. Line follows up r. bank. Grades, 1 in 160-200. la 12 RAILWAY 415 52 Miles from Aleppo 173 Line crosses the Kuweik by plate-girder bridge, 60-ft. span. Country open and undulating: several villages. 211 ? Akhterin, 3rd class station. One loop and one dead- end siding, 400 yds. long ; water-tower; quarry, village, and old fort to S. Country rises slightly for one or two miles, and then slowly falls to Chobān Bey. Chõbān Bey, 3rd class station; one loop, 400 yds., and one dead-end siding, 300 yds. long; no water-tower. Country now slightly more stony. į m. beyond the station is a small cutting of 10 ft. for 50 yds. Then the line crosses the head of a tributary valley draining into the Kuweik. Country more undulating on S. Level open plain to N. Soil generally chalky. 45 Line traverses low cutting for a mile. Line embanked for a mile into Aqcheh Koyunli. 53 Aqcheh Koyunli. One loop-siding, 700 yds., and one dead- end, 500 yds. Water-tower, station-building, and three other stone buildings for staff. On leaving the station the line passes through a low cutting for 800 yds., and then over 1,000 yds. of embankment, with a steady falling grade of 1 in 83 for about 2,400 yds. down to the Sajur. 541 ? Sajur Chai, flowing S. (Distance from Aqcheh Koyunli given in Report as 21 km.; but the wording of the description immediately above suggests that the mileage should be 552.) Cross by a two-span bridge, each span of 30 ft., one span (over main channel) being plate-girder, while the other is of reinforced concrete (?). After the bridge the line, which is embanked for 500 yds. near to river, rises at 1 in 83 for about 2,600 yds. Line continues over undulating country, falling to valley of Euphrates : several grades of 1 in 83 down and one of 1 in 90 up are met with. Hulmen, 3rd class station. One loop-siding, 500 yds., and one dead-end, 400 yds. No water. There is only a station-building with a small parcels-office here. 69 A line of low dunes is passed, forming actual watershed of r. bank of Euphrates. 704 Line runs through cutting for 100 yds., and following the 416 RAILWAY 741 Miles from Aleppo contour of the hills turns slightly N., and runs down to Jerablās station. 731 Jerablūs, 2nd class station. Four loop-sidings (500-600 yds.), one with two shunting ends. Engine shed for two engines, with two 60-ft. pits and a 60-ft. turn-table. No travelling crane in shed. Weigh-bridge. Coal stage of concrete, 90 ft. by 50 ft. and 2 ft. high. Goods shed, open, with corrugated galvanized iron roof, 150 ft. by 50 ft. Parcels-office. The line bends round to S. of the Karkemish mound to reach the bridge. Jerablūs bridge across the Euphrates. This bridge, which was unfinished at the beginning of the war, is said to be now completed. The length of the bridge is about 884 yds. (816 metres). It consists of 10 spans, with an overhead lattice girder. The width is 20 ft., 15 ft. for railway and 4 ft. for pathway outside. The founda- tions consist of cement concrete lowered into a water- tight iron casing made of interlocking piling 45 ft. by 20 ft. in plan. The top of this piling is at low-water level, above which the pier is of smaller section. The concrete goes right up to the bed-plate of the bridge, and is stone-faced outside. In the sandy bed of the river the concrete is about 421 ft. (13 metres) deep. In other places it is on rock foundations. An earth bank with a stone-wall foundation has been made on the r. bank of the river above the bridge to prevent the flood from washing away the railway bank to the W. of the western pier of the bridge. It was reported in May 1914 that it looked very probable that a big flood would wash out the bank and then damage the west abutment. (Before the permanent bridge was finished a temporary wooden bridge was used, which was crossed by trains at 3 m.p.h.) Zormagheh, military passing place. Siftek, 3rd class station. 96 'Arab Punār, 3rd class station. Between ‘Arab Punār and Kharāb Nas there are apparently three plate-girder bridges over the Qaramuk. 1094 ? Kharāb Nās, 3rd class station. 124 ? Qul Tepeh, 3rd class station. 752 86 RAILWAY 417 Miles from Aleppo 135? Tel Abyadh, 2nd class station. At the beginning of 1916 the station buildings were reported unfinished. Turn- table and water-tower. (From here to Ras el-'Ain all water is from wells 150-200 ft. deep, and brackish.) 1421 ? Abu Qubbeh, military passing place. 150 ? Meheisin, 3rd class station, not built at the beginning of 1916. 157 ? Nus Tel. Military passing place. Water-tower. 171 ? Tumen. 3rd class station. Buildings of wood only at the beginning of 1916. 181 ? Tel Khanzīr, military passing place. 185 ? | Tel Hammūd, 3rd class station. Buildings unfinished in January 1916. Bridge across Jirjib Chai, lattice girder, 66 yds. 199 ? Ras el-'Ain, 2nd class station. Buildings unfinished. Water-tower. From Ras el-'Ain the railway has not been carried on directly towards Nisibin, but turns NE. in the direction of Mardın, and in February, 1917, was reported to have reached Tel Ermen. MES. IV Dd GAZETTEER OF TOWNS Note.--It must be borne in mind that the descriptions of towns, figures for population, &c., given in the following pages refer, unless otherwise stated, to conditions before the war. As regards the population, particular reference may be made to the note on the Armenians and Nestorians (p. 32). ADIAMAN (also known as Husni Mansur, properly the name of the Kaza). About 20 m. NNW. of Samsat, and ~ 30 m. ENE. of Behisni. Pop. 10,000; about 1,600 (?) houses. T. (connexion with Malatiyeh, Kiakhta, and Behisni). Routes.- (i) To Samsat. (See Route 150 c.) (ii) To Birijik. (See Route 144.) (iii) To 'Aintāb. (See Routes 144, 145 a, b, c.) (iv) To Behisni. (See Route 149; for continuation to Belveren and Mar'ash see Route 147.) (v) To Malatiyeh via Belveren. (See Route 147 and p. 410.) (vi) To Malatiyeh via Bölam. A difficult mule-track. (vii) To Kiakhta and Gerger. (See Routes 150 a, b.) Adiaman lies in the hollow of an extinct crater at the foot of steep outliers from the high Taurus mountains to the N. There is a ruined citadel, and the town has many minarets. In the neigh- bourhood are good orchards, gardens, and vineyards. Supplies in summer were abundant before the war, but the place at that season is unhealthy. The population is Turkish (and formerly Armenian), with a certain Ansariyeh element. Massacres and deportations of the Armenian population have taken place during the war. Adiaman is the head-quarters of the Kaza of Husni Mansur. AINTĀB. About ^ 30 m. W. of Birijik. Pop. variously esti. -mated at 40,000 (1904) and 50,000–74,000 (1911). P.O., T. (Aleppo - Mar'ash line). ADIAMAN-AINTĀB 419 419 Routes.- (i) To Marʻash. (See Route 152.) (ii) To Albistan, a very rough mule-track over the mountain E. of Mar'ash. (iii) To Belveren, a good mule-track. (iv) To Pelvereh, passing E. of Belveren : a mule-track, but country perhaps passable for wheels. (v) To Bebisni, a track rather rougher than (iv). (vi) To Adiaman. (See Routes 145 a, b, c, 144.) (vii) To Rūm Qal'ah. (See Routes 145 a, b, c.) (viii) To Birijik. (See Route 143 a.) (ix) To Ekizjeh on the Aleppo-Birijik road (Route 139, m. 57). (x) To Killis and Aleppo. (See Route 152.) (xi) To Qazanali. A good track by Sakcheh Gözü. It is reported to be not passable for wheels, but to be capable of easy improvement. General Description.—The town lies in an open, rolling, and very fertile country. There are gardens, vineyards, and oliveyards round the town. It is a well-built place with stone houses, most of which are two-storied and have flat roofs: many of them are built round courtyards. The streets are 15–25 ft. wide, and paved. There are several khans in the town. To the south are heights, one of which is occupied by a ruined castle, another by the American Mission College (Central Turkey College), and a third by the mission hospital. The mission buildings are substantial stone structures. Hygiene. Ophthalmia and the Aleppo ' button' are common, but the latter is said not to attack persons living on the heights above the town. For the water-supply, see below. Supplies and Commerce.—As the town is the centre of an exceed. ingly fertile district it would be an important base for supplies and transport. Water of good quality is brought from the neighbouring hill by an old aqueduct, and is distributed by fountains throughout the town. The well-water is generally bad. The well at the American College is 120 ft. deep, and is worked by a wind-pump; karez are also used for obtaining water. Wood is scarce, but charcoal is brought into the town for sale. The bazaars before the war were good, and the place was noted for its striped cotton cloths and grape syrup (pekmez). Inhabitants.—The Moslem population appears to be principally Turkish. There is (or was) a large Armenian community. The Christian element in the town was estimated in 1904 at one-half of the whole population, and in 1911 at about one-third, but deportations Dd 2 ‘AINTĀB-ALEPPO 421 lie W. of the old citadel. The houses, which are usually one- storied, are solidly built of freestone. The best quarter is that of 'Aziziyeh, lying to the NW. on the r. bank of the river. Here before the war were the residences of the European consuls. To the W., on the l. bank of the river, are the suburbs of Selimiyeh, (where is the residence of the Vali), El-Kittāb (the Christian. Levantine quarter), and Mechareka. At the SW. of the town (on the r. bank) is the quarter known as El-Kelarsi. . These western quarters are bounded by and interspersed with gardens and orchards. To SE. of the Aziziyeh quarter are the Christian quarters of Salıbeh and El-Jedeideh, and S. of these is Bahsita, the Jewish quarter. The railway stations (the German station of the Baghdad railway and the terminus of the French line to Homs) lie W. of the river. The old citadel stands in the centre of the town on an artificial mound 100 ft. high, the summit of which is oval, measuring 300 yds. from W. to E. and 200 yds. from N. to S. The mound is surrounded by a deep moat which can be filled with water. A road runs above the counterscarp lined by well-built stone houses. The slopes of the mound are too steep to scale except at the approach on the S. side. Here a massive bridge leads to an entrance-gate, within which is a flight of stone steps and above these a winding slope to the top of the mound. The summit of the mound is surrounded by a ruined stone parapet 15-20 ft. high. The magazine is described as being underneath the rampart to the r. of the main gate (entrance- gate at the foot of the slope ?), its door being the first on the r. from this gate. It is sunk below the ground and well protected. Water in the citadel is obtained from a deep well. The citadel commands the town, and is itself commanded by the hills to the W. S. of it is a smaller eminence, on which is a mosque. The barracks occupy another mound, about 600 yds. NE. of the old citadel, measuring on its summit about 600 yds. by 175 yds. The buildings are a two-storied block occupying three sides of a quadrangle. The men live in the upper story, the stables being in the lower. The ventilation is very bad. Besides the ordinary native khans there are a number of hotels more or less of the European kind. Climate and Hygiene. --The air is pure and dry and this part of the country is on the whole healthy. The heat of summer is rather severe, as the hills to the W. partially shut off the cool winds from the sea. The winter climate is cold enough to prevent orange-trees from flourishing. Snow falls fairly often, but does not lie long. Strangers may suffer from the 'Aleppo button' which is similar to the ‘Basra date-mark', the ‘Baghdad boil', &c. (see vol. i, p. 45). 422 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS Supplies and Commerce.--To the N. of Aleppo along the Kuweik the country is apparently well cultivated, and the plain of Killis is especially fertile (see under Killis). Agriculture has also been increasing in the district between Aleppo and the Euphrates, and villages there are now fairly numerous. Definite estimates of supplies are lacking. The water-supply is from the Kuweik, from Halian (9 m. to N.) by a conduit, and from wells. Cotton and silk tissues, calico embroidery, lace work, and soap are the chief manufactures. Wheat, barley, oats, lentils, and peas, cotton, pistachios, liquorice root, and tobacco are among the chief crops of the Aleppo district. The Ottoman Bank, the Deutsche Orient Bank, and an agency of the Banque de Salonique are the principal banking establishments at Aleppo. For road-transport, besides pack-animals (camels, mules, donkeys), fourgons, or springless wagons, can be had: their maximum capacity is 3-5 tons. Inhabitants.-Some two-thirds of the inhabitants are Moslems. The remainder are Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Syrian Catholics, Jacobites, and Maronites, but the numbers of the sects are very variously given in estimates, and as regards the Armenian popula- tion especially, reference may be made to the note on p. 32. There was a large European colony here before the war. Arabic is gener- ally spoken. Administration and Authorities.-Aleppo is the chief town of the Vilayet of the same name, and is therefore the residence of the Vali. Before the war Great Britain, France, Russia, the U.S.A., Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Holland, Spain, and Belgium all maintained consuls here. History.—There seems to have been a town on the site of Aleppo since at least 2000 B.C. In the Macedonian, Roman, and Byzantine periods it was a fairly important place under the name of Beroea. After the Arab conquest it increased in importance as a centre of traffic between East and West, and in spite of earthquakes, sieges, and sacks by Mongols it flourished throughout the Middle Ages and later. Here European merchants came for the Persian and Indian trade. In the Middle Ages the French and Venetians had factories at Aleppo. The discovery of the Cape route to India to some extent affected Aleppo, but it was still a great commercial centre in the time of James I, when a British factory was established here. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the town was disturbed and impoverished by the fights between factions, which the Turkish Government failed to control. The opening of the land route to India across Egypt, and then the making of the Suez Canal, helped to divert trade from Aleppo. ALEPPO—AMADIYEH 423 With the increase of the Turkish power in Syria Aleppo revived, and before the war it seemed likely to receive great commercial benefit from the new railways which were being built or planned. It is situated at the point where the Syrian railway system meets the system of the Baghdad railway. It was said before the war that the Turks have regarded Aleppo as a possible capital if they should be driven out of Europe. AMADIYEH. About ^ 55 m. N. by E. of Mosul. Pop. 2,000- 3,000. P.O. Routes. - (i) To Rowanduz. (See Routes 62 b, 62 a.) (ii) To Mosul via Ba Idri and Sheikh Adi. (See Route 67 a.) (iii) To Mosul via Dohuk. (See Route 67 b.) (iv) To Feishkhabur via Zakho. (See Route 90c; for continua- tions to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar from Zakho or Feishkhabur see Routes 90 a and b.) (v) To Van via Shiv Shalıl and Marwānen. (See Route 79.) . (vi) To Julāmerk. (See Routes 68 a, b; for continuation to Van see Routes 69, and 74 a and b; for continuation to Urmia see Routes 69, 75, 66 a and b.) (vii) To Oramar. (See Route 62 b.) General Description.—Amadiyeh lies just below the southern edge of the high mountain country of Central Kurdistan. The country to S. of it, though hilly, is much more open, and the ranges are much lower than those to N. The town is built on a rocky plateau, an outlier from the southern side of the steep and lofty Ser Amadiyeh. The plateau, which is connected with the range to N. only by a narrow rocky col, is oval in shape, 1,400 yds. long and 550 yds. broad. Its summit inclines slightly to the W., and is almost entirely of rock. Its slopes in their upper part rise in cliffs 50-80 ft. high, and in their lower part, which is clay, are steep and strewn with boulders. Two narrow roads lead up to the town, and enter it, the one by a gateway on the W. side of the plateau, the other by a gate to the NE. The town itself lies at the N. end of the plateau. It is now for the most part in ruins, only 400-500 houses being inhabited. The remainder of the plateau is occupied by a cemetery. At the E. gate is a large building in a dilapidated condition, but solidly built of stone, used as the offices of the administration and as a zaptieh barrack. An old, solidly-built minaret rises above the town. 424 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS At the south end of the plateau is a ruined Kurdish castle, with masonry wall and two bastions, 3-4 ft. thick and 20 ft. high. This wall is drawn across the plateau, cutting off a space of about 200 yds. wide. Along the edge of the cliff is a low masonry wall with embrasures and loopholes, having a fine command over the country to the S. The plateau can be commanded from a spur of the main range 1,500 yds. from the E. gate. Amadiyeh has now little importance except as a route-centre. Hygiene.-There is said to be a liability to fever in the hot summer months. Supplies and Commerce.-The bazaar, built partially among ruins, is small and ill-supplied. Some rice and millet are grown in the neighbourhood; also tobacco, grapes, mulberries, pomegranates, and walnuts. Dried fruits, cheese, and curds and whey (yoghurt) have been noticed on sale. Water comes from springs, one of which is on the slope about 100 yds. outside the W. gate. There are no springs on the summit of the plateau, but one account mentions wells as situated there, the water of which is mostly bad in summer. Water is also brought in skins on donkeys from the stream in the valley. · There is some trade in gall-nuts, and there are smiths' shops for the repair of Kurdish weapons and knives. There are also some weavers' shops kept by Jews. Inhabitants.—The population consists for the most part of Kurds. There are besides some Jews and a few Nestorians. (Before the war the English Mission to the Nestorians had a station at Bibaydi on the Dohuk road, about 3 m. from the town.) In summer most of the inhabitants migrate to camps of booths on the mountain yāilās. Administration.-Amadiyeh is the head-quarters of a kaza. Its Kaimmakam is under Mosul. BĀSH QAL'AH. About " 50 m. SE. of Van and "20 m. from the Persian frontier, in the upper valley of the Great Zāb. About 2,000 houses. Alt. 7,500 ft. T. (connexion with Van, Julāmerk, Dizeh, Neri, and Dilman : before the war messages could not be sent in European languages). Routes.- (i) To Julāmerk. (See Route 69; for continuations to Amadiyeh and Mosul see Routes 68 a and b, and 67 a and b.) (ii) To Kochannes. (See Routes 71 a and b.) AMADIYEH-BASH QAL'AH 425 (iii) To Sekunis. (See Route 73.) (iv) To Van via Khoshāb. (See Routes 74 a and b.) (v) To Dilman. (See Route 75.) (vi) To Dīzeh. (See Route 65.) General Description.-Băsh Qal'ah lies on the W. edge of a culti- vated plain which on the E. stretches to the Zāb (here generally called the Albak Su) about 5 m. distant. Immediately W. of the town rises a steep range of hills, and some of the houses are built on the lower slopes. On a spur above the town are the ruins of a Kurdish castle which are clearly visible for some miles on the road from Julāmerk. Many of the houses are well built of sun-dried brick, and the principal streets are wide and fairly clean. The Turkish barracks are in the centre of the town : they consist of two low buildings of sun-dried brick. The importance of Bash Qal'ah arises from its position in a fertile plain at the junction of roads from Van, from Dilman across the Persian frontier, and from the Hakkiari country to the S. and SW. For this reason it was before the war a Turkish military centre, and its garrison had to watch both the tribes of the Persian frontier and those in the mountains to the S. Climate.—The high altitude and exposed position of Bāsh Qalah make its winter climate extremely severe, and snow lies until late in the year. Supplies and Commerce.The cultivated plain towards the Zāb is irrigated by several streams from the N., and produces wheat, barley, millet, and sesame. Fruit and vegetables are usually brought from the Salmās plain and from Urmia. Excellent grass is found in the spring and early summer in meadows along the Zāb and on the neighbouring slopes. Water is to be obtained from several springs at the foot of the hills and from streams. There is a small bazaar frequented by the tribesmen of the neigh- bouring mountain regions. Good smith's and carpenter's work is done here. Băsh Qal'ah was before the war an important point of transit for caravans going between Urmia and Van. Inhabitants.--The town is inhabited principally by Kurds, but there were considerable Armenian and Jewish communities and also a few Persians. There was a massacre of Armenians and Nestorians in the town and district in the summer of 1915. Administration.-Bash Qal'ah was the seat of government of the Hakkiari Sanjaq in the Vilayet of Van, and was therefore under a Mutessarif. The garrison in summer consisted of one or two battalions of Nizam and a mountain battery. 426 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS BEHISNI (Besne). About ^ 40 m. WNW. of Samsat and " 55 m. E. of Mar'ash. Pop. 8,000 (1,500. houses). T.L. (connexion with Adiaman and thence with Malatiyeh and Kiakhta). Routes. - (i) To Samsat. (See Route 147.) (ii) To Urfeh via Kilik. (See Routes 146, 122.) (iii) To 'Aintāb. No details : a somewhat rough track. (iv) To Mar'ash via Belveren. (See Route 147.) (v) To Malatiyeh via Pelvereh. (See Route 151.) (vi) To Adiaman. (See Route 149; for continuation to Kiakhta and Gerger see Route 150.) The town is situated in a deep, narrow valley facing S., and is overlooked by an old castle formerly impregnable. It is hot and unhealthy, but higher up the valley are residences used in summer and extensive vineyards. To the N. are high mountains, to the E. and S. are low undulating hills among which the line of the Euphrates is said to be visible. Water is obtainable from springs. Supplies are scarce. The population is mixed, but chiefly Turkish. There was an Armenian element, but deportations were reported in 1915. The town is the head-quarters of a Kaimmakam under Kharput. BELED SINJAR. About 76 m. W. of Mosul. About 400 houses (1903). Routes.- (i) To Mosul. (See Route 92 a, m. 76-0.) (ii) To Deir-ez-Zor. (See vol. iii, Route 49 b, from m. 76 onward.) (iii) To Nisibin. (See Route 92 a, from m. 76 onward.) General Description.--The town lies on the E. slope of a valley running from N. to S., watered by a stream. It is dominated to N. and W. by the Toq hills. It contains a khan, Turkish barracks, and government buildings, all of which lie at the top of the slope. The houses are solidly built in the style seen also at Mosul. The town formerly covered a much larger area, including the W. slope of the valley, where now there is a ruin-field. Remains of the ancient walls are to be seen. Supplies and Commerce.-The land to N. and S. of the town is cultivated, and probably a fair amount of supplies would be available BEHISNI-BELED SINJAR-BIRIJIK 427 in normal years. The figs of the neighbourhood are famous in the East. Inhabitants are mainly Yezidis. Administration. The place is the residence of a Kaimmakam, and is in the Vilayet of Mosul. BIRIJIK. On the l. bank of the Euphrates, about 15 m. above the railway bridge at Jerablūs and ~ 50 m. W. by S. of Urfeh. Alt. about 1,170 ft. Pop. about 10,000 (?). T. (Aleppo-Diarbekr line). River Route.- To Meskeneh by the Euphrates. (See Route IV I.) Land Routes.- (i) To Diarbekr via Hovek and Severek. (See Route 113.) (ii) To Urfeh via Char Melik. (See Route 123 a.) (iii) To Urfeh via Serūj. (See Route 123 b; for continuation from Urfeh to Diarbekr see Routes 120 a and 113.) (iv) To Meskeneh via 1. bank of the Euphrates. (See Route 133.) (v) To Qal'at en-Nejm via r. bank of the Euphrates. (See Route 134.) (vi) To Aleppo via Akhterin. (See Route 139.) (vii) To Killis. (See Route 142.) (viii) To 'Aintāb. (See Route 143 a.) (ix) To Mar'ash. (See Route 143.) (x) To Adiaman. (See Route 144.) (xi) To Rūm Qal'ah via I. bank of the Euphrates. (See Route 135.) General Description.-Birijik is built on the slopes of a ravine in a whitish limestone cliff which rises to about 400 ft. above the river. From the top of this cliff a commanding view of the river-valley can be obtained. Outside the town to the S. is a level open space where caravans encamp and, in normal times, there are large open tents for the shelter of men and goods. For the river at Birijik see Route IV I. In peace time about 13 boats, each capable of carrying about 8 loaded pack-animals, were used on the ferry. The town is surrounded by an ancient wall, now almost in ruins, and above it on the cliff is a ruined castle. The houses are of stone, flat-roofed and two-storied. The ascent from the ferry winds through paved streets 12 ft. wide. Some terraces and gardens 428 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS appear to be situated in or on the outskirts of the town. There is one good stone khan and several others in caves in the rock. Supplies and Commerce. --The Euphrates valley for about 80 m. southwards from Birijik is fertile, and produces wheat and barley without irrigation. In 1903 it was reported that 500 boats laden with grain went down from Birijik to Deir ez-Zor every year. The place was also the principal trade centre of this part of the country for butter, olive-oil, and grapes. Numbers of sheep are to be found in the surrounding country. A plentiful supply of water from a spring on the top of the hill above the castle runs through the town in several streams. Wood fuel from up the river is plentiful: a few poor trees grow on the heights overlooking the town. To the S. is a good district for collecting camels. For commerce passing into Mesopotamia from Northern Syria the importance of Birijik has been two-fold. First, it has long been the principal point of passage on this part of the Euphrates, being used by caravans from Aleppo or Alexandretta bound for Diarbekr or Mosul. In the years immediately preceding the war, however, the more southerly crossings at Jerablūs and Tel Ahmar appear to have been coming more into use as the country became less insecure in that direction: and the construction of the Aleppo-Ras el-'Ain railway which crosses the Euphrates at Jerablūs must seriously affect Birijik. Secondly, Birijik is the starting-point of the down. strean traffic on the Middle Euphrates by shakhtur. This class of boat was before the war built only at Birijik : see Route IV I. Inhabitants. - The population is said to be mixed, Turk, Arab, and Kurd, with some Armenians and Jews. Administration.—Birijik is the head-quarters of a Kaza in the Sanjaq of Urfeh and the Vilayet of Aleppo. BITLIS. In the valley of the Bitlis Su, about 15 m. from the SW. corner of Lake Van. Alt. 5,098 ft. Pop. estimated in 1914 at about 40,000. P.O. T. (communication before the war with Mush, Van, Diarbekr, and Sairt. Lines from Mush to Erzingan, Erzerum, and Akhlat by Melashgird.) Routes.- (i) To Diarbekr via Ziyāret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni, Zokh, and Farqın. (See Routes 85 and 103 a.) (ii) To Diarbekr via Ziyāret Wa'iz el-Qur'āni, Zokh, and Desht-i-Kiri. (See Routes 85 and 103 b.) BIRIJIK-BITLIS 429 (iii) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar via Ziyāret Wa'iz el-Qur'āni and Sairt. (See Route 85.) (iv) To Sairt via Chemi Khān. (See Route 86 a.) (v) To Sairt via the Argif Köprü. (See Route 86 b.) (vi) To Sairt via Kifra. (See Route 86 c.) (vii) To Mukus. (See Route 88.) (viii) To Van via the S. shore of Lake Van. (See Routes 89 a, 89 b.) (ix) To Van via Rahwa plateau, the N. shore of Lake Van. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Routes 86 and 73.) Passable for wheels. (x) To Bāyazīd via Rahwa plateau, Arjish, Girdagöl Gedik, and Dhiyā ed-Din, or via Ab Agha and Bergeri. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Routes 86, 61 B, and 54.) Passable for wheels. (xi) To Alashgird via Rahwa plateau, the Akhlāt valley, Melasgird, and the Murād, or Suleiman Gumbet. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Routes 86, 82 a, 59, 58.) Passable for wheels. (xii) To Liz via Rahwa plateau and Kani Resh W. of the Nimrud Dāgh. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, p. 114.) Just passable for wheels, but steep near the Nimrud Dāgh. (xiii) To Erzerum via Rahwa plateau, Mush, and Khinis. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Routes 97, 78, and 73.) Passable for wheels. (xiv) To Mush, over hills NW. of town and passing SW. of the Rahwa plateau, and joining main road (xiii) at Norshen. Not passable for wheels. (xv) To Kuyut Basin. Good mule-track over easy col. (xvi) To Missi (Modeki valley). Northern route : follows (xv), good mule-track to a point N. of the Hormuz Dāgh, thence through very difficult, rocky country. Southern routes : rough tracks from Bitlis-Ziyāret chaussée (Route 85), up valley of Modeki Su or by Jezni and Melipan. (xvii) To Hazo via Kuyut: difficult beyond Kuyut. NOTE.—On the important Rahwa plateau N. of the town see Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, pp. 114-120. All the chief routes converging on Bitlis from the N. cross it. It is reported that on the Mush-Hazro route, via the Kulp valley, a carriage-road is under construction. See p. 322. Until this route is reached the Bitlis pass cannot be turned from the W. by a force with guns. FITTE 430 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS General Description. The town lies in the deep valley of the Bitlis Su, which flows through it from S. to N. The town extends up the hill-sides and also up the side valley of the Khosrov from NW., farther up which is the suburb of Khoms containing an Armenian monastery. At the S. end of the town a side-valley opens from the E., up which are scattered houses and gardens forming the Avekh suburb. To E. of the city is a bare, steep, and rocky hill of about 1,000 ft. In the middle of the town, on the r. bank of the Bitlis, is a ruined castle on a rock of no great height. Along the W. side of the castle rock flows the Khosrov stream, which joins the Bitlis Su somewhat farther to the S. To N. of the castle rock, in the angle between the Bitlis and the Khosrov valleys, is a flat- topped spur, the Gök Maidān, on which are situated the Government buildings and a block of infantry barracks. The principal mosque lies S. of the castle rock. The houses are well and solidly built, mostly of soft volcanic tufa quarried in the neighbourhood. Good houses are to be found, especially in the Christian quarter, in the southern part of the town, where are the former British Consulate and the American Mission. The bazaars along the river-side are very much crowded with narrow winding alleys. Some of these have been cleared to make room for the Bitlis--Žiyāret chaussée which runs through the length of the town (Route 85). There are half-a-dozen masonry bridges over the Bitlis Su, one of which, at the S. end of the town, carries the Bitlis-Ziyāret chaussée. Besides the chaussée there is a way through the town from S. to N. which ascends through the Christian quarter, and keeps high up above the 1. bank of the river. It is not passable for wheels. Trans- verse streets are generally narrow and stairlike. Camping-room for troops is limited. The best place would be m. above the town along the chaussée near a spring. Climate and Hygiene.-The position of Bitlis, facing S. in a deep valley, makes it rather hot in summer. In winter, on the other hand, snow may accumulate to a great depth. Nevertheless the seasons are not excessively severe, the mean temperature ranging from 90° to 50° F. The climate is on the whole healthy. Rheumatism is said to be common. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in the neighbourhood. Supplies and Commerce.-Grain from the well-watered plains to the N. (e.g. that of Mush) used to be stored at Bitlis for export. Fruit and vegetables are to be obtained from the gardens and orchards near the town. Water is very abundant, the best being brought in earthenware pipes from a stream up the Avekh valley. BITLIS-DIARBEKR 431 Small springs are numerous. Fuel is brought in from Modikan, Khizān, and the Nimrūd Dāgh, but the hill-slopes in the immediate vicinity are bare of this, except in the gardens and orchards. In normal times the bazaars contained the ordinary necessaries of the neighbouring Kurdish tribes (including arms). Manchester cottons and a few other European imports (e. g. hardware) were to be obtained. Rough iron work and such leather work as was needed by caravans could be bought in the bazaars. Coarse red cloth is manufactured in the town. The main exports, besides grain, were fleeces, wools, hides, skins, furs, gall-nuts, and gum tragacanth. In the Sassun district W. of the town are iron mines worked in primitive fashion. Inhabitants.—About one-third of the inhabitants before the war were Armenians, but massacres and deportations were reported in June, 1915; and there was a small Jacobite community (perhaps 300 in all). The rest are Mohammedan Kurds, who had the reputa- tion of being rather fanatical : the Kurdish Sheikh of Bitlis is generally an influential personage. The Armenians mainly belonged to the national (Gregorian) Church, but there were a few Armenian Catholics, and a fairly small Armenian Protestant community existed, the centre of which was the Armenian Mission School. This, how- ever, also gave instruction to Gregorian Armenians. The Armenians of Bitlis were suspected by the Turks of revolutionary intrigues : Armenian insurgent bands were frequently out in the Sassun district. Administration.—Bitlis was the capital of the vilayet of the same name, which included the sanjaqs of Bitlis, Mush, Ginj, and Sairt. The garrison of the town usually consisted of two infantry battalions and a mountain battery. DIARBEKR. On the r. bank of the Tigris, 950 m. NNW. of Mardın. Pop. 40,000 (?). P.O., T. (lines to Kharpūt and Sivas, and thence Constantinople: to Urfeh and Aleppo : to Farqin, Sairt, and Bitlis: to Mardın and Mosul). River Route.- To Mosul by the Tigris. (See Route III F.) Land Routes.- (i) To Mardīn via Khāneki. (See Route 95 a; for continuation to Mosul see Routes 90-94.) (ii) To Mardin via Qirq and Avineh. (See Route 95 b.) 432 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS (ii) To Mardīn via Derek. (See Route 95 c.) (iv) To Midiat via Kullith. (See Route 101 ; for continuation to Jezīret-ibn-'Omar see Route 96 a, b.) (v) To Sairt via Hop. (See Route 102 a.) (vi) To Sairt via Ridhwān and the Nasr ed-Dīn Köprü. (See Route 102 b.) (vii) To Ziyāret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni via Farqīn and Zokh. (See Route 103 a ; for continuation to Bitlis see Route 85.) (viii) To Zokh via the Desht-i-Kiri. (See Route 103 b.) (ix) To Mush. (See Route 112 a, i.) (x) To Lijjeh. (See Route 104; for continuation to Erzerum see Route 112 a, ii.) (xi) To Haini. (See Route 107.) (xii) To Pīrān. (See Route 108 ; for continuation to Palu see Route 112 a, iii.) (xiii) To Kharpūt via Arghana Ma'den. (For the road as far as the Arghana pass see Route 109. See also Route 112 b.) (xiv) To Chermuk. (See Route 110; for continuation to Khar- pūt see Route 112 b, ii.) (xv) To Birijik via Hovek. (See Route 113.) (xvi) To Birijik via Urfeh. (See Routes 113, 120 a and b, 123 a and b.) (xvii) To Veirān Shehr. (See Route 117 a, b, c.) General Description.—Diarbekr lies in an undulating plain at the northern head of the natural passage which leads between the Qarajeh Dāgh and the Tur 'Abdin to the Mesopotamian plains. The town is situated on a line of steep basalt bluffs which here form the W. side of the Tigris valley. This valley is about 1 m. broad : opposite the E. side of the town it runs N.-S., but for a short distance above the NE. corner of the walls it runs NW.-SE., and for a short distance below the city it runs about W. Diarbekr thus stands within an easterly bend of the river. On the farther (E.) side of the valley the gentle cultivated slopes rise to ground which commands the plain near Diarbekr from a height of 150-200 ft. The river, which is about m. from the eastern wall, generally becomes fordable at points near Diarbekr early in July, and it has been found in August to consist here merely of pools connected by small trickles of water: on the other hand, one authority found it 80 yds. broad in November, except at the SE. corner of the city, where it divided into two streams, which together were about 250 yds. wide. In the flood season the river becomes unfordable and spreads out to a width of as much as 500 yds. For the stone bridge below the town see Route III G, m. 4. Ferries DIARBEKR 433 are also used in the flood season. The river bank is thickly planted with gardens and orchards which stretch up towards the town. On the other (W.) side of the city there rise from the plain two rounded hills with easy slopes. Their altitude is about the same as that of the high ground on the E. side of the river. They are about 5 m. from the town. The city itself is surrounded by a great wall of Roman origin, enclosing a rectangular space of about 11 m. square. This wall is of good rubble masonry faced with large blocks of stone (black basalt which is said to have weathered to a dull yellow tone). There are four gates, the Yeni Qapu on the E., the Mardın on the S., the Rūm on the W., and the Kharput on the N. The wall on the E. side stands on the edge of a basalt cliff about 30 ft. high, and is for the most part in a ruinous condition, having been partly demolished for purposes of building: the Yeni Qapu is protected by a projecting town and wall. On the s. the walls are about 40 ft. high, very solidly constructed, with bastions, generally square, at 20 ft. intervals, and a ditch 10-20 ft. high and 5-15 ft. deep. Beyond the ditch are some irregular basalt cliffs, and a steep slope to the river, where are irrigated plantations and gardens. The Mardīn gateway is 12 ft. wide, and has two sets of gates, 40 ft. apart, the outer of iron and the inner of 11 in. planks. E. of the gate is a long projecting bastion reported in 1903 to contain cavalry stables. The walls of this bastion, 40 ft. high and 7 ft. thick, are built round a projecting rock, and a cliff 15-20 ft. high falls away below it. There is a flanking tower W. of the gate. On the W. side the walls are about 50 ft. high, with towers (at the bastions?) rising to about 65 ft. The main wall is 10-15 ft. thick, and has a roadway along the top. The musketry parapet is 21 ft. thick, 4 ft. high, with loopholes and a 4.ft. banquette. The bastions in this part are semicircular and more massive than on the other side of the Mardın Gate, having a diameter of about 50 ft. ; but some are in a more or less ruinous condition. Outside the wide berm is a basalt cliff of varying but generally considerable height. From the Mardın to the Rūm Gate there is a 20-ft. covered way with a partial outer wall. On the N. the wall is about 30 ft. high, much stone having been removed for building. The bastions are round. From the Kharpūt Gate to the river runs a broad ditch or depression containing pools of stagnant water. About 1 m. outside the gate is a block of two- storied barracks. One authority states that besides the Kharpūt Gate there is a wicket-gate on this side. At the NE. corner of the town is the old citadel, cut off from the MES. IV E e 434 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS rest of the town by an interior wall. In it are now the Government offices and a small block of barracks which used to contain two companies. The garrison magazine is a domed building in the Serai. Close to it are two windows in the outer wall, quite close to the ground. The town contains about 4,000 houses, which are low, and built partly of stone, partly of mud. They are densely crowded at some points, but on the other hand there are unoccupied spaces inside the walls. There are numerous mosques, the chief of which is the Ulu Jami', and about 190 khans. The streets are 10-15 ft. wide, badly paved, and dirty. Two main thoroughfares intersect the town at right angles, running from the N. to the S., and from the E. to the W. gates. The bazaars are good and wide. Climate and Hygiene. --The climate in summer is very hot and unhealthy: the winters are frequently severe, but not for long. Epidemics of typhus are frequent, ophthalmia is common, and cholera sometimes appears. The 'Diarbekr boil' is similar to the Basra “date-mark', the Aleppo 'button', &c. Scorpions are very common and virulent. For water-supply see below. Supplies and Commerce.-The neighbourhood of Diarbekr is very fertile, though under-cultivated, and the bazaar is well supplied with grain and fruit. Wheat, barley, rice, sesame, and lentils are grown. Much wheat is stored in Diarbekr in good seasons. Sheep and goats are numerous. There are five sources for the supply of drinking-water: (i) The Qal'ah Suyu, very good and abundant water brought from a source outside the town (to N. ?); (ii) Baliqli spring with good and abundant water outside the town near the Rūm Gate; the Göl Jami', good and abundant water from a source outside the town; (iv) the Ulu Jami Suyu, good and abundant water brought by an aqueduct from 'Ali Punār, about 11 m. W. of Diarbekr; (v) The Hamervat, abundant water brought by an aqueduct from a spring several miles off above Sirāb Gözlü village, entering Diarbekr near the NW. corner of the walls. The water near its source is excellent, but it becomes rather tainted before reaching the town as the aqueduct is uncovered at various points. The channel of the aqueduct is 4 ft. wide, and the supply could alone, if necessary, suffice for the whole town. There are about 130 fountains in the streets, and 300 in private houses. The wells in the houses are very numerous, but their water is impure and slightly brackish. Diarbekr is an important point of transit for trade passing from Syria or Asia Minor to Mesopotamia, N. Persia, or from Syria to Armenia. The course of the Baghdad Railway, however, threatens DIARBEKR 435 for the time to divert from it the former current of commerce. Most of its commercial dealings are carried on through Aleppo, but the practice of trading direct with Egypt and Europe has been increasing. The value of the principal exports in 1913 was : Almonds, &c. . . . 16,000 Butter (Egypt & interior) . 60,000 Copper (U.K. chiefly). .. 35,700 Cotton (interior) . . 15,000 Furs (Germany) . .. 10,000 Rice . . . . . 15,000 Hides, &c. . . . 39,000 Silk . 33,000 Sheep (Egypt & interior, 150,000 Timber. . . . 20,000 Wool and mohair . . 70,000 There is occasionally a large export of cereals, The chief imports are buffalo hides, calico, cotton yarn, coffee, flannelette, hardware, paper, petroleum, and sugar. In 1913 the value of the imports from the United Kingdom was much greater than that of the imports from any other country, owing chiefly to the demand for Manchester goods. Cotton weaving for local consumption was at one time a consider- able industry, but has declined, though there are still a large number of looms. Silk weaving was increasing before the war, and was estimated to furnish employment for 300 looms. Other industries are pottery, embroidery, hardware, gold and silver work, and carpet making. A few foreign insurance offices have native agents in the town, and a branch of the Ottoman Bank was opened a few years ago. Inhabitants.—The Moslem inhabitants speak Arabic, Kurdish, and Turkish. The Christians, who together before the war amounted to about one-fourth or one-third of the whole population, were Armenians, Jacobites, Chaldaeans, and Greeks. There is also a Jewish colony. The Armenians were massacred here in 1895. Administration and Authorities.—Diarbekr is the capital of a Vilayet and the seat of a vali. The garrison before the war used to be one battalion of regular infantry, one regiment of redif, and one regiment of cavalry. A corrupt and intriguing set of wealthy Moslem families had much influence in the town and the neighbourhood. The Gregorian Armenians, the Armenian Uniates, the Jacobites, Jacobite Uniates (Syrian Catholics), the Chaldaean Uniates had their bishops or archbishops. There was a French mission, and an Armenian Protestant community. There were vice-consuls of Great Britain and France. History.- Diarbekr, under its classical name Amida, was an important frontier fortress of the later Roman Empire (4th-7th E e 2 436 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS century A. D.), which long disputed it with the Persians, till the Arabs captured it in A. D. 638. Since then it has been many times besieged and captured. The Turks finally took it in the sixteenth century. Its position at the meeting of trade-routes has kept it alive, though it seems to have been for long declining until a few years before the war. In Persie Urmia $15,000... DILMAN (or Salmās). In Persia (Azarbaijan), on the Salmās plain near the NW. extremity of lake Urmia, 51 m. NNW. of the town of Urmia. Alt. 4,400 ft. Pop. estimated at 15,000. T.O. (lines to Bāsh Qal'ah in Turkish territory, to Urmia, Khoi, &c.). Routes.- (i) To Urmia. (See Route 66 a.) (ii) To Bāsh Qal'ah. (See Route 75.) (iii) To Khoi, &c. (See Route 76 a.) General Description.—The town, which has clean streets, stands on the l. bank of a stream flowing to lake Urmia. The Salmās plain is a large level area, the soil of which is too salt near the lake to be of use for anything but pasture, whereas to the W. it is highly cultivated, this part of the plain being said to contain no fewer than 66 villages. Dilman itself is surrounded by gardens. There is an old town, almost in ruins, about 4 m. W. of the present town, the site having been changed for the sake of greater security from the Kurds. The townsfolk are Persians. Dilman and the Salmās dis- trict received many Armenian and Nestorian refugees, and were the scene of much suffering in 1914-15; many villages in the district were destroyed (see under Urmia). Supplies and Commerce. - The plain, as has been stated, is partly rich land, but the bazaars of the town are poor and ill supplied. Caravans ply from Dilman to Van, Julāmerk, Tiflis, and Erzerum. Administration.—Dilman was the seat of a Persian governor, under the governor of Urmia. A Turkish consul resided here, and a Russian post was established in 1912. FARQIN (or Silwān). About 45 m. ENE. of Diarbekr. About 800 houses. T. (on the Diarbekr-Sairt-Bitlis line). Routes.--. (i) To Diarbekr. (See Route 103 a.) (ii) To Haini. An easy track except in a belt of broken country S. of Fis. DIARBEKR-DILMAN-FARQIN-JEZĪRET 437 (iii) To Lijjeh via Hazro or Fis. (See Route 104.) (iv) To Zokh, Ziyāret Wāʻiz el-Qur'āni, and Bitlis. (See Routes 103 a, 85.) (v) To Mush via Zokh. See Route 103 a for the Farqin-Zokh route. From Zokh a mule-track leads up the valley of Kulp Su by Nerjiki to Mush. (vi) To Mush via Hazro and Pasur. This also crosses the mountains by the Kulp valley. (vii) To Mardīn via Bismil. A mule-track leads to Bismil on the Tigris which could probably be made passable for all arms. For the route from Bismil to Mardīn see under Route 95 b. General Description.--The town is situated under a steep, rocky ridge which commands it from the N., while to the S. and SW. the country is undulating and open. The present town occupies only the SW. part of the area enclosed by the old walls, the rest of the space being occupied by ruins. These walls form a square about å m. on each side, with towers at intervals. They are now in a dilapidated condition, as much stone has been taken from them for building. A remarkable square tower, 100 ft. high, stands in the plain å m. outside the SE. corner of the walls. There is a good camping-ground along the Diarbekr-Bitlis chaussée (Route 103 a) which passes round to the S. of the town and does not enter it. Supplies and Commerce. The country S. and SW. of Farqin is naturally fertile, but much under-cultivated. There is no informa. tion as to supplies. Water is obtained from three large springs in the ridge to the N., the streams from which are led to the town through the walled area. Inhabitants.—The population before the war was Armenian and Kurdish, the former element being the more numerous. Administration. — Farqin is the head-quarters of a Kaza. Its Kaimmakam is under Diarbekr. JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR (Jezīreh), on the Tigris about 90 m. above Mosul. About 1,600 houses. T. (Mosul--Diarbekr line). River Routes. (i) From Diarbekr. (See Route III G.) (ii) To Mosul. (See Route III G.) Land Routes.- (i) To Mosul. (See Routes 90 a and b.) (ii) To Nisibin. (See Routes 93 a and b.) 438 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS (iii) To Midiat. (See Routes 96 a and b.) (iv) To Bitlis. (See Routes 85 and 86 a, b, c.) (v) To Van via Shattakh. (See Routes 80 and 81 a: also Routes 79 and 81 b.) (vi) To Amadiyeh. (See Routes 90 b and c.) General Description.-The town is built on the low, gravelly 'island' in the Tigris from which it derives its name. It is not, however, effectively surrounded by water except in the flood season, for at other times the longer channel, which bounds the town on N., W., and S., is practically dry, though it contains some springs. This western channel, which is said to be 150 yds. wide, has a small bridge, consisting of four spans of wood on masonry piers with a plank roadway 10 ft. wide. Before the war the eastern channel - the main arm of the Tigris—was crossed, except in the floods, by a boat-bridge 120 yds. long. This bridge consisted of 16 pontoons and had a planked roadway 16 ft. wide. It was disconnected during the floods, when the inundation spreads out to a total width of 400 yds. A ferry was then used. A depth of 15 ft. has been found in the river during June. There is an ancient stone pier on the E. bank of the island, and two miles down-stream are the remains of an old bridge called the Pir-i-Bahfit. (See Route III G, m. 1711) The island enclosed between the two channels is 700 yds. long and 500 yds. broad. The town is close-built, with narrow, dirty streets. It is surrounded by a masonry wall 15-20 ft. high, dating from the period of the Roman occupation, when the place was an important frontier fortress. Overlooking the river are the Turkish Government offices, built on part of the old wall. The Christian quarter is on the E. side of the island. Climate and Hygiene.—The site of the town is much shut in, bare hills rising on either side of the river. The climate is therefore intensely hot in summer; the place is unhealthy, and there is liability to fever. For the water-supply see below. Supplies and Commerce.—Supplies for travellers and caravans were plentiful in normal times, though in the years preceding the war the neighbourhood had suffered much from Kurdish depredations. Good fruit is to be obtained in autumn from gardens down-stream. Kurdish tribes (the principal of which seems to be the Miran) pasture their flocks and herds in the country west of Jezīret-ibn-Omar during the winter and spring. About June they assemble near the town and cross the river here on their way to the summer pastures in the mountains. In September they return. The water from the small wells in the town is much polluted : that from the river is good when filtered. JEZĪRET-IBN-OMAR-KHOI 439 Commercially, Jezīret-ibn-'Omar has been mainly important as a point of transit for caravans travelling between Mosul and Diarbekr, and as a distributive centre for goods brought down from the N. by river. Its market is much frequented by the Kurds of the neighbour- ing hills. At Kharpot, E. of Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, are coal and bitumen deposits. Inhabitants. The population is mainly Kurdish, but before the war there were a number of Christians—chiefly Chaldaeans and Jacobites or Jacobite Uniates—who were estimated at 100 households. The French Dominican Mission at Mosul had a dispensary here before the war and maintained schools in the neighbouring villages. The Miran Kurds, who dwell in the neighbourhood in winter and spring, migrating towards Van in the summer, have a bad reputation. They are said to number about 1,000 families. Administration.—Jezīret-ibn-'Omar is the head-quarters of a Kaza. Its Kaimmakam is under Diarbekr. History.The site of Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, the ancient Bezabde, has for many centuries been inhabited, its antiquity being probably due to the convenience of the river-crossing. Alexander crossed here when he was marching against the Persian army which was concen- trating near the Great Zāb before the battle of Arbela (Erbil). Later the Romans held it for some time. In recent history the town for long was held by Kurdish chiefs, who took toll of the nomads as they passed from the plains W. of the Tigris to the mountains and back again. KHOI. In Persia (Azarbaijan) to the N. of lake Urmia, and 91 m. NW. of Tabriz. Alt. 3,600 ft. Pop., including suburbs, estimated at 60,000; 12,000 houses, of which 4,000 in the town exclusive of suburbs. (Another and probably later estimate gives a population of 35,000, of which one-third lived within the town proper.) P., T.O. (lines to Dilman, Marand, &c.). Wireless station (reported 1912). Routes.- (i) To Dilman, SW., and to Gotar and Van, W. (See Route 76 a.) (ii) To Tabriz, SE., and to Kizil Dīzeh, &c., NW., part of the great caravan-route to Trebizond. (See Military Report on Persia, p. 353.) (iii) For other routes see Gazetteer of Persia, vol. ii, p. 324. 440 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS sted in a band nume The tour General Description.-Khoi is situated in a basin 16-18 m. long and 8 m. broad, watered by the Qotur Chai and numerous hill- streams. It is fertile, and contains many large villages. The town itself is walled, but outside the walls there are extensive suburbs to the W. and smaller ones to S. and E. The town walls form a quadrilateral measuring 1,100-1,200 yds. in the side; they have small circular towers or bastions at intervals of about 80 yds. The mud curtain wall is 24 ft. high. The interior wall is vertical from the ground-level to within 8 ft. of the top of the parapet, where there is a way 6 ft. wide, in part paved with burnt bricks. The parapet is loopholed, and its exterior slopes very steeply to the main ditch, which is 50 ft. broad. Beyond this ditch is a broad and massive outer line of defence, with another ditch 40 ft. broad and 15 ft. deep. The defences are in a moderate state of repair. The town is entered by five gates, one each on the N., S., and E., and two on the W., approached by wooden bridges over the ditches. The town is well laid out, with broad, regular streets, sometimes shaded by willows, and watered by channels from the Qotur Chai. There is a large walled enclosure called the Ark, containing the arsenal, official residences, &c. The arsenal store-buildings are well suited for their purpose. There are some good buildings elsewhere in the town, including several mosques, a large brick bazaar, and a fine caravanserai. The Qotur Chai is crossed by a bridge of seven arches. Supplies and Commerce.—The town is an important agricultural centre, the locality producing, under irrigation, large quantities of wheat, barley, and other grains, fodder, cotton, rice, fruits, and vegetables. Wood is scarce, but all other supplies are plentiful. There is a large transit trade, and considerable local traffic across the Turkish frontier. Inhabitants. The population is largely Turkish, but there was an Armenian quarter of some 500 houses outside the town. KILLIS. About 35 m. N. of Aleppo. Pop. 12,000 (?). T. (Aleppo Marash line). Routes, — (i) To Aleppo. (See Route 152.) (ii) To Jerablūs. (See Route 141 a.). (iii) To Birijik. (See Route 142.) (iv) To 'Aintāb and Mar'ash. (See Route 152.) KHOI-KILLIS–LIJJEH 441 (v) To Qazanali by the Savon Su valley : a rough track not passable for wheels. From Qazanali it continues to the Bāghcheh Pass. (vi) To Sheikhli by Bulbul: a rough track not passable for wheels. (vii) To Alexandretta : a chaussée. General Description.-Killis is a town of flat-roofed stone houses lying in a plain under the eastern slopes of Kurt Dāgh. There is a good stone khan in the market-place, and there are apparently several others in different parts of the town. In general, the houses are said to be not well built. The bazaars are large. Supplies.-Killis would make a good supply-centre for troops, as the neighbouring plain is very fertile and is easy to traverse in all directions except after rain. Wheat, barley, millet, sesame, cottons, fruit, and olives are grown. There is good water from wells, and a gravity supply from a hill behind the town. Vine branches are most in use for fuel, and each house keeps a small stack. In normal times a number of four-horsed covered carts (estimated at 30 in 1904) could be obtained here. Donkeys are of a good quality and numerous. Inhabitants. —The bulk of the population is Turkish. There was a large Armenian quarter to the NE. (but deportations were reported in late summer, 1915), and a few Arabs and Circassians live in a quarter on the NW. There is also apparently a certain Kurdish element. Administration.-Killis is the head-quarters of a Kaza. Its Kaim- makam is under Aleppo. LIJJEH. About 45 m. NE. of Diarbekr. About 1,000 houses. Routes.- (i) To Diarbekr. (See Route 104.) (ii) To Farqin. (See Route 106.) (iii) To the Batman Bridge. (See Route 105.) (iv) To Erzerum. (See Route 112 a.) (v) To Palu. (See Route 112 a.) The town stands surrounded with gardens and trees on the lower slopes of the Kum Dāgh, some 300 ft. above the plain level. To the S. is a level, cultivated valley some i m. wide down which runs the road to Diarbekr. To the N. the slopes of the Kum Dāgh above the town are steep and rocky, thinly covered with brushwood. Water is very plentiful. There is no information as to other supplies. The inhabitants are mainly Kurdish, but there was a considerable Armenian community. Lijjeh is the seat of a Kaimmakam. 442 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS MARASH. About 50 m. NW. of Aintāb. Pop. 50,000. P.O., T. (connexion with Aleppo via 'Aintāb and Killis, and with Albistan via Zeitun). Routes.- (i) To Aleppo via ‘Aintāb and Killis. (See Route 152.) (ii) To Birijik. (See Route 143.) (iii) To Samsat via Behisni. (See Route 147.) (iv) To Malatiyeh. (See Route 151 a.) (v) To Albistan. (See Route 152.) (vi) To Adana via Bāghcheh Pass : a good cart-track. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. iv, Route 156.) (vii) To Alexandretta via Qazanali and the Qara Su valley. The valley of the Qara Su is passable for wheels, but there is much swampy ground in it in spring. General Description.—The town lies at the foot of the Akhir Dāgh, and is intersected by the deep ravines of many watercourses, with the result that there is scarcely a level street. Towards the W. side of the town rises a large hill, with a ruined citadel. The barracks are modern, and lie towards the N. on the road leading to Zeitun. Most of the houses are surrounded by large courtyards and gardens. The climate in summer is said to be rather unhealthy owing to the neighbourhood of the marshy rice-growing plain to the S., but the high-lying ground near the town is very healthy. Supplies and Commerce.—The plain is well cultivated, producing corn and rice, while near the town are vineyards and fruit-gardens. The town would be a good centre for collecting supplies. There is excellent water from springs in the Akhir Dāgh, the most famous being the Qirq Göz spring, while the Aq Su crosses the plain a few miles to the S. There is also good grazing on the hills. Inhabitants. The town was inhabited before the war chiefly by Turks and Armenians, the latter of whom were said to form a third of the total population. Some of the poorer class were Ansarieh. The town was a missionary centre, and there was a considerable Protestant Armenian community. A massacre and deportation of Armenians was reported in the summer of 1915. There were Pro- testant and Jewish schools. Administration and Authorities.---Mar'ash is a seat of a Mutessarif in the Vilayet of Aleppo, the Sanjaq including the Kazas of Bāzārjik, Anderin, and Albistan. The garrison before the war consisted usually of two regular infantry battalions, with one battery of mountain guns, under the command of a colonel. MARʻASH-MARDĪN 443 MARDIN. On a hill at the northern edge of the Mesopotamian plain, about 35 m. WNW. of Nisibin, and about 50 m. SSE. of Diarbekr. Pop. about 30,000 (?). T. (Diarbekr-Mosul line : branch from Mardin to Midiat). Routes.- (i) To Nisibin. (See Route 94.) (ii) To Midiat. (See Routes 98 a and b.) (iii) To Diarbekr via Khāneki. (See Route 95 a.) (iv) To Diarbekr via Avineh and Qirq. (See Route 95 b.) (v) To Diarbekr via Derek. (See Route 95 c.) (vi) To Veirān Shehr via Derek. (See Route 116 a.) (vii) To Veirān Shehr via Tel Ermen or Meshqûq. (See Routes 116 b and c.) (viii) To Ras el-'Ain. (See Route 126. For Railway see p. 417.) General Description.-The town lies high up on the S. side of an almost conical hill, some 3,000-3,500 ft. high. The view from it over the Mesopotamian plain is very extensive, and it can be seen from 50 miles away to the S. A low col connects the town with the Mazi Dāgh on the W. On the N. and E. is the deep valley of the Zuwärek Chai. The summit of the hill above the town rises in an abrupt crest of precipitous rock, the top of which is a level table-land, the site of a citadel now ruinous. Below the southern side of the citadel rock the town extends along the side of the hill, some two miles in length, and m. in width, and is surrounded by a ruined wall. The houses, which are of stone and fairly solidly built, rise in terraces, one row above the other. The lowest are estimated to be at least 1,500 ft. above the plain. The streets, which are narrow and tortuous for the most part, run longitudinally. Those which ascend the slopes are very steep, generally paved in steps, with a gradient of 1 in 6. It was reported in October, 1916, that some of the streets were being widened to allow the passage of motor lorries, and road-building was in progress in the vicinity of the town. Climate. --The climate is healthy and dry: the cold in winter is not great, and little snow falls. Supplies and Commerce.-There is no definite information as to supplies, but the country in the neighbourhood is fertile, producing good crops of wheat, barley, sesame, vegetables, and also some rice. There are good orchards, and the hill slopes outside the town are covered with vineyards. Springs at various levels on the hill pro- vide a good, but not abundant, water-supply: they occasionally run short. The well-water is rather brackish. Every house has its 444 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS cistern. Local industries are not important, the most considerable being cotton- and wool-weaving. Inhabitants.-The Moslems seem to be of mixed Kurdish and Arabic blood; the Christians, who formed before the war about half the population (or perhaps more), were Armenians, Jacobites, Chal- daeans, and Protestants. Mardın is the head-quarters of the Jacobite sect, whose Patriarch (called the Patriarch of Antioch) resides at Deir Zafrān, a monastery in the valley to the E. of the town. During the war there appears to have been a general deportation of Catholics, Chaldaeans, and Protestants. There were Franciscan and Capuchin monasteries here, and an important American Protestant mission with schools for boys and girls. Kurdish, Syriac, Arabic, and to a slight extent Turkish are spoken in the town. Administration.— Mardın is the head-quarters of a Sanjaq under Diarbekr. Its garrison before the war usually consisted of a battalion of regular infantry. History.—Mardīn is the ancient Marde, an important Roman frontier fortress. Its citadel long remained famous, and about A. D. 1400 successfully resisted Timur Lang. It was for some time ruled by an independent Turkoman dynasty. MIDIAT. About 175 m. NW. of Mosul and 78 m. SE. of Diarbekr. Alt. 3,800 ft. 915 houses. T.O. Routes.- (i) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar and Mosul. (See Routes 96 a, 90 a, b.) (ii) To Hasan Kaif, on the Tigris. (See Route 99.) (iii) To Nisibin. (See Routes 97 a, b, c.) (iv) To Mardīn. (See Routes 98 a, b.) (v) To Diarbekr. (See Route 101.) This is (or was before the war) a flourishing little place. Water is obtained entirely from rain-water cisterns. Sometimes it is bought and sold in summer, and in 1901 it failed altogether and had to be brought from two villages four hours away. The crops are entirely dependent on the rainfall ; barley, wheat, millet, rice, and large quanti- ties of grapes are grown. In ordinary years the supplies produced are sufficient for the local needs, but there is not usually a surplus ; in bad years what is required is brought from Nisibin and Bisheri. The inhabitants are mainly Jacobite Christians; there are some Moslems. The town is the seat of a Kaimmakam. MARDĪN-MIDIAT-MOSUL-NISIBIN 415 MOSUL. (See vol. iii of this handbook, p. 361.) NISIBIN. On the r. bank of the Jaghjagha, about 55 m. WSW. of Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. The population has been variously estimated : it includes perhaps between 700 and 1,000 families. T. (Mosul- Diarbekr line). Routes.- (i) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. (See Routes 93 a and b.) (ii) To Feishkha bur. (See Route 90 d.) (iii) To Mosul via Tel Rumelan. (See Route 91.) (iv) To Mosul via Beled Sinjar. (See Route 92 a.) (v) To Mosul via Samukha. (See Route 92 b.) (vi) To Deir ez-Zor. (See Route 125.): (vii) To Ras el-'Ain. (See p. 23.) (viii) To Mardin. (See Route 94.) (ix) To Midiat. (See Routes 97 a, b, c.) General Description. The town is small, and stands in the plain, though not far N. of it begin undulations which run up to the foot of the neighbouring Tur 'Abdin plateau. On its S. side flows the Jaghjagha in three arms, crossed by an old stone bridge of 12 (or 9 ?) arches, which before the war was in good repair, but was apparently not passable for wheeled traffic. W. of the town is a very ancient Jacobite church, and in this direction and to the SW. are numerous mounds and a few pillars, marking the site of the ancient city, which was an important frontier fortress of the Roman Empire. The modern town consists principally of flat-roofed mud houses, though some of the buildings are of stone. The main street which runs through the place is fairly broad. The Baghdad Railway is planned to pass by Nisibin, but in the summer of 1916 the section Ras el-Ain-Nisibin had not been completed, and preference has now been given to a line Ras el-'Ain - Mardin (for Diarbekr). See p. 417. Hygiene.— There is liability to fever in summer, and the place is infested by flies and scorpions. For the water-supply see below. Supplies.—The plain in the neighbourhood of Nisibin is well watered by the Jaghjagha and its tributaries, and is naturally very fertile. Agriculture, though checked by insecurity, &c., had appa- rently been developing in the years before the war, and even in 1903 it was estimated that supplies to support a division for some time could be collected’ if the people were friendly. Wheat, barley, millet, and some rice are grown. Sheep, horses, and camels are 446 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS obtainable in the neighbourhood in considerable numbers. The nomads (particularly the Shammār) often camp in the plain of Nisibin, attracted by the comparatively abundant water-supply. In the town of Nisibin water is obtained from wells and from the rivers Jaghjagha and Khinis (the latter being a stream which flows near or possibly through the town to the north of the Jaghjagha). The water from these streams is not particularly pure at any time, and in summer it is polluted and made undrinkable by the rice. fields above the town. At that season only the well-water, which is not good, is available. Inhabitants.---About half the population is Kurdish, the rest being mainly Jewish and Christian, with a few Turks and perhaps some Tai Arabs. The cultivators of the neighbourhood seem to be mainly Tai Arabs to the S. and Kurds to the E. Administration.-Nisibin is the head-quarters of a Kaza. Its Kaim- makam is under Diarbekr. SAIRT. About 45 m. N. by W. of Jezīret-ibn-'Omar, and about 35 m. S. by W. of Bitlis. Alt. about 2,820 ft. Pop. about 10,000 to 15,000. T. (communication with Diarbekr and Bitlis). Routes. - (i) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar via the Tigris valley. (See Route 85.) (ii) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar via the Shernakh Gedik. (See Routes 84 and 80.) (iii) To Mardīn. See Route 102 b, m. 974-71, and note (3) under m. 71; Route 100. (iv) To Diarbekr via Ziyāret Wa'iz el-Qur'āni, and Zokh. (See Routes 85 and 103 a and b.) (v) To Diarbekr via Hop. (See Routes 102 a.) (vi) To Diarbekr via the Nasr ed-Din Köprü and Ridhwān. (See Route 102 b.) (vii) To Bitlis via Ziyāret Wā'iz el-Qur'āni. (See Route 85.) (vii) To Bitlis via Chemi Khān. (See Route 86 a.) (ix) To Bitlis via the Argif Köprü. (See Route 86 b.) (x) To Bitlis via Kifra and Olek. (See Route 86 c.) (xi) To Van via Mukus and Pendaganz. (See Route 87 a.) (xii) To. Van via Qara Su and Pelo. (See Route 87 b.) General Description.-Sairt is built at the SE. corner of a small plain extending 3 m. westwards to the Keser valley. The town is surrounded by vine-clad hills and large orchards. The houses are well built of stone in gypsum cement, as at Mosul, but are not kept NISIBIN-SAIRT-TEL AFAR 447 . in good repair. Most of them are two-storied. The streets are dirty, crooked, and ill-paved. There are some old mosques, a leaning minaret of brick and stone, and a castle. Supplies.-A certain amount of wheat, barley, millet, rice, and lentils are grown in the district, but the most important cultivation is that of the vine. Probably there is no great surplus of cereals beyond the amount needed for local consumption. The water- supply is from wells and from covered tanks which are cut in the rock in the hills E. of the town. It often runs short in summer. The best wells are outside the town to the N., and are walled round and covered. Another good well is at the SE. corner of the town. There are also wells in some of the courtyards of houses, but they are often contaminated and brackish. Firewood has to be brought from Shirwan and other districts to the E., as the nearer hills have been denuded of timber. Inhabitants.—There were about 9,500 Moslems and 4,500 Christians in the place some years before the war. The Christians were mostly Armenians, but included also Chaldaeans and Jacobites. A massacre of Christians was reported in May, 1915. Kurdish and Arabic are spoken. Administration and Authorities. —Sairt is the head-quarters of a Sanjaq under Bitlis. In the town and neighbourhood live several important Kurdish sheikhs, who have considerable influence-based on religion-among the Kurds. TEL AFAR. About 40 m. W. of Mosul. Alt. 1,500 ft. About 3,000 houses. Routes.- (i) To Mosul. (See Route 92 a.) (ii) To Nisibin viu Bekrān. (See Route 92 b.) (iii) To Nisibin via Beled Sinjar. (See Route 92 a.) (iv) To Deir ez-Zor. (See vol. iii, Routes 49 a, b.) General Description.—Tel A'far is unwalled and stands on both sides of a stream, the water of which is slightly sulphurous. The houses are of stone. On a plateau overlooking the town from the E. is a building formerly used as a guard-house, and on the W. side is a hill several hundred feet high, on which are the ruins of a citadel called Qalah Marwān. Supplies and Commerce.—There is cultivation to N. and S. of the town. Sufficient supplies for caravans are obtainable. 448 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS Inhabitants.-In 1906 the population had apparently been much depleted, the decline being due partly to recent attacks of the Shammār, partly to an epidemic of cholera some years previously. But a traveller who passed through the place in the winter of 1907- 1908 estimated the population at several thousands. The inhabitants are mainly Turkish, with some Kurds. The Turkish inhabitants are indistinguishable in dress and appearance from the Arab fellahin, and many of them understand Arabic. Administration. The town is the seat of a Mudir. URFEH. On the northern edge of the Harrān plain, about 55 m. N. by E. of Birijik. Pop. 40,000 (?). T. (Aleppo-Birijik-Diarbekr line). Routes.- (i) To Birijik. (See Routes 123 a and b.) (ii) To Jerablūs. No details available. The general conditions are probably very similar to those on the route to Tel Ahmar. (iii) To Tel Ahmar. (See Route 124.) (iv) To Harrān. (See Route 130.) (v) To Veirān Shehr. (See Route 118.) . (vi) To Kilik via Hovek. (See Route 122.) (vii) To Samsat. (See Route 121.) (viii) To Severek. (See Routes 120 a and b.) (For continuation to Diarbekr see Route 113.) General Description.—Urfeh stands at the NW. corner of a northern extension of the Harrān plain, which has low hills on three sides of it. This extension of the plain is enclosed by the Nimrūd Dāgh on the W., by the outliers of the Qarajeh Dāgh on the N., and by the Tektek Dāgh on the E. The town is built on two rocky hills, a southern and a northern, the ravine between which, contain: ing a small stream, runs in an easterly direction. The eastern part of the town lies on level ground. The southern hill is crowned by a ruinous citadel, some 400 yds. long and 60 yds. broad. A wall, with turrets and a ditch cut in the rock, 30 ft. wide and 40 ft. deep, sur- rounds most of the city, but it would be of little use against artillery. Outside the wall, to the N., is a new quarter. In the principal square, apparently between the hills, is the Mosque of Abraham, near which are two large stone tanks containing sacred fish. The TEL AFAR-URFEH 449 streets of the town, which are narrow and straggling, run generally E. and W., or N. and S. The houses are built of stone, and there are some good khans. Supplies and Commerce. There is much wheat grown in the well-cultivated plain S. and SE. of Urfeh, and extensive pastures are also to be found there. The town and its district would form important bases of supply. The town has a plentiful water-supply ; several strong springs rise on the northern side of the citadel hill, and feed the two tanks mentioned above. Another spring called Qara Punār lies further to the E. Springs also exist in the hilly ground N. of the town, and water is brought thence in karez. Lastly, there are numerous small springs in the plain near Urfeh to the S. Fuel is very scarce. Wood in normal times had to be brought on camels from the Tur 'Abdin country. Tezek is most in use : twigs, vine branches, and olive stumps are also employed. Kerosine was imported in considerable quantities before the war. Charcoal was very expensive. Urfeh has been a most important point of transit for commerce going from the Euphrates to Mosul or to Armenia by Diarbekr. The railway, however, now passes some 40-45 miles to the S. of it, and the branch line to Urfeh which is contemplated has apparently not been taken in hand. Inhabitants. The bulk of the population before the war seems to have been Moslem (Turkish and Kurdish). There was a large Armenian community, estimated at 7,500, and settlements of Jacobites, Jacobite Uniates, and Jews. Massacres of the Armenians, deportation, and some resistance to the deportation order, are re- ported to have taken place in August-October 1915. An American mission was the centre of a considerable Protestant community. Administration.-Urfeh is the head-quarters of a Sanjaq in the Aleppo Vilayet, and is therefore administered by a Mutessarif. A small regular garrison was maintained here before the war. History.—Urfeh is the ancient Edessa, and in the first centuries B. C. and A. D. was the capital of a small state which was a buffer between the Roman and Parthian Empires. The Roman Government annexed it in the second century A.D. and for some time it flourished as a commercial centre, as a point d'appui in the Roman frontier defences, and as a university town. In the Middle Ages it was captured by the Crusaders, and for the first half of the twelfth century was ruled by Christian counts. At present it derives some importance from its position on the ordinary Aleppo-Diarbekr trade route and from its connexion with Abraham in Moslem legends. In 1896 there was a massacre of Armenians here. MES. IV - Ff 450 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS URMIA (Urumiyeh). In Persia (Azarbaijan), 12 m. W. of the middle part of the W. shore of Lake Urmia. Alt. 4,400 ft. Pop. estimated (before the war) at 30,000-40,000. P., T.O. (terminus of a line from Tabriz via Khoi and Dilman). Wireless station. Routes.- (i) To Chiāneh, Ushnu, &c. (S.). (See Routes 60 a, c, 61 c.) (ii) To Dizeh, &c. (W.). (See Routes 61 a, b.) (iii) To Dilman, &c. (N.). (See Routes 66 a, b.) General Description. The town of Urmia is situated in the plain bordering the Lake of the same name on the W. This is a very fertile district, and the town is encircled by orchards and contains many gardens. A wall with seven gates, and a dry ditch which can be flooded, surround the town. The streets are unusually broad, and commonly have a stream of water in the centre. The town contains a citadel with arsenal and small barracks, some old mosques, and a busy bazaar. Lake Urmia is a sheet of water 80–90 m. long from N. to S., and 30-45 m. broad from E. to W., the dimensions varying greatly as between the seasons of h.w.-in spring when the snows are melting -and l.w. The shores are low and shelving, and the whole lake is very shallow, probably not exceeding 50 ft. in greatest depth. There are a large number of small islands. The water is excessively saline. Navigation is carried on by a few boats with round bows and flat sterns, of about 20 tons burden, carrying a very large square sail. Before the war insufficient use had been made of the possibilities of water-borne trade, though in 1912 a Russian company obtained a concession for navigation. Supplies and Commerce. --The district is extraordinarily fertile ; fruit, vines, rice, tobacco, cotton, melons, and many other products are raised, but the people before the war were much oppressed by extortionate officials. The mountains to the W. are said to contain zinc, lead, and silver, and also petroleum springs which are kept burning by the natives to prevent the pollution of the streams. There was a considerable export of dried fruits, and tobacco highly esteemed for smoking in chibuks (Turkish pipes). Inhabitants and History.The population consisted before the war mainly of Afshar Turks, with a number of Nestorian, Jewish, and Armenian families. Urmia has been since 1835 the head-quarters of various missions to the Nestorian Christians, including American (Presbyterian), British (Anglican), French (Lazarist), and Russian (Orthodox) missions. In 1906–1910 the Turks gradually occupied Eastern Azarbaijan from Khoi to Saj Bulāq, and as far E. as Lake Urmia, partly in order to improve their strategical position on their URMIA-USHNU 451 Russian frontier. Their occupation was accompanied by Kurdish raids. In 1911, Anglo-Russian pressure obliged them to withdraw, and a Russian force occupied the district to maintain order. The town and district and the Christian population suffered much during the war, and many villages were destroyed. In October 1914 there was an attack on Urmia by Kurds instigated by the Turks. In November the Russians expelled the Kurds and other Sunnis from villages in the neighbourhood, and their places were taken by Christians expelled from their homes by the Turks. The Russians evacuated Urmia in January 1915, and the Turks and Kurds massacred or expelled the Christians of the neighbourhood. The Christian population of the Urmia and Salmās districts was estimated before the war at 16,000-17,000 Armenians and 30,000 Syrians (Nestorian, Orthodox, or Chaldaean), but these were largely reduced by massacre and disease, while many fled northward from Urmia when the Turks were threatening it. There has been, on the other hand, an influx of Armenian refugees, and of Nestorians, especially from the Hakkiari country into Salmās; among these the mortality has been very high. The Russians reoccupied Urmia in May 1915. USHNU. In Persia (Azarbaijan), at the foot of the hills to the SW. of Lake Urmia. Alt. 4,619 ft. Pop, about 200 families. Routes. — (i) To Urmia. (See Route 60 c.) (ii) To Chiāneh. (See Route 60 c.) (iii) To Rowanduz. (See Route 61 c.) (iv) To Sulduz and Sūj Bulāq. General Description. -Ushnu is situated at the NW. extremity of the plain of Ushnu, a small district of irregular shape having the appearance of an old lake-bed, and watered by the Gadar Chai and many mountain-streams. The town stands on the lower slopes of the mountains surrounding the plain. The plain is fertile, and has extensive orchards. Inhabitants. There are some forty villages in the neighbourhood of Ushnu. The inhabitants are Zera and other Kurds. The Zeras are fine active men, and are perhaps the most warlike of the clans in- this part of Persia. They have in the past been impatient under the governance of the Afshar, from whom they differ in language, customs, and religion. Ff 2 452 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS VAN. At the SE. corner of the Lake of the same name, about 70 m. E. of Bitlis. Pop. 30,000–40,000. T. (connexion before the war with Bitlis and Diarbekr by a line along S. shore of lake: with Mush via Arjish, Akhlat, and Melasgird : with Serai : with Bash Qal'ah and Julāmerk: with Dilman and Urmia). Routes.- (i) To Bitlis via S. shore of Lake Van. (See Routes 89 a and b.) (ii) To Bitlis via N. shore of Lake Van. (See Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii, Routes 73 and 86.) Passable for wheels. (iii) To Sairt via Mukus and Pendaganz. (See Route 87 a.) (iv) To Sairt via Qarasu and Pelo. (See Route 87 b.) (v) To Shattakh. (See Routes 81 a, b.) (vi) To Amadiyeh via Marwanen and Shiv Shalıl. (See Route 79.) (vii) To Kochannes via Sekunis. (See Route 72.) (viii) To Bāsh Qal'ah via Khoshab and Chukh. (See Routes 74 a and b. For continuation to Amadiyeh and Mosul see Routes 69, 68 a and b, 67 a and b: for continuation to Dilman see Route 75 : for continuation to Dizeh and Urmia see Routes 65, 61 a and b.) (ix) To Dilman via Qotur and Khoi. (See Routes 76 a and b.) (x) For routes to Erzerum see Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii. (xi) For routes towards Russian frontier see Military Report on E.T.A., vol. ii. General Description.—The town of Van lies in a fertile plain which slopes gently up from the Lake on the W. to the foot of the Varak Dāgh on the E., a distance of about 8 m. The highest summit of the Varak Dāgh is about 4,500 ft. above the plain. From N. to S. the plain is about 5 m. broad, and on these sides it is bounded by hills of no great height, over which several easy passes lead. From this plain rise two isolated rocky masses, the citadel hill of Van, and, some 2–3 m. to ENE., the Zemzem Dāgh with its flat-topped spur the Toprak Qal'ah, which overlooks the northernmost suburb of the city. The remarkable citadel rock of Van, which rises abruptly out of the plain, is some 1,100 yds. from the lake shore. Close under its southern side lies the walled town, and E. and S. of this, again, are the extensive garden quarters which stretch eastwards for about 3. m., and southwards for about 1 m. The following description of the town refers to its condition before the war; the garden quarters were much damaged during fighting between the Armenians and Turks in April-May 1915. Various important buildings, such as the Turkish barracks and the British Consulate, appear to have been wholly or partly destroyed, and the VAN 453 suburb of Artamid to have been ruined. The walled city was bombarded from the citadel rock, but no great damage was done except to the upper stories of houses. The garden quarters, thickly planted with poplars and luxuriant undergrowth, are surrounded and intersected by mud walls 10-12 ft. high. The houses lie in clusters, which are hidden from the roads approaching the town by the trees; these groups of buildings are most numerous and important in the neighbourhood of the main avenues. The houses are generally well built with flat roofs and often of two stories. The principal avenue is that which runs eastwards from the walled town to Sikheh at the further end of the gardens. Another avenue leads from the walled town SE. to the Erekh garden-quarter. Both these roads are metalled. A fairly broad unmetalled road connects the Aq Köprü quarter, which lies to N. under the Toprak Qalah, with Erekh on the S. Elsewhere are lanes, passable for carts in parts, but in places either cut up by canals or too narrow for wheels. The canals, however, though numerous, are not serious obstacles. The vegetation of the gardens is wholly dependent on irrigation, which is carried out by means of water-cuts, or of karez. These latter are apparently often to be found under the bed of water- courses which are dry on the surface, the position of the karez being indicated by holes at intervals. The main sources of the water supply for irrigation seem to be the following: (i) The Aq Köprü Su, which flows from the N. end of the Varak Dāgh to the lake, passing between the Aq Köprü quarter on the N. and the other garden quarters on the S.; it is bridged opposite the Aq Köprü quarter, and continues through the plain N. of the citadel. (ii) The Quru Bash Chai, which flows from the S. end of the Varak Dāgh past the S. side of Erekh and then bends along the N. side of the Shemiram Alti quarter, which lies S. of the walled city. (ii) The Shemiram Su, or Shemiram canal, which brings water from the Khoshāb 19 m. away, passing by Artamid : it irrigates the Shemiram Alti quarter. The walled city of Van was formerly encircled by a double line of fortifications with a ditch and covered way. But by 1904 traces of the outer wall could be found only on the E. face, the principal feature remaining being the Tabriz Gate. On the E. and S. faces the inner wall was about 18 ft. high, 15 ft. thick, and with a banquette 10-15 ft. wide. There were semi-circular bastions at intervals, all in bad repair. Only on the E. side was the ditch a serious obstacle. On the SW. side the walls have been wholly destroyed, while on the NW. face they had been partly demolished 454 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS by 1904, the stones being removed for building purposes. The Tabriz Gate lies close under the SE. corner of the citadel rock. In the S. gate are the Serai, and (about 200 yds. further W.) the Arta Gate. At the N. end of the W. wall under the citadel rock is the Iskeleh Gate. The streets of the walled town are narrow and winding; the houses here are the Government buildings, the barracks, and the principal shops and bazaars. The citadel rock, 1,300 yds, long and 360 ft. above the plain, runs along the whole of the N. side of the walled town. The s. face of the rock overlooking the city is quite precipitous. The N. side of the hill slopes down at an angle of 45°, and is easy to climb at most points; where the rock appears on this side it is cut into steps. The ground below this slope is marshy, and a swamp fed by several small springs has filled up the old wet ditch along the N. side of the hill. There is said to be a steep stairway cut into the face of the rock on its S. side leading from the walled town up to the central citadel, but this is no longer in use. The ascents to the citadel appear to lie at the W. and E. ends of the rock. The central citadel occupies the highest part of the summit about halfway between the E. and W. ends of the rock, or slightly nearer to the W. extremity. The plateau on which it stands is about 180 yds. long by 120 yds. broad. E. and W. of this central citadel is a line of masonry walls some 25 ft. high with circular bastions at intervals. in this wall are gateways at the SE. corner, on the NW. face, and at the extreme western corner; the gates themselves have disappeared. The wall round the SE. gate is half in ruins. At the W. end of the rock is a large spring overlooked by a bastion of large stone blocks, which is now in ruins, as also is the wall which protected the spring. The central citadel is isolated from the outer walls and is entered by a gate at its NE. corner. Its walls are partly of masonry, partly of mud, built upon ancient foundations of large stones. Apparently within the central citadel is a naphtha well. In the centre of the northern face of the hill is a flanking bastion designed to bring fire along the base of the northern slope; but this bastion, and the walls connecting it with the central citadel, are now in ruins. A subterranean passage is said to lead from it to the central citadel, but is probably choked up. A mosque with a minaret is a prominent object in the centre of the citadel. A masonry magazine shows up prominently at the E. end, and other magazines are situated in rock-cut chambers a short VAN 455 way below. Barracks which before the war usually contained 200 men are also situated in the citadel. Climate.—The climate is said to be very cold in winter and hot in summer. The town is malarious and unhealthy in autumn. Slight earthquakes are frequent, and serious shocks sometimes occur. Supplies.—The plain of Van is well cultivated with corn, vege. tables, and fruits. There is no further information as to supplies. Besides the bazaars in the walled town there are others in the more important garden quarters. The largest of these is at Erekh. The principal exports from the Vilayet of Van are dye-stuffs, furs, sheep and goats and their products, silver work, tobacco, and walnut logs, but the unsettled state of the country and indifferent communications were against commercial development even before the war, and trade was small. For drinking-water the walled town is supplied from 4 copious springs, besides the one already mentioned at the W. end of the rock ; but the water from these is not very good. In the gardens the principal supply is from the karez (see above), being obtained from their mouths or from the holes at intervals of their course. The best are at the E. end of the gardens, where water can be obtained without contamination from houses. Elsewhere all the karez are more or less contaminated. The Shemiram canal-water contains sulphate and carbonate of lime, but it is drunk by the poorer people. The water in the Qurubash Chai above Qurubash village is good ; so also is that in the Quru Chai above the gardens. In the border hills are numerous springs. The water of the lake, which is impregnated with carbonate and sulphate of soda, is undrinkable. Petroleum is reported near Korzot, but has not yet been exploited. Inhabitants. - In 1899 it was estimated that about two-thirds of the population were Christians (Armenians) and one-third Moslem. In 1914 the Moslems were estimated at 10,000, the Christians at 25,000. The Moslems are principally Kurds, but there are a few influential Turkish families. The Armenian population left the town when it was evacuated by the Russians early in August 1915. Many Armenian villages in the neighbourhood were sacked by the Turks, and the inhabitants fled or were massacred. The Government officials and the merchants lived in the garden quarter, and went every day to their offices or shops in the walled city. Before the war there was a very flourishing American Mission and Orphan School for Armenians at the E. end of the gardens. There was also a French Dominican Mission with schools for Armenians. 456 GAZETTEER OF TOWNS Administration.—Van before the war was the capital of the Vilayet of the same name, which included the sanjaqs of Van and Bash Qal'ah. The town was administered by the Vali with the usual nominal municipal council'. The Turkish garrison usually con- sisted of about 5 battalions of infantry, 2 squadrons of cavalry, and 2 mountain-batteries. There were British, Russian, and French vice-consuls. VEIRĀN SHEHR. About 50 m. ENE. of Urfeh and about 45 m. W. of Mardin. Pop. 4,000-5,000 (?). Routes. (i) To Mardin. (See Routes 116 a, b, c.) (ii) To Diarbekr. (See Routes 117 a, b, c.) (iii) To Severek. (See Route 119.) (iv) To Urfeh. (See Route 118.) (v) To Ras el-'Ain. (See Route 128.) Veirān Shehr is a small town in a plain enclosed on N., W., and E. by low rocky hills. To the S. the country is open to Ras el-'Ain. The modern settlement is built among the ruins of an older city, from which it derives its name. During the first years of the present century the prosperity of the town and the neighbourhood increased considerably under the rule of the late Ibrāhīm Pasha, the leader of he Kurdish Milli tribes, who had here the centre of his power. ultivation spread in the fertile plain near the town, and Kurdish and Christian villages sprang up here. The place was plundered by Turks and Arabs after Ibrāhīm Pasha's death in 1908, and many of the inhabitants were murdered. A certain quantity of supplies might be collected here, but there is no definite information on the subject. Good water is to be had from springs and wells. The inhabitants are mainly Kurds; there are also a few Circassians, and some Syrian Christians (traders). ZAKHO. About 60 m. NNW. of Mosul, and about 30 m. ESE. of Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. Pop. between 2,500 and 4,000. Routes,- (i) To Mosul. (See Route 90 a.) (ii) To Feishkhabur. (See Route 90 c.) (iii) To Jezīret-ibn-'Omar. (See Route 90 a.) BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE AND LIST OF MAPS (A) Official Publications. Gazetteer of Persia, ii, Simla, 1914. Military Report on Arabia, 1904. Military Report on Eastern Turkey in Asia, ii, iii, iv, 1904. Report on the Baghdad Railway, 1914. Routes in Arabia, Simla, 1915. Routes in Persia, ii, 1909. Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan, Simla, 1913. Dobbs, Report on Navigation of the Euphrates from Biri jik to Feluja, 1913. Lorimer, Report on a Tour in Turkish Arabia and Kurdistan, 1913. Unprinted reports. (B) Unofficial Publications. Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, &c., Ainsworth, London, 1812. Bachmann, in Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ix, 1914. Banse, in Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie, xxxiv, XXXV, 1912, 1913. Amurath to Amurath, Miss G. Bell, London, 1911. * Au Kurdistan et Mesopotamie, H. Binder, 1887. * Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan, Mrs. Bishop, London, 1891. Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien, M. Blanckenhorn, Berlin, 1890. *Routes in Central Asia, Boyes, 1877. * Arménie, Kurdistan, &c., Cholet, Paris, 1892. *B. Dickson, in Geographical Journal, xxxv, 1910. Forbes, in Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc., ix, 1839. Telegraph and Travel, Goldsmid, London, 1874. W. Hinrichs, in Petermanns Mitteilungen, lx, i, 1914. Accidents of an Antiquary's Life, D. G. Hogarth, London, 1910. Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien, Humann and Puchstein, Berlin, 1890. *Nineveh, Layard, London, 1849. *Nineveh and Babylon, Layard, London, 1853. * Les Missions Catholiques, i, 1906. * Armenia, H. F. Lynch, London, 1901. *F. R. Maunsell in Geographical Journal, iii, 1894. *Wild Life among the Kurds, Millingen, London, 1870. Briefe über Zustände und Begebenheiten in der Türkei aus den Jahren 1835 bis 1839, Helmuth von Moltke, Berlin, 1876. * Du Caucase au Golfe Persique, le Kurdistan, &c., Müller, Simonis, and Hivernat, Paris, 1892. 460 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE AND LIST OF MAPS Handbook to Asia Minor, Murray, London, 1907. Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, Oppenheim, Berlin, 1899-1900. *Highlands of Asiatic Turkey, Earl Percy, London, 1901. C. Preussen, in Wissensch. Veröff. der deutschen Orient. Gesellschaft, 1911. * Kourdistan, C. J. Rich, 1836. *On the Outskirts of Empire in Asia, Lord Ronaldshay, London, 1904. Syrien und Mesopotamien, Sachau, Leipzig, 1883. Am Euphrat und Tigris, Sachau, Leipzig, 1900. Archäologische Reise im Euphrat- und Tigris-Gebiet, Sarre and Herzfeld, 1911. J, H. Smith, in Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam. Dar-ul-Islam, Sykes, London, 1904. *Sykes, in Geographical Journal, xxx, 1907. Caliph's Last Heritage, Sykes, London, 1915. Taylor, in Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc., xxxv, 1865, and xxxviii, 1868. *Von Handel-Mazzetti, in Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie, xxxiii, 1911. * Letters from Assyria, Wigram, 1911. *Cradle of Mankind, Wigram, 1914. Uuprinted notes and correspondence. * These works deal with the area covered by the section of Routes in Central Kurdistan, and (with others) have been consulted in compiling that section. See note on p. 69. (C) Maps. Eastern Turkey in Asia Series. Scale 1: 250,000. Issued by the War Office. Maps prepared for Turco-Persian Boundary Commission, 1914. MS. maps, various. Map in Petermanns Mitteilungen, x (Černik). Maps in unofficial works given above. Of these the most important are : Map in Blanckenhorn's Reisen in Kleinasien. Map in Petermanns Mitteilungen, lx, i, 1914 (Hinrichs). Maps in Humann and Puchstein's Reise. Map in Oppenheim's Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf. Maps in Sachau's Syrien und Mesopotamien. Maps in Sarre and Herzfeld's Archäologische Reise. Maps in works by Sykes quoted above. TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH NAMES An attempt has been made in the Handbook to transliterate Arabic, Persian, and Turkish names upon a uniform system, which is explained in detail in the following paragraphs. The aim has been to assist the reader in their correct pronunciation, without overburdening the text with a large number of dia- critical marks. It will be noted that a long accent is used to mark the length of a vowel above which it is placed (ā, i, o, a); the only other symbols employed are' for the consonant 'Ain, and ’ for the Hamzah, or cutting off of the breath which can precede or follow a vowel. Conventional spellings have been retained when sanctioned by general usage ; a list of examples, with their correct equivalents, is given on p. 468. TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES 463 4. (i) · (Dhammah) = u or o according to pronunciation, e.g. Jubb, Hodeideh. (ii) ,-(Dhammah + wau) =ū or o according to pronunciation, e.g. Shush, Khör. III. Diphthongs 5. ^ (Fet-hah+wau) = a, e. g. Haurũ. 6. ģ = (Fet-hah + double wau) = aww, e.go Fawwāreh. 7. - (Fet-hah +ye) = ei or ai according to pronunciation, e.g. Sheikh, 'Ain. 8. (Fet-hah + double ye) = eyy or ayy according to pronun- ciation, e.g. Feyyādh, 'Ayyād. IV. Remarks 9. Teshdid (~) is represented by doubling the English con- sonant over which it stands, e.g. Mohammed, Jinn. 10. In the Definite Article (JI), spelled as usually pronounced el, the usual assimilation of the l is made before dentals, sibilants, and l, r, n; e.g. Süq esh-Shuyūkh, Harün er-Rashid. 11. A Hyphen is used only in the following cases :- (1) After the Definite Article. (2) Between the following consonants when they belong to different syllables, s-h, d-h, t-h, k-h, z-h, to prevent confusion with the single consonants sh, dh, th, kh, zh ; e.g. Is-hāq. 12. Final ö (the feminine ending) = eh or ah (et or at before a vowel), e.g. Meskeneh, Qalah, Birket esh-Shuyūkh. 13. Finaläm=iyeh (iyet before a vowel), e.g. Zāwiyeh, Zāwiyct. Final = īyeh (iyet before a vowel), e.g. Näsirīyeh. 464 TRANSLITERATION OF ARABIC NAMES V. Compound Words . 14. The two components in a compound name (in the absence of the izāfat or Ji between them) are written with a capital and without a hyphen connecting them, e.g. Bandar ‘Abbās, Hayūt Dā’ūd. 15. When, however, the second member of the compound is a verbal root or is inseparably connected with the first, the whole has been treated as one word whether written in vernacular as one word or two, e. g. Imāmzādeh, Sabzabād. 16. Words which have become Europeanized are left in that form, e.g. Mecca (for Makkah), Basra (for al-Basrah), Medina (for al-Medinah). 17. The Arabic article Jl prefixed to names has been omitted in English, except in cases where its retention is authorized by general usage. 18. The word ibn occurring in the name of a person is written without a hyphen before or after it, e. g. Yusuf ibn Ibrāhim. II PERSIAN I. Consonants 19. The same as for Arabic, plus : j=z 1 we=z y = zhorg [ y = y or w [ A II. Vowels 20. The same as for Arabic. TRANSLITERATION OF PERSIAN NAMES 465 III. Diphthongs 21. The same as for Arabic. IV. Remarks 22. “Izāfat' is transliterated by. ¿ with a hyphen before and after, e.g. Koh-i-Siyah. 23. Final he (s) is transliterated only when pronounced, e.g. shāh, deh. III TURKISH 24. The same as for Arabic, plus: Modified vowels ö, ü. 25. A few Turkish words where two vowels come together, as in Bair, are written with a Hamza, e.g. Ba'ir. 26. In Turkish a half audible y sound is introduced between k and following vowel. IV (a) CONSONANTS LETTER LETTER NAME TRANSLITERATION Final Final Medial Initial Arabic Persian, Turkish alif b . . CE :( :( - - J. Jos be ре