<>QBHYFIELD HALL LIBRARYW 5G Fd-- - THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS I LIBRARY I From the collection of Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918} . 95-6.? FBGm Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. University of Illinois Library 1:: "'3 “r1 {\3 U3 or: C, c :1 .\ SJ Pr‘r‘ - ' rvr I; A k) Kirk v 1‘) é~~ " U‘H‘; \ lL-JU r. if “ii ‘a {‘1‘ '4 k! ‘vv; '17 ,1:- ; - < u I L161—H4l i a“). v >". “F lulllllllll. . I- \I_\ III _; 0“ __- -\._ ‘1 HI. Bl». NIIINUU- OLIVER 6: BOYD, EDINBURGH. MESOPOTAMIA ASSYRIA, EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME ; ¢ 1; “HT?! ILLUSTRATIONS OF THEIR NATURAL HISTORY. BY J. BAILLIE FRASER, ESQ., Author of “ An Historical and Descriptive Account of Persia," &c. “WITH A MAP, AND ENGRAVINGB BY JACKSON- EDINBURGH: OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT; AND SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & 00., LONDON. MDchxLII. m“ ENTERED IN STATIONERS’ HALL. Printed by Oliver 6: Boyd, Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. ;AF’ 2 s/Vez/ PREFACE. IN the work now presented to the public, the Author has endeavoured to bring under one view all that is known of the history and aspect, moral, physical, and political, of the provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria; and to give at the same time a sketch of the causes that have produced the revolutions of which they have been the theatre. The subject is extensive and complicated ; and the difficulty of comp'ressing the matter which it embraces into one volume was proportionally great. That all which might have been done towards the at- tainment of this object has really been effected, is more than the Author ventures to assert; but he can safely affirm, that no pains have been spared in collecting the most suitable materials to be found in the writings of others, as well as in applying such as have been fur- nished by his own acquaintance with those interesting countries. In point of fact, little original matter can be expected, unless we were to recover some of the lost works of the ancients, or to succeed in deciphering those inscriptions in the cuneiform character, which have hitherto baffled the researches of the learned. Late discoveries indeed seemed to afford some reasonable hope of success; but it must now be admitted that, though several ingenious conjectures have been made, and some plausible specu- lations have been hazarded, no accession has been obtained 46762." 6 names. to our knowledge of facts. The subject in general, there- fore, remains as dark and uncertain as before. Nearly all that can be said or known respecting the history, chronology, religion, and manners of these primeval empires will be found collected in the “ Uni- versal Ancient History,” a work of very great learning and research; but those who desire to apply to the original sources of information may, in addition to the sacred Scriptures of the Old Testament, consult the works of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Arrian, Xeno- phon, Plutarch, and such others as are usually cited by writers on this subject. Cory’s “ Ancient Frag- ments” will supply the English reader with what re- mains of the works of Berosus, Abydenus, Apollodorus, and Alexander Polyhistor. Hyde, Bryant, Jackson, Hales, Usher, and Newton may be referred to for chron- ology. Sir William Drummond, Faber, Bochart, and Beke, will afford food enough for those who delight in ingenious speculations; while Prideaux and Russell will show what can be done to connect profane with sacred history. For light to guide him in geographical description, the inquirer must have recourse to the works of Ptolemy, of Strabo, and of Cellarius, together with the minor geographies of Hudson and Isidore of Charax; to Abulfeda and Ibn Haukul among the Mohammedans; while for comparative geography, his main help will be found in D'Anville, Rennell, and Vincent. Williams, in his Geographical Memoir, has presented some learned disquisitions; and the researches of Rich, himself a man of classical learning as well as a judicious ob- server, are of the highest value. The works of Heeren treat of every branch of the ancient history of these regions; and though we may not agree in all his con- clusions, they are entitled to respect as the opinions of a laborious and acute inquirer into Oriental antiquities. Our information regarding what may be termed the middle ages of those countries,—-that is, from the de- struction of Babylon by Darius down to the Moham~ ~FA~// ‘_'_ , -1— ,, V PREFACE. 7 medan era,—is greatly more extensive and complete than that which we possess respecting their remoter history. Those who are anxious for a more intimate acquaintance with the events of this period, will find ample materials in the pages of the Universal History, and in the more eloquent chapters of Gibbon. In all that relates to the history and condition of the Christian population in those provinces, and of the various sects that have successively sprung up or still continue to exist, the best authority is Assemani, whose Oriental Dictionary is a mine of invaluable information on such subjects. Mosheim and other church historians may likewise be consulted, as also Bingham, the author of “ Origines Ecclesiasticae,” though these all draw chiefly from Assemani. Of the condition of Modern Mesopotamia—that is, from the Mohammedan conquest to the present time,— notices are to be found in the works of various tra- vellers, from Raonf and Benjamin of Tudela down- wards. But less is known of Assyria, which new con- stitutes a portion of the Turkish empire; and there is 110 general account of the present state of the two pro- vinces, although much valuable information is to be gathered from the works of Niebuhr, Olivier, Rich, Buckingham, Porter, and Rousseau. These materials, together with what the Author has been enabled to glean from other sources, as well as from his own ob- servations, form the basis of this portion of the present Work ; and he must here take occasion to express his obligations to Colonel Taylor, Political Resident at Bag- dad, to whom he has been indebted, not only for the valuable manuscript journal of the late Mr Elliot, but for much important information on matters connected With the statistics of the country, as well as with the manners of the people. Much still remains to be done in both provinces; for there are many districts of which as yet little or nothing is known. The labours of modern travellers are, how- ever, daily throwing light on their antiquities, natural _A_;-.< a . s.» -_ 8 PREFACE. history, and geography : And when the works of Colonel Chesney, Major Rawlinson, and others, shall have been given to the public, and Mr Ainsworth and his col- leagues shall have completed the expedition they have undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Geograph- ical Society, the secrets of some of the most interest- ing districts in Upper Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, especially those of Sinjar, Hatteras, and Mount J ewar, will, it is expected, be laid fully open to the European world. In the mean time, as every source of informa- tion, both private and public, has been made use of in combination with the Author’s personal knowledge of the country, it is hoped that the geographical account which has been given will be found at once entirely accurate, and as particular, too, as the limits of such a work will permit. In this description may be included the characteristic details of manners and customs of the Arab and Kurdish tribes, which, derived chiefly from actual observation, have been confirmed by various per- sons, whose opinions, from their opportunities of j udging, are entitled to the highest credit. _ The sketch of the natural history of these provinces has likewise been drawn up with an anxious desire to afford a summary of whatever valuable information has been collected upon the subject. Of the decorations of this volume the Author has only to observe, that they are all engraved from drawings made by himself upon the spot; and that he can vouch at least for their accuracy, nothing having been added to the original sketch except the particular effect which was deemed appropriate to the subject. The utmost care has been bestowed on the construc- tion of the Map, which will be found to contain all the additions made by recent travellers to our geographical knowledge of the interesting country which occupies the basin of the Tigris and Euphrates. May 1841. - CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION or MESOPOTAMIA an sssrnu. High Claims of these Countries on our Regard—Interest at- tached to their early History—Inquiry checked by Scanti- ness of authentic Records—Little known of the Origin of either the Assyrian er Babylonian Empire, and their inti- mate Connexion with each other—Definition of “ Assyria” according to the Greek Historians—The Jewish Writers- Boundaries—Mesopotamia—Limits defined—Divisions of Assyria according to Ptolemy—Strabo—D’Anville—Mesopo- tamia according to Strabo—Modern Divisions of both Pro- vinces—Inhabitants—Tribes—Arabs, and their Locations— Kurds—Habits—Face of the Country—Mountains—Rivers —-Euphrates—Its Course—Scener and Places along its Banks—Periods of Rise and Fall_-T e Tigris and Tributaries _Its Course—Shut el Arab—Khabour an Hermas—Greater and Lesser Zab—Diala—System of artificial Irrigation— Nature of the ancient Canals—Names of those on Record- The Pallacopas—The Nahrawan and Dijeil-Modern Canals —Marshes of Babylonia—Waasut—The Shut el Hye-Chal- dean Marshes and Marshes of Susiana,................. Page 17 CHAPTER II. msronr or rm: sssrmm nomncar. Uncertainty of the Chronology of these Periods -Necessity of adoptin some consistent S stem of Notation—Errors of Usher, oyd, and Others— iscrepancy of Opinion between various Authors—Mode of Notation adopted-Sources of In- formation-Sacred Writ—Greek Historians—Herodotus— Ctesias—Commencement of the Assyrian Empire according to each-Syncellus and Polyhistor—Beke’s “ Origines Bib- licae”_Scriptural Account—Listslof Kings of both Mon- archies to the Fall of Babylon—Claims of Ctesias to Credit discussed—O inions divided—His Account of the Assyrian Monarch — inus—Semiramis—Ninyas,&c.—Thonos Con- colerus— is Identity with Sardanapalus—Errors of Ctesias— Histo of the Monarchy according to Scri ture and Ptole- my’s anon—Asshnr Founder of it—Pul— iglath-Pileser— Shalmaneser—Sennacherib-Esarhaddon, su osed to bathe warlike Sardanapalus-Saosducheus, &c.- arious ConJec- tures—Nabuchodonosor—Fall of Nineveh—And of the Assyl- rian Empire, ........................ .. ...... . .......... . .................. 4 18 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Mesopotamia and Assyria, if not actually the cradle of mankind, were, at all events, the theatre on which the descendants of Noah performed their first conspicuous part. The plains of Shinar witnessed not only the defeat of that presumptuous enterprise, which scattered them abroad upon the face of the earth ; but also the exploits of the “ Mighty Hunter,” and the triumph of his ambi- tion in the establishment of the first monarchy recorded either by sacred or profane writers. On the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris did the two greatest cities of the ancient world rise into magni- ficence ;—Nineveh, which repented in sackcloth and ashes at the preaching of Jonah, and Babylon, “ the glory of kingdoms,” which, elevated by the proud Nebuchad- nezzar to the height of splendour, listened to his impious boastings, and saw his deep humiliation. There did Daniel prophesy, and expound the mysterious warnings of the Most High; and there did Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego experience the signal protection of that Almighty Power whom they feared and obeyed. By the capture, too, of that superb metropolis was the word of prophecy fulfilled, and the rule of the great Cyrus—an instrument in the divine hand—consolidated over Asia; and on the field of Arbela was that splendid empire in its turn overthrown by the rising power of the Macedonian conqueror, who, after his brilliant career, returned to the capital of Assyria to end his days. In like manner have the plains of Mesopotamia home witness to the catastrophe of Cunaxa, and the gallant bearing of the indomitable ten thousand ;—seen the de- feat and death of Crassus ; the retreat of Mark Antony; the fall of the apostate Julian; the disgraceful peace of his successor; and the changing fortunes of the bold Heraclius. Events so various and important must invest the countries where they occurred with a deep interest ; and that portion of them in particular which has reference to the early postdiluvian ages cannot fail to excite the curiosity of those who delight in marking the moral pro- MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA- gress of the human race. But all hope of tracing clearly the events of their early history is checked by the scanti- ness of means ; for, while the annals of more recent times are illustrated by numerous records, the glimpses of light shed from authentic sources upon the remote period to which our views are new directed, serve only to show that, at a very uncertain era after the universal deluge, a monarchy was founded on the Euphrates by Nimrod, the son of Cush, which rose into considerable importance ; and that, at some subsequent period, it was overthrown by a neighbouring power, the seat of which was on the banks of the Tigris. Mesopotamia and Assyria have from the most ancient times been so intimately connected both geographically and politically, that they will be most clearly described inconjunction with each other. Herodotus, Strabo, and others, use the latter appellation, as including both, in conjunction with certain other provinces; and Heeren adverts to this fact when he observes that the Greek historians apply the term generally to several m0- mrchies which flourished in the regions about the Tigris and Euphrates previous to the reign of Cyrus. The Jewish writers, on the other hand, use it to express a distinct nation of conquerors, and the founders of an empire, having the seat of government at Nineveh, and which flourished between the years 800 and 700 B. c.* Hence, to define the limits of Assyria, according to the ideas of ancient historians, would be impossible, because, like those of all eastern sovereignties, they varied with the fortune of every chief who held the sceptrc. But, viewing both countries merely in the light of geogra- phical divisions of Asia, it will not be difficult to indicate their boundaries. Loosely speaking, Assyria may be considered as termi- nated on the west by the course of the Tigris, on the north by Armenia, on the north-east and east by Mount ' Manual of Ancient Geography, by A. H. L. Heeren. Ox- ford, 1829, 8vo, pp. 25, 26. 20 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Zagros and the Gordyaean range, and on the south-east by the province of Susiana or Kuzistan. Mesopotamia may be more strictly defined, as em- braced by the Tigris and the Euphrates, except on the north, where it meets the mountains of Armenia. But it will be proper to specify more exactly the various regions which are to pass under our review. If a line were drawn from Arghana Madan by Erzen to Sert, along the crest of the intervening heights, and from thence carried behind Amadieh along the tops of Aiagha Dag or Zagros, including Solymaneah and Zohab, till it should reach the pass of Kerrend, and extended again by a course comprehending Mendali, to a point upon the Tigris somewhat below Ctesiphon,—such a line, taken in conjunction with that river from its source to the point where they meet, will circumscribe pretty accurately the ancient Assyria. Again, if the same line were continued westward to Malatia on the Euphrates, the boundary of Mesopotamia would from thence be indicated, as alread observed, by the course of that river; but as both ban s are compre- hended in the basin, and may physically as well as poli- tically be regarded as connected with each other, we shall include in our description all places of importance on the one as well as on the other. By Ptolemy, Assyria is divided from north-west to south-east, into the provinces of Arrapachitis, Adiabene (which is sometimes used to designate the whole coun- try), Arbelitis, Calachene, Apolloniatis and Sittaeene. Aturia or Atyria, Artacene, Chalonitis, and Corduene, are also mentioned by others; but there are no means of distinctly ascertaining their respective boundaries. Strabo describes it as conterminous with Persia and Susiana, and as comprehending Babylonia and a consid- erable portion of the surrounding district, the countries of the Elymmans, Parmtacenians, and Chalonitis towards Mount Zagros; the plains in the environs of Nineveh, namely, Dolomenia, Calachenia, Chazenia, and Adia- bcne; the valleys of the Gordyreans, and the Mygdonians nusoromnu AND assrnra. 21 of Nisibis even to Zeugma* of the Euphrates; and the vast region beyond the river inhabited by the Arabs, to the Cilicians, Phoenicians and Libyans, and the portion of the coast comprehending the Sea of Egypt and the Gulf of Issus.'l‘ Herodotus remarks that Babylon and the other parts of Assyria formed the ninth satrapy 0f Darius ; and as by that historian Syria. is considered as included in Assyria, this government, in his estimation, must have extended from the Mediterranean to the head of the Persian Gulf, and from Mount Taurus to the Arabian desert“: D’Anville assigns to both countries nearly the same limits which we have given them, and describes Meso- potamia as a region between rivers—the Aram Naha- raim of the Pentateuch,§ and called “ ul J ezeerah,” or the Island, by the Arabs." By Strabo, Mesopotamia is declared to be bounded on the north by Taurus, which Separates it from Armenia ; that it is largest near the mountains, where, between Thapsacus, at the passage of the Euphrates, and the point where Alexander crossed the Tigris, it is 2400 stadia broad ; while between Babylon and Seleucia, the space separating the rivers does not exceed 200 stadia. He states that the Mygdonians inhabit the part near the Euphrates and the two Zeugmas, that they possess the city of Nisibis, called also Antiocha Mygdonia, at the foot of Mount Masius, that of Tigranocerta, the districts of Carrhes and Nicephorium, Chordiraza, and Sinnaca; that near the Tigris among the mountains is the country * Or the Bridge, or place for passing the river, the site of the present Roumkala. + Strabo, cur-a Casauboni. Amst, 1763, folio, lib. xvi. p. l 070. I Herodotus, cure Wesselingii. Amst., 1763, folio, lib. iii. . 245. p § Beke, in his Origines Biblicee, disputes this opinion, and conceives, upon grounds which he sets forth, that “ Aram Naharaim” of the Pentateuch is to be sought in the land of Damascus, watered by the rivers Pha ar and Abana. ll Géographie Ancienne, par M. D’ nville, 3 tomes, 12mo. Paris, 1768, tome 1i. p. 190. 22 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF of the Gordyieans, called by the ancients Carduchi, where also are found the Cossaeans, the Parietacenians and the Elymaeans; and that the southern portions of Mesopo- tamia are inhabited by the Scenite Arabs, a nomade people, who live by plunder, and change their abodes when pasture and booty fail.* It would be very diflicnlt to assign to these several divisions a place in modern maps. The northern part of Mesopotamia to the foot of Mount Masius is certainly the Mygdonia of the Greeks, including Nisibin and Aljezira. To the west and stretching southward lies the district of Osroene, including the ancient Edessa, Charrze and Nicephorium; Circesium (now Karkisia), at the junction of the Khabour with the Euphrates, is rather the name applied to a city than a country; and, excepting the towns upon the river’s bank, there ap-, pears to have been no place of consequence between Khabour and Babylonia proper: indeed, the tract must have always been in great measure a desert. These limits extended from the Median wall which joined the two rivers, and included all the space between them, which no doubt was subdivided into many districts, the names of which have not reached our time. The lower part of this province obtained the designation of Chaldea, because, after the capture of Babylon, many of the in- habitants retired thither, carrying with them their arts and sciences ; but this colony must be carefully distin- guished from the true and ancient Chaldea, the birth- place of Terah and Abraham,-—the mother-country of the wise men, and doubtless of the race that ruled both there and in Nineveh. Returning to the northern limits of Assyria, We find the districts of Carduchia and Corduene, in the moun- tains between Sert and Julamerik; Arbelitis, of which the capital was Arbela, in [the low lands; the plains of Dolomenia and Calachene spread around Mosul; the G'Ol'dyIBBIlS, Elymaeans, and Parietacenians occupied the * Strabo, lib. xvi. p. 1082. MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA. 23 valleys of the Gordyzean mountains, at whose foot to- wards Kirkook stretch the plains of Adiabene, Apollo- niatis the present Shahraban, and Chalonitis, which last appears to have been the south-eastern district, border- ing on Louristan and Susiana. Such, perhaps, according to our present knowledge of the ancient divisions of these provinces, is the nearest adaptation of them to modern maps. We have now to consider the modern divisions of the countries we have undertaken to describe. The pasha- lie of Bagdad is at present a dependency of the Turkish empire, and governed by a pasha sent from Constanti- nople. It is arranged into the following districts :— Mardin Khanekin, a pasha. governed by a wai- wodeh. Nisibin, . Mosul by a pasha, nominated by the Porte, but subject to the Pasha of Bagdad. Arbel, a beg. Kirkook, a mussellim. Khoee, till lately subject to the Kmen gf R'evlvgtndoozl.1 ewy anJia , a pas a. Solymaneah, a pasha. Dour, a. zabit. Tecreet, a beg. Samieh, a zabit. Zohab, a pasha. Mendeli, a zabit. Janan, -—. Bagdad,residence of the pasha. Bussora, a mussellim. Sook el Shiook, a sheik. Semava, a sheik. Khezail, a sheik. Lemlum, a sheik. Nejefl‘, a mootwullee. Kerbela, a mootwullee. Hillah, a. beg. J ubbeh, a. beg. Hit, a beg. Anah a beg. Rahaba, a. eg. To this enumeration must be added the towns on the right bank of the Euphrates, above Rahaba, most of which are included in the pashalic of Aleppo, and have been already adverted to. These, with the districts of Diarbekir, Orfa, J ezirah ul Omar, Sert, Amadieh, Accra, and some others among the Kurdish mountains, will complete the detail of our limits in so far as territory is concerned. But besides the fixed inhabitants who form the agricultural population, and the dwellers in the towns, there are a vast number of wandering tribes, both Arabs and Kurds, who roam over its surface, paying little regard to any government whatever. The whole country from Mardin to Karkisia, following the line of the Kha- 24 GENERAL DESCRIPTION or hour and Hermes rivers, has of late been overrun by the J erbah tribe, who, attracted some years ago from Arabia, by the hopes of better pasture, took possession of that part of the Jezirah. The vicinity of Bagdad is in the same manner infested by the tribe of Delaim, aided by the J ubboor. From Semava to Hillah the country is swampy, in consequence of the Euphrates having long since broken its embankments. This tract, including what are known as the Lemlum marshes, is held by the Khezail Arabs, who cultivate the ground, and feed large flocks of buf- faloes, on which they subsist. Above Hit the whole western bank of the river, and the country beyond it, is in the posSession of numerous petty clans, who in their turn are domineered over by the Aneiza, a very powerful tribe who range the Desert from the vicinity of Aleppo to an unknown extent inwards, suffering no one to pass without their permission. On the eastern side of the Tigris, the Chaab Arabs hold possession of the low country of Susiana from the river Kerkha to the sea ; while north-west of that river, the Beni Lam exercise sovereignty until they are met by the Feilee tribes of Louristan, who feed their flocks and pillage travellers to the very neighbourhood of Mendali. From thence, northward to the boundary of Assyria, between the Gordyaaan mountains and the Tigris, the country swarms with various classes of rob- bers, who by their ravages check every attempt at im- provement which the inhabitants might otherwise be induced to make. Owing to these causes, as well as from the influence of a bad government, Mesopotamia and Assyria, which comprise in their extent some of the richest land in the world, are reduced almost to an unproductive desert. The face of this extensive country, stretching nearly 800 miles from north-west to south-east by a medium breadth of 200, exhibits great variety of soil, climate, and appearance. Thus the whole of Irak or Babylonia may be described as a rich alluvial flat, varied by marshy MESOPOTAMIA AND ABSYRIA- tracts and a few sandy stripes. Again, the lower part of Mesopotamia degenerates from a loamy deposite into a hard gravel; while the higher districts of Diarbekir, Sert, Jezirah u1 Omar, Amadieh, and Solymaneah con- sist of little else than a mass of mountains intersected by fertile valleys. These ridges rise to a still greater height in the neighbourhood of J ulamerik, and Mount Jewar is said to ascend at least 15,000 feet; on the other hand, the plains of Arbela and Nineveh, of Kir- kook, Tooz Khoormattee and Kufri, though in some places scorched, are yet occasionally very productive. In like manner, while the low country is parched with the intense heat of summer, the eye may be regaled by the sight of a snowy ridge hanging like a cloud in the air; and when the inhabitants of Bagdad are panting in their sirdabs, or cellars under ground, whither they retire to avoid the rays of the sun, the traveller who is crossing the mountains of Kurdistan is glad to draw his cloak tightly about him, to protect his person from the cold blasts that descend from the ice-covered peaks. Thus, too, the date-tree yields its luscious fruit in per- fection in the plains of Babylonia, while only the hardier fruits of northern climes can be matured in the orchards of the Kurdish highlanders. The mountain-ranges of Sinjar, of Masius, and the Hamrines are among the principal ones of Upper Meso- potamia. The exact extent and direction of the first is not well known; but it is connected, as we gather from Mr Ainsworth, on the north-east with a series of low rounded eminences called the Babel hills, which appear to cross the Tigris below J ezirah ibn Omar to the south of Zaco. Mount Masius runs in a westerly direction from the Tigris to the parallel of Nisibin, when, turning towards the north-at Dara, it again assumes its former line, over- looking throughout its course a very level plain. North- Ward from this boundary the country consists of high table-lands, intersected by ridges of rocky mountains, Which are branches of Taurus, under the names of Ka- 26 GENERAL DESCRIPTION or rahjah Dag, Ali Dag, Madan, Mahrab, and Kalaat Dag. The two last are peaks of that range which divides the eastern Euphrates and the Tigris,—the sources of the latter river being situated in its southern face, near the Arghana mines. Both provinces have been by nature blamed with the means of almost unlimited fertility in the abundant streams which water them, though this benefit has been differently distributed in each. In Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia the rivers and mountain-streams are nu- merous; and there is no want either of rain or snow to assist in bringing the crops to maturity. On the other hand, in Lower Mesopotamia and Babylonia, produc— tiveness must depend on the industry and judgment with which the inhabitants dispense the ample supplies af- forded by the Tigris and Euphrates, and take advantage of their periodical inundations. From Erzingan (eight caravan days’ journey from Erzeroum), Colonel Chesney remarks* that the Eu- phrates may be described as a river of the first order, struggling in an exceedingly tortuous course through numerous obstacles ; and though forming frequent rapids, is still so shallow that, during the autumn, loaded camels can in some places pass it. Its velocity is from two to four miles an hour, according to season and localities. It is navigable for large boats or rather rafts of 120 tons, from Erzingan probably, and certainly from Malatia, downwardth‘ This was the case in the days of Hero- dotus; and the produce of Armenia might still be carried as far as Hillah, as it then was to Babylon. ' In his Report contained in the parliamentary papers on the Euphrates Expedition. + This seems doubtful, as Mr Brant, British consul at Eru- roum, who crossed the river (there still called the Morad) on his way from Kharput to Malatia, at a place called E22 0 100, considerably below the latter, aflirms that from that p ace, for fort -five miles downwards it bursts through the great chain 0 Taurus, and forms sue a succession of rapids, and runs in so rock a channel, that no rafts or boats attempt to pass. Below t at space, he says, it becomes and continues to e navigable. nssororama AND ASSYRIA. 27 The upper part of the river brought to the recollec- tion of the colonel and his party the scenery of the Rhine below Schauifhausen, being enclosed between two parallel ranges of hills, and having its banks covered, for the most part thickly, with brushwood and timber of moderate size, with a succession of long narrow islands in its bed, on some of which are considerable towns. There are also numerous villages on either side, chiefly inhabited by Arabs, among whom the Weljee or Welda, and the Bohabour tribes appear to be the principal. From Bir downwards to Hit, the stream is much in- terrupted with shallows and fords, where camels pass with ease ; and between Races. and Anah, a distance of about 170 miles, the bed is particularly rocky. On the whole, the scenery is described as possessing a very picturesque character, not a little heightened by the frequent occurrence of ancient aqueducts formed of mason-work, coming boldly up to the water’s edge, and which, owing to the frequent windings of the. river, appear in every possible variety of position. These celebrated structures will hereafter be more particularly delineated. About ten miles below Hit, the hills almost entirely cease; there is little brushwood and few trees on the banks, and the ancient aqueducts give place to the com- mon wheel or water skins, raised by bullocks with ropes drawn over pulleys. The river Winds less, and instead of rocks and pebbles, the bed is now formed of sand or mud, while the current is duller and deeper than before. As far as Hillah almost the only habitations to be seen are the black hair-tents of the Bedouins, rising among patches of cultivation and clusters of date-trees. Approaching the latter place, canals for irrigation become more frequent; and near the remains of ancient Baby- lon two streams called the Nil proceed from the river, one above and the other below the principal ruin, and form a lake which fertilizes much land. For thirty miles below Hillah the banks are covered with mud villages embedded in date-trees, to which suc- 28 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ceed huts built neatly of reeds, with earthen forts or castles to protect the crops. Further down, near Lem- lum, the land being flat is easily irrigated; and here the river divides itself into several streams, the two lower of which encircle a considerable island, and in the season of flood overflow the country on either side to the ex- tent of sixty miles. The moment that the waters recede, which happens in June, the whole of this tract is covered with crops of rice and other grain, and dotted with reed. cottages. These last, when suffered to remain too long, are frequently surprised by the rising inundation; and it is no uncommon thing to see persons on foot or in their canoes following their floating village in order to arrest the materials. Not many years ago, the whole town was thus swept away; yet the inhabitants con- stantly rebuild their dwellings in the same spot. In passing through these marshes, the river, which from Bir to Hillah preserves a breadth varying from 300 to 450 yards, is contracted occasionally to fifty, with a depth of from six to nine feet, and a very winding course. But at Saloa castle, tWenty miles below Lem- lum, it again augments in size, and the lake on the right bank disappears. ' But the eastern bank continues still low and marshy, and the country requires to be protected by bunds or dams, which, however, often break when the waters rise, and much damage is occasioned. The stream, neverthe- less, maintains a breadth varying from 200 to 400 yards as far as Korna, where it forms a junction with the Tigris; and from this point the united river is from 500 to 800 yards in breadth, and three to five fathoms deep. A slight increase takes place in the Euphrates in January; but the grand fiood does not commence till about the 27th March; and it attains its height about the 20th of May, after which it falls pretty rapidly till June, when the rice and grain crops are sown in the marshes. The decrease then proceeds gradually until the middle of November, when the stream is at its low- mnsororama AND assvms. 29 est. The rise of the water at Anah in ordinary seasons is from ten to twelve feet ; though it occasionally amounts to eighteen, entering the town, and overflowing much of the bank. At its greatest height it runs with a velocity exceeding five miles an hour, but after a de- crease of twenty days there is a corresponding diminu- tion of rapidity, insomuch that beats can track against the current. The course of the Euphrates from Bir to Bussora has been estimated by Colonel Chesney at 1143 miles, and from Bir upwards by the eastern branch to its source near Malasgird, is about 500 more, making an aggregate of fully 1600 miles. The Tigris takes its rise in that branch of Taurus where the'mines of Arghana are situated, and whence the waters flow to this river on the south, and to the Morad on the north. Bursting through the eastern part of Mount Masius, from which it receives many small tributaries, it is joined at Osmankeuy by a con~ siderable stream called by Kinneir the Batman Su, by the Turks Bulespena or Barema. Another large supply is afi'orded by the Erzen, which is said to take its rise in Susan, a district north-west of Betlis, probably in the range of Mount Niphates. It was sixty yards broad where crossed by the author now named, and reached his horse’s knees. The next feeder is the Betlischai, which falls into it somewhere above Jezirah ul Omar, and was found by him to be eighty yards broad and not fordable. He erroneously takes it for the Khabour, which, rising in the district of Amadieh, unites with the Heizel, and falls into the Tigris below Zaco. Passing the ruins of Ctesiphon and Seleucia, the Tigris holds its course through a deep alluvial soil and marshy land. Its banks, like those of the Euphrates, are thickly sprinkled with heaps and mounds, the vestiges of former habitations, with Arab tents or huts, and some con- siderable villages, among which the chief is Koote ul Amara, giving its name to the river as far as Korna. At this latter place the two great streams unite ; form- 30 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ing, as has been seen, the Shut el Arab, though Abulfeda calls it still the Digleh or Tigris all the way to the sea. Among the rivers of importance which have their rise in Mesopotamia are the Khabour (ancient Chaboras), and the Hermes or Huali, which unite before they fall into the Euphrates at Karkisia. Of these the first has its source partly in the springs of Ras ul Ain, and partly at a greater distance in the north-west; the second originates in Mount Masius, and flows by Nisibin and Sinjar to lose itself in the other. The greater Zab is formed of many streams which flow from the Kurdish mountains. It is joined about twenty-five miles from its confluence with the Tigris by the Gomel, the ancient Bumadus, which has its rise north of Accra. The lesser Zab, too, derives its waters from various sources. One large branch from Lahijan in Kurdistan, called the Ak-su, runs by Sardasht, and, joined by another stream from the vicinity of Banna, unites with that which passes through the Keuy Sanjiak valley, above Altun Kupri. The rest, though consider- able, are less known. The Diala issues from the Koh Saugur between Hama- den and Kermanshah, from whence, bursting through a pass of the Shahu mountains and receiving many tributaries in its course, it forces its way through the remarkable defile of Darnah, where there are still the ruins of a town and castle. From thence, receiving an accession at Gundar, it enters the singular plain of Sem- iram, by a tremendous gorge, and assumes a south-west- erly course until it unites with the Hulwan river near Khanekin. Previous to this it is called the Shirwan, from an ancient city of that name, past the ruins of which it flows ; but after its junction it assumes the appellation of the Diala, which it retains till it falls into the Tigris a little below Bagdad. Having thus described the principal rivers of these countries, it will be proper also to give some idea of the system of artificial irrigation which was so essential to the prosperity of the alluvial districts. masoronmm AND assvnm. 31 The fertility of Babylonia has been the theme of all ancient writers. Herodotus remarks, that this pro- vince and the rest of Assyria were by Darius consti- tuted the ninth satrapy of his empire, and that it con- tributed a full third part of the reVenues of the state. This great productiveness did not arise from the soil in its natural state, for at this day it produces little be- sides a scanty sprinkling of tamarisks, thorns, or sal- sugineous plants. It was effected by the wisdom of a judicious monarch, who, aiding the efforts of an indus- trious people, supplied the. means of irrigation from the periodical floods of the Euphrates and Tigris. The same historian, Diodorus, and others, inform us of great hydraulic operations being conducted by several sove- reigns of Babylon ; and of these the magnificent system of canals by which the flat surface of the land was divided into sections, all within reach of the water, was no doubt the most important. The traveller in pass- ing over the face of the country, now almost a desert, meets every where with vestiges which prove how com- pletely traversed it once was by such arteries of fructi- fication. It is remarkable, too, that all these canals, instead of having been sunk in the earth like those of the present day, were entirely constructed on the sur- face ; a fact which proves not only the superior skill of the engineers of antiquity, but the infinitely greater at- tention to agriculture paid in those times by farmers or peasantry. By what means the water was raised to fill these conduits, does not in every case appear ; whether by dikes thrown across the river, or by depressing its bed at the point of derivation. The former expedient was certainly adopted in many instances on the Athem, 0n the Diala, on the Tigris above Samarra, and on the Euphrates near Hit. But it must be recollected that the country contiguous to both rivers and the Euphrates in particular; was protected by embankments from the periodical rise of their streams, a measure which, by confining the water, raised it so as to fill these canals. In this manner they served the double purpose of vents, 32 GENERAL nascmr'nos or for drawing off the dangerous superabundance of the fluid and collecting it for the beneficial purpose of irri~ gation. The principal canals mentioned by ancient geogra- phers are the Nahr-raga, the Nahr Sares, the F luvius Regius, the Kutha, and the Pallacopas. The first of these, which, according to Pliny, has its origin at Sippara or Hippara, appears to occupy the place of the Nahr Isa, which, derived from the Euphrates at Dehmah near Anbar, joined the Tigris in the western part of that city. The Nahr Sares of Ptolemy is by D’Anville considered as identical with the Nahr Sarsar of Abulfeda, who describes it as rising below the former, as passing through the level country between Bagdad and Cufa, and joining the Tigris betWeen Bagdad and Madayn. Mr Ains- worth says “ this corresponds to the present Ziinber_ aniyah,” and remarks that Animianus Marcellinus notices a canal between Macepracta and Perisabor on the Nahr Malikah, which must be the Sarsar.* The Fluvius Regius of Ptolemy is undoubtedly the Nahr Malikah 0f the Arabian geographers, which, ac- cording to Ammianus, was drawn from Perisaboras on the Euphrates, and is said by Abulfeda to have joined the Tigris below Madayn. It was one of the most ancient as Well as most important of these works in Babylonia, being attributed by tradition to Cush and to Nimrod king of Babel; while Abydenus, with more probability, attributes it to Nebuchadnezzar. We are told that about seven miles below the Nahr Malikah a. second canal was derived from the Euphrates, which traversed the country nearly parallel with the others and like them emptied itself into the Tigris. In its course it passed the old city of Kutha, supposed to have derived its name from Cush the father of Nim- rod, whose posterity possessed the landxi‘ * Researches in Ass ia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, by Wil- liam Ainsworth, F.G. ., &c. 8v0. London 1838, p. 163-165. 1' Mr Ainsworth (Researches, p. 166) thinlis that this town of Kutha may be represented by the ruins and mounds of the MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA- These are the four canals supposed to have been pmd by the army of Cyrus the younger, after the battle of Cunaxa, on their way to Sittace ; and from the posi- tion of these works, a. good idea may be obtained of the method of irrigation in those days. The country was intersected by them at intervals of six or eight miles, and could thus be watered throughout its whole extent by smaller ones derived from the principal conduits. But besides these larger channels, there were many of inferior size, constructed to supply particular towns and districts, each quarter of Babylon itself being provided with water in that manner. The numerous dry beds still to be seen in all directions, prove the extent to which the system was carried. Nearly twenty-two miles below the point of derivation of the Kutha canal, as we are told by the same geogra- pher, the Frat divided itself into two streams, the more southern of which passes beyond Cufa into the marshes of Roomyah. The other and larger branch flows op- posite the Kasr ibn Hobeirah, and bears the name of the Nahr Soora.* The former branch of the Euphrates here spoken of is, we believe, the same that new forms the lake called the sea. of Nejefi', and which sweeps round till it joins the marshes of Roomyah. It is probable that hence was derived the great canal of Pallacopas, which appears to have been executed in the very early days of the Babyloan monarchy, and intended perhaps as much to promote agriculture by means of irrigation, as to drain a mass of waters injurious to health and improvement. We learn from Arrian that much expense was in- curred by the governors of Babylon in restraining an Towebah, which b some are considered as the northern quarter of ancient abylon. * Mr Ainsworth (Researches, p. 171, 172) calls it Nah: Sarah or Sares, and from thence (iiaduces its identity with the Nahr Saree of Ptolem ; but we believe it was called Nahr Soora from the name 0 a town in its vicinity. B 34 GENERAL nEscRIPrmN or over-abundant flow through the Pallacopas into the fenny districts; and that therefore Alexander, willing to do the Assyrians a benefit, resolved to dam up that entrance from the Euphrates. He proposed that a cut should be made about thirty furlongs from the mouth of the canal, where the soil was rocky, being satisfied that much water would be thereby saved, and its dis- tribution better regulated.* From the first part of this account we should be led to think that the ancient canal had its commencement, at least, in what Abulfeda terms the southern branch of the Euphrates, as through this the water reached the marshes. From the second it would appear as if Alex- ander had pursued his intention of effectually damming up the overflow of the river in the old bed of the canal, and made a fresh opening at the distance of thirty fur- longs in firmer ground. The circumstance of his down the Euphrates to the mouth of the Pallacopas, and through that canal to the place where he built the town now called Meshed Ali, would lead to the supposition that the new cut must have been about the parallel of Cufa or Dewannieh. That the Pallacopas was continued to the sea, into which it emptied itself somewhere about Teredon, is certain, although its channel is now nearly obliterated; for both Colonel Chesney and Lieutenant Ormsby, in journeying westward from Bussora, found its bed between Zobeir and the J ibel Sanam, which is the site of ancient Teredon. The last-named of these gentlemen found that it was sixty paces broad; and his guide told him that in travelling along 'its channel all the way from Khor Abdullah (the supposed ancient mouth of the Euphrates) to Hillah, mounds, with the usual vestiges of old buildings, are frequently met with on its banks. In the days of Abulfeda, however, the Pallacopas was no longer in operation, and the waters seem to have escaped by their old vent into the marshes, _ * Arriani Historia, cura Gronovii. Lugd. Bat., 1704, folio, hb. p. 302. MESOPOTAMIA AND assvam. 35 the work of Alexander having probably given way. Of late, the higher portion of the Babylonian fens re- ceived a great augmentation from the damage done to the embankmeuts of the river in the memorable inun- dation of 1830. For many years previous to that time, the Montefic Arabs had farmed the whole western side of the Euphrates from the Pasha of Bagdad at a certain sum, and upon condition of maintaining in good order the huds which prevented it from overflowing the coun- try from Sook el Shiook to Hit. In that year these embankments were swept away, and have not since been replaced, so that the river, when in flood, has a free passage into the Balir e Nejefi“. These were the principal canals derived from the Eu- phrates in this quarter. No doubt there were many others in the level districts of Mesopotamia, but they are less known; and it is highly probable that the alluvial territory between the Hye, the Tigris, and the Euphrates, was equally well supplied with such means of irrigation. In like manner, the districts about Bussora bear marks of having been anciently supplied with con- duits, though most of the names are now lost. The waters of the Tigris have also been made subser- vient to the purposes of agriculture by means of various canals; and two of these merit especial mention. The first was the Nahrawan, the most magnificent, indeed, of all similar works achieved by the ancient kings of Babylon. Its sources were threefold. The first, issuing from the river at the point where it cuts the Hamrine hills, ran distant from the parent stream about six or seven miles towards the ancient town of Samarra, where it was joined by the second conduit. This last, leaving the Tigris at a place called Guntree Rissassee, fell into the other, which then received the name of Nahrawan, and the united current ran nearly south-south-east towards the Athem, absorbing first the superfluous waters of the Nahr But, then the Athem itself, next, the Nahr Raa- than, and finally, a third cut from the river at Gaim. Hence it proceeded generally at the distance of from 36 GENERAL DESCRIPTION or six to twelve miles from the course of the Tigris, as it flowed in those days, but approaching it at Bagdad ; a little after which it crossed the Diala, exhausting its con. tents, which were raised to a proper level by a bund. In like manner, this gigantic aqueduct stretched 0n- wards till, entering Kuzistan, it absorbed all the streams from the Lour and Buckharee mountains ; and at length joined the Kerkha, or, as some say, was lost in the marshes of that part of Susiana. In its long course of nearly 400 miles this canal, which equalled the Tigris in size, being from 250 to 400 feet broad, fertilized a vast district of country, sending ofi" numerous branches on both sides, and one, in parti- cular, to Jarjarya, not far from Koote ul Amara. On its margin are found ruins of various buildings, and on either bank the sites of towns and cities which once derived wealth from the commerce or agriculture it encouraged, and which with it have sunk into ruin. Much of the marsh now existing in the line of its course has been formed by the waters it formerly directed to useful purposes; and those of the Diala, in particular, have forced a passage to the Tigris below Bagdad, converting much land, once carefully cultivated, into a swampy waste. Second to the Nahrawan, but also of great importance, is the Dijeil canal, which issued from the right bank of the Tigris some miles below Samarra. It flows paral- lel to that river to within twenty-five miles of Bagdad, and even now fertilizes a large extent of territory, which, however, is at present in the hands of the J erbah Arabs. The following canals are still in operation, and exhibit a melancholy contrast with the magnificent catalogue of antiquity :— 1. The Boogharaib, deriving its waters from the Eu- phrates below Felugia, joins the marshes of Bagdad. 2. The Massoodee, drawn from a swamp fed from the Euphrates, and falls into the Tigris two hours below the former. 38 GENERAL DESCRIPTION or The Marshes of that district must here also claim a few words. The first to be noticed is the great tract already alluded to which lies near Hillah, and is seen stretching out like a vast sea. These swamps are fed by the Euphrates at the season of its great rise, the embankments which restrained its waters having been destroyed. They communicate with the Roomyah and Lemlum marshes, through which the river winds, but probably also send a considerable portion of their fluid down the ancient Pallacopas, and to an unknown distance into the Arabian desert. The Lemlum themselves are the next in succession southward, though connected with the former, and con- stituting part of the Paludes Babyloniw, in which many of the galleys of Alexander lost their way when they accompanied him on his voyage. These marshes, ac- cording to Colonel Chesney, occupy a space of sixty miles in breadth, and rather more in length. A consi~ derable portion of them, however, is cultivated by Khe- zail Arabs. Mr Ainsworth says that there is but a narrow band of soil between them and the Tigris; but in this he is mistaken, as actual observation has proved that they extend rather towards the Hye than to that river. The next fenny tract is the one that surrounds the ruins ofWorkha,c0nsidered by Mr Ainsworth and Colonel Taylor to be the district of Chaldca proper ; and which, doubtless, is connected with the marshes of Lemlum. Of its extent there exists no accurate information, as the nature of the country renders travelling there extremely difficult. Communicating with this watery land by creeks or ditches, if not by a continuity of swampy ground, is the valley of the B00 je Heirat and Shut el Hye. This valley appears once to have been the bed of the Tigris itself, for Abulfeda distinctly says that Waasut was in- tersected by the Digleh, which was spanned by a bridge of boats. This city, the ancient Cascara, and the seat of one of the bishops of early Christianity, was once popu- MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA. lous, rich, well cultivated, and flourishing. The industry of the inhabitants restrained with proper embankments the over-abundance of the waters with which it was surrounded; but when wars and troubles arose these were either neglected or destroyed, and the populous province accordingly returned to a state of nature, and became a country of lakes and morasses. Mr Ainsworth considers this Waasut to be the seat of the ancient Cybatc, and adopts the opinion that the Nahrawan which appears in the valley is the same which originates at Samarra on the Tigris. Probably some of the lakes described by Abulfeda represented in his day the Chaldean one of Pliny, which, according to the English traveller, lay beyond the former course of the Tigris and Nahrawan, and was no doubt connected with it. The whole country east of the Hyc is indeed of a very low and marshy character; “ while the dry land on the banks of the Euphrates stretches beyond the Shut el Hye, protected by the date-plantations, the rampart- enclosed reed huts, and the more stable habitations of the Montefic Arabs from Kut (Koote), by Sook el Shiook to 011111 e1 Bak, the ‘ mother of mosquitoes ;’ the inland country to the east and to the west in the parallel of the ‘ Sheik’s Market-town’ becomes al- ready occupied by an almost perpetual inundation; and at Omu e1 Bak the waters spread from the banks of the river in every direction like a great lake, extend- ing to the extreme verge of the horizon, and only here and there interrupted by groves of date-trees and occasional huts islanded in the desert of waters. On the ascent of the steamer Euphrates in the latter end of October, and the descent of the same vessel in the be- ginning of November 1836, the extent of this great in- undation had undergone very little diminution from what it had been in the month of June, nearly at the period of the great fioods.”* But few particulars are known of the former extent of the several lakes or * Ainsworth’s Researches, pp. 128, 129. 40 GENERAL DESCRIPTION, &c. morasses which are separated by slips of higher land where the Beni Rulfeyah and other Arabs pitch their tents. At the end of this Chaldean lake, Pliny places Ampe, which Mr Ainsworth is disposed to think is now represented by Korna, at the junction of the two rivers. D’Anville, however, considers this town as identical with Ptolemy’s Apamea, and the Digla of Pliny. On the other side of the present bed of the Tigris are found the marshes of Susiana, which, if the river formerly ran through the valley of the Hye, must have been continuous with the Chaldean lake, or only separated by the low territory of the Messina of Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo, and others. Indeed, the whole country of Susiana which lies on the left bank of the current appears to be little more than one succession of morasses. HISTORY OF THE ASSYRXAN MONARCHY. CHAPTER II. History of the Assyrian Monarchy. Uncertainty of the Chronology of these Periods—Necessity of adopting some consistent System of Notation—Errors of Usher, Lloyd, and others-Discrepancy of Opinion between various Authors-Mode of Notation adopted-Sources of In- formation-Sacred Writ—Greek Historians-Herodotus— Ctesias—Commenoement of the Assyrian Empire according to each—Syncellus and Polyhistor—Beke’s “ Origines Bib- 1ic:e”—Scriptural Account—Lists of Kings of both Mon- archies to the Fall of Babylon-Claims of Ctesias to Credit discussed—Opinions divided—His Account of the Assyrian Monarchy—Ninus—Semiramis— Ninyas, &0.-—Th01108 Con- colerus—His Identity with Sardanapalus—Errors of Ctesias— History of the Monarchy according to Scripture and Ptole- my’s Canon—Asshur Founder of it—Pul—Tiglath-pileser— Shalmaneser—Sennacherib -Esarhaddon, supposed to be the warlike Sardanapalus—Saosducheus, &c.—Various Conjec- tures—Nabuchodonosor—Fall of Nineveh—And of the Assy- rian Empire. HAVING thus given a description of the boundaries, divi- sions, and general aspect of the countries hereafter to be more minutely delineated, we shall endeavour, as suc- cinctlyas possible, to sketch the history of the monarchies of which, from the earliest times, they were the seat. This is a task of no ordinary difficulty, for so obscure is the chronology of those remote periods, and perplex- ing are the names and actions attributed by various writers to individuals who are said to have flourished during them, that in spite of the numerous attempts I to connect the detached notices on the subject, it still 42 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY- remains not a little dark and confused. As an instance of this, and of the discrepancy which prevails among chro- nologists on some of the most important epochs, it may be mentioned that Dr Hales, in his learned work, recites upwards of 120 several opinions in reference to the in- terval which e1apscd between the creation of the world and the birth of our Saviour, and the extremes are removed from each other by no less than 3268 years. A difference of 1142 years occurs, in like manner, among authors in fixing the era of the Deluge; they disagree also to the extent of 300 years regarding the time of the fall of Nineveh ; and a like diversity prevails upon the date of the Exode of the Jews from Egypt. An attempt to reconcile the various systems that have produced such discordant opinions, would be but an idle waste of time, and unsuited to a work of this nature, which professes rather to give results than to enter into laboured disquieitions. It is proposed only to state the issue of the most successful investigations on the subject of the ancient Babylonish and Assyrian monarchies. But in order to succeed even in this, some system of chronology must be adopted, and we shall shortly explain the nature of that which has been preferred. It is generally known that the scheme of Usher, Lloyd, and others, which furnishes the marginal dates in the authorized version of the Scriptures, and was adopted in the eighth century in place of the more ancient notation of the Septuagint, is now held to be altogether erroneous. The era of creation, according to that account, is only 4004 years anterior to the birth of Christ. The following are considered as among the highest authorities on this subject :— 5555 5481 5402 4698 The Septuagint ............................................ Josephus, according to various anthors.......... HISTORY or run ASSYRIAN MONARCHY- 43 Eusebius . . . . ...... Jackson... Dr Russell, who, in his “ Connection of Sacred and Profane History,”* has examined this subject with great assiduity and learning, and who has consulted not only the writings of Jewish and Pagan historians, and of the early fathers, but also the works of the most dis- tinguished modern chronologists, inclines to fix this im- portant point in the year B. c. 5441, which being nearly a mean of the best authorities, We will venture to adopt as that by which to determine such dates as admit of precise notation. On the same grounds, he places the era of the Deluge in . . B. c. 3185 Or after the Creation . . 2256 Making, till the era of redemption . 5441 Assuming, therefore, this point as established, we shall proceed to the history of those early ages so far as there are grounds on which to base our narrative. The principal sources of information are, first, the Scriptures of the Old Testament; and, secondly, the writings of several Greek historians who have treated of those times. Of these last, the two most important are, Herodo- tus, who lived about the year B. c. 430, contemporary with Nehemiah and Malachi, and who himself visited Babylon and saw its condition only a hundred years after it was taken by Cyrus. The other is Ctesias, a physician of Cnidos, who, accompanying Cyrus the younger in that quality on his expedition against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, was taken prisoner at the battle of Cunaxa, B. c. 399; and resided at the court of that monarch seventeen years. From the writings of these two historians it will be found that all subSequent annalists and geographers, ’-‘ Vol. i., Preliminary Dissertation; and vol. ii. chap. i. 44 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. including Diodorus and Strabo, have chiefly drawn their materials; and it is these original elements multiplied and often distorted by the theories and conjectures of numerous commentators, that supply all the information we really possess regarding those early and obscure periods in the history of man. The authors of the “ Universal History,” a work of deep erudition and research, incline to reject almost en- tirely the testimony of Ctesias, whose long list of kings, with its mixture of Greek,Egyptian, Persian, and Median names, seems to destroy the pretensions of its compiler to veracity; while they attach much credit to the ac- counts of Herodotus, as agreeing far better than those of other historians with the chronology of sacred writ and the few insulated facts that can be brought to bear upon the subject. According to their computation, after this historian, the Assyrian monarchy commenced 1236 B. c. and continued 520 years.* Dr Russell, in his very elaborate examination of the question, for which we must refer our readers to the work itself (vol. ii. chap i), comes to the conclusion that the account of Ctesias is by no means to be alto- gether rejected ; and the result of his inquiry is to place ' the origin of the Assyrian empire in the year B. c. 2126, or after the Flood . . . 1059 3185 which with the assumed period from the Creation to the Flood of . . . 2256 makes, up to the birth of Christ, . 5441 And he observes that this comes to within one year of the date fixed by Ctesias for the commencement of his catalogue of the Assyrian monarchs, the accession of Ninus being placed in the year B. c. 2127. Proceeding with his retrospect, and quoting from the ' Ancient Universal History, (We. Lond. 1747-1754, vol. iv. 11. 264-270. msroar or run ASSYRIAN nomacnr. 45 Chronographia of Syncellus of the Chaldean kings who succeeded Nimrod at Babylon, Dr Russell carries back the commencement of that monarch’s reign, or the ori- gin of the first Babylonish monarchy, to the year 601, or 619 after the Deluge, that is, to B. c. 2566—the difference between the two former sums arising from an equiva- lent difierence assigned to the duration of certain reigns, according to Syncellus and Alexander Polyhistor. A third dynasty has been added to these by Moses of Chorene, an Armenian historian, who quotes from Aby- denus, a compiler of Chaldean records ; but he inclines to reject this as being quite unknown to the two former authors. It is to be obserVed that these three later and Chris- tian writers are the only ones who have touched upon this portion of Babylonian history; all others commenc- ing their labours only where sacred writ terminates its short but invaluable notices upon this dark era. This fact has been prominently set forward by Mr Beke in his laborious and interesting work of “ Origines Biblicae,” in which he examines with great ingenuity every thing which has been presented to us on these important points in the sacred volume, and rejects al- most entirely all other evidence upon the subject as fabulous and unsatisfactory. It must, in fact, be confessed that with regard to the earliest period of the Babylonian annals we have no other source of information worthy of any credit besides the Bible; and all which we learn there is the bare fact that, at a certain time, Nimrod, a son or descendant of Cush, attained to great power, and founded a kingdom, “ the beginning of which was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh in the land of Shinar.”* In the same manner, the whole which we are told regarding the foundation of an Assyrian kingdom is, that at some period, equally undetermined, “ out of that land [of Shiner] went forth Asshur, and builded ' Gen. x. 10. 46 ms'ronv OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah.”* It is true, that the proper reading of this passage has been much disputed ; for many authorities, both English and German, con- tend that its true meaning is, that Nimrod went forth as a conqueror into the land of Asshur, and builded Nineveh and the other towns. In either case, Asshnr must have preceded Nimrod, as we find the country already called by his name ; and further down we are informed that he was a son or descendant of Shem. Of the kingdom of Babylon we hear no more from Scripture history till the days of Merodaeh Baladan, B. c. 721, who revolted from the Assyrians and wrote to King Hezekiah ; while the first mention of an Assyrian monarch is in the year B. c. 821, when Jonah was sent to one in Nineveh, who by some is supposed to be iden_ tical with the Arbaces of Ctesias. Considering as we do the sacred volume as containing the only undoubted source of information on this subject, down to the era of Nabonassar B. c. 747, when the Canon of Ptolemy, founded on astronomical observation, com- mences (Nabonassar having himsdf destroyed all records of antecedent kings and dynasties), it would still be im- proper in a work of this sort to pass over entirely the testimony of historians who have written from such sources as were open to them, and which, amongst a great mass of error and fable, unquestionably contains some facts which may be reconciled with those that pro- ceed from less doubtful sources. We shall therefore give a succinct account of the origin of the two monarchies, as it appears in the most accredited histories; and in order to assist the reader in comprehending the chrono- logy of the period, we have framed the accompanying table, upon the data already referred to, showing the dynasties, names of kings, periods of their respective reigns, and the year of their accession before the Chris- tian era, from the rise of the Babylonian power under * Gen. x. 11, 12. HISTORY or THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 47 Nimrod, and that of Assyria under Asshur, down to the extinction of both by the arms of the renowned Cyrus in the year B. c. 536. BABYLON. CHALDEAN KINGS. B. C. . Y . Nimrod, 619 years after the'Deluge founds a kingdom in the land of Shinar, and reigned 6 ...... 2566 Chomasbolus ........................................... 7i; .. . .2560 waseww ~ Arum KINGS. Mardocentes deposes Zinzirus in And re: e ......................... serve r E 6" a t: F“ Nabonnebus. . 55 > Deposed and slain by Ninus in. .............................. 2126 ASSYRIA. Asshur, period unknown, went out from Shinar and built Nineveh and other cities. No account of his successors till the time of Ninus. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. ASSYBIAN KINGS ACCORDING TO CTESIAS. Years. B. c. 1. Ninus, conquered Babylon in ............................ 2126 Reigned ...................... ....52 2. Semiramis". 42 ...... 2074 3. Ninyas ..... 38 ...... 2032 4. Aldus... ....30......l994 5. Aralius ................ ....40 ...... 1964 6. Xerxes or Baleeus. .30 ...... 1924 7. Armanithres ........ 38 ...... 1894 8. Beloohus........ ....35 ...... 1857 9. Balaeus. ................................................ 52 ...... 1821 48 HISTORY OF THE ASBYRIAN MONARCHY. Years. ac. 10. Sethos, Altadas ...................................... 35 ll. Mamythus ............... 12. Ascahus or Mascaleus.. . 13. S haerus .................. ' 14. amvlus ..... 15. Sparthaeus.... 16. Ascatades.... 17. Amyntes ...... l8. Beloehus II .............. 19. Baletores or Baletaras . 20. Lamprides ............... 21. Sosares ..... 2'2. Lampares. 23. Panyas ..... 24. Sosarmus . 25. Mithrzeus .............. 26. Teutamus or Tautan .. 27. Teutasus.................. 28. Thineus... . 30. Empacmes... 31. Laosthenes. . 32. Pertiades ..... 33. Ophrasteus... 34. Ephecheres... 35. Acraganes .................................... 36. Thonos Concolerus or Sardanapalus .......... 20 ...... 841 Under this monarch occurred the revolt of the Modes and Babylonians, which terminated in a separation of the monarch once more into the Babylonian and Assyrio- edian States. . ......... 821 BABYLONIAN SOVEREIGNS ACCORDING TO Scalr'rm AND Prom-:nr. Earlier Sovereigns unknown, probably Belesis and his family. Years. 5. c. 1. Nabonassar; the era. of this monarch’s ae- cession ascertained by astronomical cal- culation, reigned .................. Nadius .................... Chinzirus... J u gaeus ................. Merodaeh Baladan ............. Revolts from the Assyrians, and writes to King Hezekiah. .................. . Areianus .............. sews HISTORY or run assrmm monsncnr. 49 9. Regibelus ............................................... 1 ...... 693 10. Mesessemordak. 2d Interregnum ..................................... 8 ...... 688 ll. Esarhaddon subdues Babylon, and reduces it to a tributary state ............................. 13 12. Saosducheus or N ebuchadnezzar 1.. 13. Ch 'adan ............................. 14. Na opolassar or Lab .. .................. In alliance with yaxares, who takes Nineveh .................................................... 606 Assvnmn SOVEREIGNS ACCORDING r0 SCRIPTURE m1) Pronmn'. B. C- ]. King of Ass 'ia, mentioned in Jonah, unnamed, probably i entical with Arbaees of Ctesias .......... 21 onah’s proglaiecy about ........................... ...800 2. Pul or Belus, andauces of Ctesias- ...790 lst Invasion of Israel .......... 8. ' lath- 4. Shalmaneser ................ 3d Invasion of IsraeL. 5. Sonnacherib ................. 1st Invasion of J udea ................................ 6. Esarhaddon, Assarhaddon, or Sardanapalus I ......... 710 In this reign the Medes and Babylonians again revolt—the former elect Dejoces for their king; the latter, under Merodach Baladan, assert their independence. Babylon recon uered ....................................... 680 2d Invasion of udea, and captivity of Mauasseh 674 7. Nimls III .......................................................... 667 8. Nahuchodonosor I ........................................ ...658 Defeat of Arphaxad or Phraortes the Mede. . ..641 3d Invasion of J udea by Holofernes .......... ...640 9. Saree, or Sardanapalus II ................................. 636 Nineveh taken by Cyaxares in alliance with Na- bopolassar ................................................... 606 BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AFTER run CAPTURE or Nmavsn, acconnnvo T0 SCRIPTURE, Pronnnr, Bsmsus, Hsaonorus, AND XENOPHON. Year!- a. c. ]. Nabopolassar throws off the Assyrian yoke, Nineveh being destroyed, reigned .............. . ‘2. N abocolassar, Bochtanser,or Nebuch dnezzar 43. Subdues Persia or 3. Evil Merodach. ......................................... 3 50 nrsrorw or THE ASBYRIAN moxunonv. Years. 3. c. 4. Nericassolassar, Neriglissar, or Belshazzar' 5 ...... 558 5. Laborosoarshod did not rei n a year. 6. Nabonadius or Labynetus I. appointed by Cyaxares or Darius the Mede‘ ................ 17 ...... 553 Babylon taken by Cyrus, and the terminated .................................................. 536 It is unnecessary to repeat the lists of Chaldean and Arabian kings which appear in the table, as no particu- lars whatever are given of their reigns. The last of them, if they ever had an existence, being overthrown and probably put to death by the celebrated Ninus, the first in Ctesias’ catalogue of Assyrian rulers, who at this time waxed great, and succeeded in uniting under one sovereign the crowns of Assyria and Babylon. Of the monarchs who filled the throne of Assyria, from the foundation of the empire by Asshur till the accession of Ninus, no record has reached our times, either in profane or in sacred history; and the mag- nitude and duration of the empire itself can only be inferred from the fact that it contained many rich and populous cities, and became so powerful as to overthrow the might of Babylon. As, however, the whole narra— tive touching the following race of kings rests upon the authority of Ctesias, it may be well to examine shortly what degree of credit is due to his writings. That he had good opportunities for observation and inquiry cannot be denied; for he enjoyed the favour of the monarch at whose court he lived, and had access, it is asserted, to the records of the empire, preserved from a remote period. But, in the first place, we are met by the fact already stated, that Nabonassar had, previously to the time he treats of, destroyed all or at any rate most of the na- tional records; and in the second, unfortunately for his credit, he did not confine himself to those things concerning which he might have had personal know- ledge. Besides, the account he wrote of India was such # Hales. HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. as to stamp him in the minds of all his readers as a perfect romancer: hence, the great Aristotle, nearly his contemporary, declares him to be a writer entitled to no belief; and others of the ancients have been equally severe on him. “ Who can see Ninus at the head of millions of men, at a time when the earth must have been but thinly inhabited, when mankind must have been a good deal in a state of simplicity and nature ; who can read this without arraigning the historian of false- hood and forgery? Or who can read his story of Semi- ramis,—her mighty valour and heroic deeds at the age of twenty or thereabouts,—her two millions of men employed in the building of Babylon,-—her 300,000 skins of black oxen made up in the form of elephants, and other things of this nature,—and not conclude, that What contained it was no genuine history, but a most barefaced romance 3”* Then, continues the same writer, the very medley of names, Greek, Egyptian, and Persian, argue his list to be the grossest forgery. In the canon of Scripture, all the five names recorded are evidently Assyrian, being derived from the names of their gods: thus we find Pul or Phul, Tiglath-pileser for Tiglath-pul-assur, Shal- maneser for Shalman-assur, and Esarhaddon for Assur- haddon; whereas no such analogy is observable in the lists of Ctesias and his followers. Again, the length and equality of the reigns is against all experience and probability : besides which, there exist anachronisms and discrepancies from sacred history which condemn him ; for, according to him, Ninus and Abraham must have existed together, as the former by his account conquered Persia, Media, Egypt, Assyria, and all Asia in the days Of the patriarch, while no trace of any such events is to be found in Scripture. On the contrary, the succession 0f rulers given in the Bible is totally inconsistent with the fabled conquests by Ninus and Semiramis. Dr Russell, on the other hand, is inclined to repose far ' Ancient Universal History, vol. iv. p. 265. 52 HISTORY or THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. greater confidence in the testimony of Ctesias, partly because, he argues, it does not appear that the historian could have had any motive for fabricating a falsehood, and partly because there are strong grounds for believing, that some at least of the sovereigns and conquerors he mentions actually had existence, and performed some of the exploits attributed to them. But, for the long and elaborate chain of reasoning, by which he arrives at the conclusion that the term of duration and list of kings assigned by that historian to the Assyrian monarchy, from its foundation by Ninus to its extinction under Thonos Concolerus or Sardanapalus, are worthy of credit and adoption, we must refer to the work itself,* as it is too long for insertion here, and depends too much upon a nice comparison of dates and events to admit of abridg- ment. With these remarks upon the credibility of Ctesias, we shall proceed to give a short account of his history. 'Ninus, the first-mentioned sovereign, is represented as a martial and ambitious prince, who, conceiving the idea of extensive conquest, trained up the youth of his kingdom to warlike usages and personal endurance. By these means, having created a formidable army, he entered into a league with the King of Arabia, by whose assistance he overran Babylonia, reduced its cities and strongholds, carrying the royal family away to captivity and death. Armenia, his next object, would have fallen an easy prey, had not its king, Barzanus, appeased the conqueror with gifts, and consented to become his vassal. Phar- nus, the sovereign of Media, was next overthrown and put to death ; and, if we are to credit the historian, in seventeen years Ninus appears to have brought into subjection the greater part of Asia, except India and Bactriana,—probably the vast regions of Tartary also remained untouched. Having led his victorious army back to his own country, he employed the treasures he _ " Connection of Sacred and Profane History, vol. ii. 0. l. HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY- had amassed, and the multitude of people he had eol- leeted, in building the city of Nineveh, the origin of which is in Scripture assigned to Asshur, at probably a much earlier period, unless, with some, we should con- clude that N inns and he are the same person. An expedition against the Bactrians having failed, the great conqueror, after constructing the stupendous city described by our author, proceeded a second time against that nation; and the enterprise was not more remarkable for the success which attended the arms of the Assyrian monarch, than for its being the occasion of his union with the renowned Semiramis, whose name is so well known in' the ancient history of the East, although chronologers cannot agree within 1500 years as to the period of her existence. So extraordinary a heroine could not in those days be permitted to have a mere human origin; and, accord- ingly, Ctesias ascribes her birth to the amour of a certain goddess, named Derceto by the Greek writers, with an obscure youth who was sacrificing at her altar. The infant, abandoned by its mother near Ascalon in Syria, was reared according to tradition by flocks of pigeons; from which circumstance these birds were held sacred in Syria ; and the name of Semiramis is by some asserted to be derived from a word in that language signifying a dove. The fact probably is, assuming the reality of her existence, that she was a woman of low origin, but remarkable for beauty of person and vigour of mind. By these qualities she captivated the heart of Menon, governor of Syria, who married her, and had by her two children. In the end he became so attached to her, that, when forced to accompany his sovereign into Bactrians, he desired her to repair to the camp in disguise. She obeyed, and made her appearance in a dress calculated to conceal her sex, and yet to set off her charms so m’uch, that the Persian ladies afterwards assumed it. Ninus, who on this occasion, is said to have led against Bactriana the incredible multitude of 1,700,000 foot, 54 Hisroxv or THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY- 210,000 horse, and 10,600 scythe-armed chariots, had already reduced the whole country, with its numerous and populous cities, except the capital which was still maintained by its king Oxyartes. The acute and in- telligent observations of Semiramis upon the conduct of the siege first attracted the great monarch’s attention; and the valour and ability which she displayed in carry- ing into practice the measures she advised, not less than her beauty, made in the sequel so powerful an impression on his heart, that he attempted by negotiation to obtain the lady from her husband. Finding these means inef- fectual, he succeeded in his object by menace ; upon which Menon, in a fit of rage and despair, put an end to his life, and Semiramis became the consort of N inus. By this lady the Assyrian ruler had a son named Ninyas, who succeeded his mother on the throne. For himself, he did not live long to enjoy his triumphs ; and his death has by some subsequent writers been attributed to the treachery of the woman whom he had, at the expense of faith and honour, raised to a throne. It is said, that having secured the good will of the nobles, she induced the king to invest her with the sovereignty over his dominions for five days, and that the first use she made of this power was to put himself to death. Other authors, who follow Ctesias, are silent regarding the manner of his demise, which is supposed to have taken place at Nineveh in a natural manner, after his return from the conquest of Bactria, and at the close of a reign of fifty- two years. At all events, sufficient honours were paid to his remains by the widow, for she erected in his capital a tumulus of the most gigantic proportions. Secure on the throne, Semiramis now thought only of eclipsing the glory of her husband ; and her first act was to build the city of Babylon, the same, we are told, of which the ruins still excite the astonishment of travel- lers, and the magnificence of which, according to the account preserved from Ctesias, is calculated to excite doubt even more than amazement. Nor were her splen- did works confined to the metropolis. The banks of the #- ¢~' 4—— HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY- Euphrates and Tigris were embellished with towns ; and the commerce of her empire was improved by various judicious measures, as were its agricultural resources by the canals which she caused to be formed. Having completed her operations in Mesopotamia, Semiramis assembled a vast army, and marching into Media, left there also magnificent monuments of her power and taste, and where, during the completion of these works, according to some authors, she abandoned herself for a long time to a course of the most profiigate vice and luxury. But, arousing from this disgraceful sloth, she visited the whole of her Asiatic dominions, and passing thence through Egypt, added the greater part of Libya to her wide territories. From thence she marched to reduce Ethiopia, and having settled affairs in that quarter, she again entered Asia, and reposed for a while at Bactra. But tranquillity had no charms for this restless con- queror. The wealth and prosperity of distant India excited her ambition; she longed to view its wonders, —to possess its riches,—and therefore she resolved to invade it. Three years were consumed in preparing an armament suited to this great enterprise ; and the force with which she at last left Bactra is by Ctesias set down at the incredible multitude of 3,000,000 foot, 200,000 horse, 100,000 armed chariots, 100,000 armed camelmen, besides artificers. To these were added 2000 vessels for navigating the Indus, carried to the banks of the river on camels, together with the hides of 300,000 black oxen, made into artificial elephants, formed for the purpose of familiarizing her cavalry with the sight of these animals, as well as to terrify the Indians and encourage her own troops by a show of the counterfeit quadrupeds. The preparations made by Stahrobates, the sovereign of India, for repelling this alarming invasion, were such as became a powerful prince, jealous of his independence, and indignant at an unprovoked aggression. It is asserted that he gathered together a far greater army than Semi- ramis commanded, and, adding contumely to defiance, 56 nrsronr or THE ASSYRIAN monancnr. upbraided his enemy with her infamous mode of life, and threatened, should his arms be successful, to put her to a cruel death. She smiled at his threats, and advanced to the Indus. “ He does not know me yet,” said she ; “ he will soon have an opportunity of judging me by my actions and deportment.” But the height of her fortune and the limit of her empire had now been reached. A temporary success rendered her bold; and, decoyed across the river, over which she constructed a bridge of boats, she came to a decisive action with the Indian king. Her artificial elephants could not withstand the shock of the true ones, and, being wounded in a combat hand to hand with Stabrobates, she was forced to recross the stream. The bridge was destroyed in order to check pursuit; but though many of the Indians perished in the struggle, a multitude of her own troops also were destroyed, and the Assyrian queen retreated to Bactra with scarcely a third part of her army. This was the last of her enterprises. Her own son, desiring to anticipate the prediction of an oracle, which declared “ that she should at a certain period disappear from the eyes of men,” sent a eunuch to a5sassinate her. She forgave him the attempt, surrendered herself into his hands, and was translated from earth, as was asserted, in the form of a dove, a flock of which birds had Settled at the moment upon her palace. Such, after a glorious and successful reign of forty-two years, and a life of sixty-two, was the end of the cele- brated Semiramis; and the description of her actions alone has been held by many as clearly decisive as to the defect of the historian’s claim to credit. It is not alone the incredible numbers of her army and vast prepara- tions that cast over the narrative an air of fable, for this may be found in other authors, both Greek and Moham- medan, in relating facts which themselves rest on un- disputablc evidence. We may instance the enormous armaments attributed to Darius and Xerxes in their invasions of Greece, and the incredible multitudes of human beings said to have been slaughtered by Zingis HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONAROHY- Khan. In the sack and destruction of five cities alone, Merve, Nishapore, Herat, Rhé, and Bang, the number of persons put to death, according to the historians of Zingis, exceeds eight millions! But to attribute to dis- tant countries like India such an advanced state of power, riches, and civilisation, at a period little more than a thousand years after the F lood,—and not only to call into existence such prodigious armies, but imagine they could be maintained in remote quarters of the globe, when the race of men were as yet but thinly scattered over any part of its surface, argues not only a strong disposition to romance, but a deficiency of all authentic records. Ninyas, the son of Semiramis, was ill qualified to maintain the mighty fabric of empire which his parents had reared. Little, in truth, remained for him to do, for all Asia, with the exception of India, acknowledged his supremacy; and few were the adventurers in those early times hardy enough to dispute his power. Un- moved by any necessity for exertion, he abandoned him- self to voluptuous enjoyment. Concealing himself from the eyes of his subjects, as if he were something more than mortal, he spent his time in lascivious sloth among his concubincs and eunuchs. Yet it would appear that he did not altogether neglect the affairs of state ; for we hear that, in order to preserve tranquillity throughout his dominions, it was his practice to levy an army every year, enrolling a certain number of men from each pro— Vince, who, at the end of that period, were each bound by an oath of fidelity, and dismissed to their homes. The rapid changes involved in this system were con- sidered to afford security against any serious conspiracy on the part either of officers or soldiers. Of the long list of his successors little or nothing has been recorded by Ctesias, or at least by his transcribers, beyond their names, and that they pursued a line of policy similar to that of their progenitor. And here, again, there does appear a most conclusive objection to the authenticity of this portion of the narrative. That at any period of the world, a term of 1200 years should HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. but this obviously must be a mistake, for, according to the most approved chronology, the downfal of Thonos Concolerus took place about the year 13. c. 821.* Yet, twenty years afterwards, following the same notation, we find the prophet Jonah sent to preach repentance to the Ninevites, in “ that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand, and also much cattle ;”+ and that their unnamed king, and all his people, received the divine warning with reverence, humbling themselves before the Lord in sackcloth and ashes. The most probable solution of this difficulty is, that Ctesias and his followers have somehow confounded together the taking of Nineveh by Arbaces and Belesis and the death of Sardanapalus, when the former prince established the Medo-Assyrian dynasty upon the throne of Nineveh, with the final capture and demolition of the city and overthrow of the empire by Cyaxares the Mede, in the year B. c. 606. _ The account of this first taking of Nineveh, and the death of the last sovereign of the line of Ninus, is shortly as follows. Sardanapalus, living in despicable effemi- nacy, became odious to his subjects, and more especially to a valiant noble named Arbaces, and Belesis, a priest and astrologer. These two conspired for the overthrow of their unworthy sovereign, the latter assuring his con- federate, that by the rules of his art he could foresee that he was to dethrone Sardanapalus and become lord of his dominions. The former on his part promised that, should they succeed in their enterprise, he would bestow the government of Babylon upon him. The conspirators raised their friends, and, gaining over many of the king’s troops, attacked the royal army, but were defeated in three pitched battles. Belesis, how- ever, relying on his astrological revelations, persevered; and, reinforced by the revolted troops of Bactria, sur- prised the army of Sardanapalus at a. splendid festival, ' Dr Russell’s Connection, vol. ii. 0. 1. + Jonah, iv. 11. 60 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRXAN MONARCHY. and routed them with immense slaughter. The king fled to Nineveh, where, having laid up immense maga- zines, and trusting to the response of an oracle, which declared that the great city would never be taken until the river had become her enemy, he abandoned himself in fatal security to the indulgence of sloth, while the enemy blockaded his walls. He was at length roused from his delusion ; for after two years, the river, swollen to an extraordinary size by an unusual fall of rain, overflowed its banks, and swept away no less than twenty stadia, or about two miles and a half of the fortifications. Sardanapalus saw that, the oracle being fulfilled, his hour was come; and he pre- pared to meet it in a characteristic manner. Retiring to his palace, he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised in one of the courts, having a chamber constructed within. On it he heaped all his gold and silver plate and rich apparel, and entering with his eunuchs and coneubines, set fire to the pile, whereby be destroyed himself and them together. Thus far have we followed Ctesias, whom we now relinquish for other guides. Of the credit due to the earlier parts of his work we have already expressed a dis- tinct opinion. That there may be some foundation for a portion of his list of kings, it would be idle to dispute or deny, and that the later periods of his narrative afi'ord more frequent and decided glimpses of truth, may also be safely admitted. But, cut off as we are from all re- ference to the original, and restricted to the works of copyists, who may not always have abstained from alter- ations, it seems impossible to admit the statements within the pale of authentic history. We shall now shortly examine the history of the Assyrian or Medo-Assyrian dynasty, according to the canon of Scripture and of Ptolemy, which have a re- markable coincidence, arranged principally from the Universal History, and the authorities followed by its compilers. With its exception of the slight mention of Asshur as HISTORY or run ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. 61 the founder of Nineveh in the book of Genesis, the first ruler of that city noticed in the Old Testament is the personage to whom Jonah was sent, unless we should admit “ Chushan-rishathaim king of Mesopotamia,”* who held the children of Israel in bondage eight years, to be an Assyrian sovereign. And of that nameless monarch visited by the prophet, nothing more is known than what we read in the Bible; but it has been con- jectured that he was the same as Arbaces the Mede. The next mention in the inspired writingst' of on As- syrian king is that of Pul, who was contemporary with Menahern king of Israel, B. c. 771, perhaps the Man- dauces of Ctesias, and successor to Arbaces. The only fact recorded of this prince is that he invaded Syria, and received from the court of Samaria 1000 talents of silver, as the price of forbearance and future protection. Pul appears to have been succeeded by Tiglath-pileser, B. c. 747, probably his son, and perhaps the Sosarmus or Artycas of Ctesias, who, in the year B. c. 740, overran the dominions of Israel, and carried away many of the inhabitants captive; He pursued the same system towards his other conquests in that quarter; for we find in the same sacred text,§ that, instigated by the King of Judah, he marched against Damascus, slew Rezin its king, and, transporting his people to Kir in Media, put an end to his sovereignty. Shalmaneser, the Enemessar of Tobit, succeeded Tig- lath-pileser, B. c. 726. Provoked by the rebellion of Hoshea king of Israel, who had been reduced to the condition of his tributary, and who had solicited the assistance of So king of Egypt to enable him to throw off the Assyrian yoke, he oven-an the country with a powerful army, laid siege to Samaria, which, at the end of three years, he took ; and carrying all the people into captivity, he brought to a termination the independent existence of the ten tribes. He then proceeded against * Judges, iii. 8. + 2 Kings, xv. 19. I 2 Kings, xv. 29. 2 Chron. xxviii. - § '2 Kings, xvi. 9. 62 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. the cities of Sidon, Acre, Palmtyrus, and others, which, revolting from the Tyrians, opened their gates; but he failed, after a struggle of five years, to gain possession of Tyre itself. Sennacherib, possibly the Arbianes of Ctesias, makes his first appearance in sacred writ in the fourteenth year of the reign of Hezekiah king of Judah, B. c. 714, marching against the dominions of that prince, who had withheld the stipulated tribute. On this occasion, the Assyrian monarch not only compelled him to acknow- ledge his supremacy, and promise an annual payment of thirty talents of gold and 300 of silver, but, unsatisfied with these concessions, and with the treasure which the other was forced to strip from the house of God, he sent his generals, Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rab-shakeh, with a mighty host, to reduce Jerusalem itself. These men declared their master’s will, taunted Hezekiah with his weakness, and warned him not to put his trust either in the power of Egypt or in the arm of Jehovah : for that the one was a broken reed that would pierce the hand of him who should lean thereon; and as for the other, “ know ye not,” said they, in the name of their master, “ what I and my fathers have done unto all the people of other lands! Were the gods of the nations of those lands any ways able to deliver their lands out of mine hand, . . . . that your God should be able to deliver you out of mine hand 2”* Therefore did he summon the people to submit, that they might be taken to a land abounding with corn and oil, where they might live and not die. It was on this memorable occasion that Hezekiah called upon the name of the Lord. And the arm of the Almighty was stretched forth ; and, of the multitude of armed Assyrians that followed their king to battle, 185,000 men were in one night smitten dead. The rest, terror-struck, fled with their bafiled monarch, and re- turned with speed to Nineveh ; where, soured by disap- " 2 Chron. xxxii. 13-15. HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. pointments, he became so cruel and tyrannical as to exhaust the endurance even of his own family, and was at length put to death by his two sons Adrammelech and Sharezer, while performing his devotions in the temple of N isroch his god.* The decline of the Assyrian power may be dated from the reign of this prince. His father’s losses before Tyre and his own in J udea, with his subsequent misrule and death, were probably the exciting causes of a second re- volt of the Medes, who were desirous to throw off the yoke. And though Esarhaddon (according to Ptolemy, Asaradin,—to Tobit, Sarchedonfi—to Isaiah, Sargonx), third son of the murdered monarch, in B. c. 710, and his successor, exerted himself to maintain the integrity of the empire, he was unable to reduce the rebels to subjection, who soon after were formed into a separate monarchy under their first king Dejoces, B. C. 704. These events have led some to regard Esarhaddon as the warlike Sardanapalus who resisted the efforts of his rebellious subjects with so much fortitude.§ That he was an equitable" as well as a courageous prince seems probable, and his reverses in the north were counter- balanced by successes in the south-west ; for he reduced Babylon,—whose king, Evil Merodach, had revolted from the Assyrian sway,—and then advanced into Syria, to recover the ground lost by his father. He took from the kingdom of Israel the few remaining subjects left by his ancestors, thus expunging it from the list of na- tions; and reducing that of Judah to utter dependence, carried its king Manasseh in chains to Babylonll From thence he pursued his victorious career into Egypt and Ethiopia, making a multitude of captives,H and re- turned, having in a great degree revived the splendour of the Assyrian monarchy. ' Tobit, i. ‘21. 2 Kings, xix. 37. 2 Chron. xxxii. 21. 1' Tobit, i. 21. 3: Isaiah, xx. 1. § Ancient Universal History, vol. iv. p. 3‘27, 329. ll Ezra, iv. 10, calls him the great an noble Asna per. 11 2Chron. xxxiii.11. " Isaia ,xx. 4. 64 HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIAN MONARCHY. Chronologiats* have introduced a king between Esar~ haddon and Saosducheus, under the name of Ninus III., who does not appear in Scripture, and whose reign is said to have commenced in the very year when the Saos- ducheus of Ptolemy’s canon took possession of the throne of Nineveh and Babylon, viz. B. C. 667. At all events he was succeeded by Saosducheus, of whom little is related, except that he reigned twenty years and was followed by his son Chyniladan, B. c. 647. This prince is supposed by the authors of the Uni- versal History't to be the Nabuchodonosor of the book of Judith, an active and warlike sovereign, who, alarmed at the encroachments 0f the Medes, raised a great army, and on the plain of Ragau (Rhages) utterly defeated Arphaxad (or Phraortes) the Median monarch, putting him to death in the neighbouring mountains, whither he had fled after the battle. Returning to Nineveh, which even then, according to the book of Judith, and also to Herodotus, was in its power and glory, he feasted his army a hundred and twenty days ,1“, after which he sent Holofernes to punish those vassals who had resisted his authority, and refused the aid he required in his late campaigns. His general’s expedition was for- tunate for a season. Such as did not fall or flee before him, submitted to the will of his master, until be pro- ceeded against the Jews, and invested Bethulia, a hill- fortress, encamping in a valley near the place, “ spreading themselves in breadth over Dothaim even to Belmaim, and in length from Bethulia unto Cyamon, which is over against Esdraelon.”§ There he fell, as is well known, a victim to his own inordinate passions, by the hand of the Jewish heroine Judith, who had devoted herself to destroy him in order to save her country and the ' Blair, Hales, and others. Dr Russell follows them. + We refer to the fourth volume of this valuable work, p. 328, for the grounds on which this opinion is supported. I J u ith, i. 16. § Ibid. vii. 3. _ II The authors of the Universal History advert to the proba- bility of the story of Judith being fictitious. The point need HISTORY or ran ASSYRIAN mosxncuv. G5 Assyrians, panic-struck at the loss of their leader, fled to their own country, pursued with great slaughter by the enemies they had despised. It seems not improbable that, in the successful war- fare of Nabuchodonosor with the Medes, the great feast held after it, and the dispersion and slaughter of the Assyrians themselves subsequently to the death of H010- fernes, we may discover the events which have been confounded by Ctesias, and form his conclusion to the reign of Thonos Concolerus. Of Chyniladan we hear no more, but that he was succeeded by a king called by Polyhistor, Saree,— probably the Sardanapalus of Justin and other modern authors,—in 636 B. 0.; but, less able or less fortunate than his predecessor, he lost all that had been wrested from the Medes, and his power was reduced so low, that Nabopolassar, the governor of Babylon, to whom he had committed the command of his forces in that country, thought it a fit occasion to throw off the Assyrian yoke. Entering into an alliance with Cyaxares the Mede, he assisted that prince in his attack upon Sam, and the city of Nineveh was invested by the combined troops. This unfortunate ruler, whose mind had been enfeebled by misfortune, dreading to fall into the hands of his enemies, put an end to his life, by burning the palace in which his wealth and family were bestowed in the manner related by Ctesias in reference to Concolerus. But some confusion of dates appears here, by which it seems doubtful whether this event was not suspended at least twenty-eight years; for at this _ period the Scythians overran Central Asia, against whom the combined Median and Babylonian force found full employment for their arms. In the mean time, Nabo- polassar died, leaving the kingdom to his son, the cele- brated Nebuehadnezzar (or Nabuchodonosor), who com- pleted the destruction of the Assyrian power about not be discussed here; we refer our readers, if curious on the subject, to that book, vol. iv. p. 172, and to Prideaux. n 66 HISTORY OF THE ABSYRIAN MONARCIIY. 606 B. c. The great city of Nineveh, levelled to the ground by Cyaxares, no longer lifted her head among nations. In process of time, indeed, other towns rose from amidst its ruins, and flourished, and decayed, and were forgotten ; but even at the present day the site of that great and mighty capital may be traced upon the banks of the Tigris. The empire, itself, however, was now no more; the word of God had gone forth against it, and its power was withered,—-its glory passed away. “ Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and of an high stature; and his top was among the thick boughs. The waters made him great, the deep set him up on high with her rivers running round about his plants, and sent out her little rivers unto all the trees of the field. Therefore his height was exalted above all the trees of the field, and his boughs were multiplied, and his branches became long, because of the multitude of waters when he shot forth. All the fowls of heaven made their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did all the beasts of the field bring forth their young, and under his shadow dwelt all great nations. Thus was he fair in his greatness, in the length of his branches: for his root was by great waters. The cedars in the garden of God could not hide him: the fir-trees were not like his boughs, and the chesnut~trees were not like his branches; nor any tree in the garden of God was like unto him in his beauty. I have made him fair by the multitude of his branches; so that all the trees of Eden, that were in the garden of God, envied him. Therefore, thus saith the Lord God, Because thou hast lifted up thyself in height, and he hath shot up his top among the thick boughs, and his heart is lifted up in his height; I have delivered him into the hand of the mighty one of the heathen; he shall surely deal with him: I have driven him out for his wickedness. And strangers, the terrible of the nations, have cut him off, and have left him ; upon the mountains and in all the valleys his branches are fallen, and his boughs are broken by all HISTORY OF THE ASBYRIAN MONARCHY. 67 the rivers of the land; and all the people of the earth are gone down from his shadow, and have left him. Upon his ruin shall all the fowls of the heaven remain, and all the beasts of the field shall be upon his branches : to the end that none of all the trees by the waters exalt themselves for their height, neither shoot up their top among the thick boughs, neither their trees stand up in their height, all that drink water: for they are all de- livered unto death, to the nether parts of the earth, in the midst of the children of men, with them that go down to the pit,”* &c. * Ezekiel, xxxi. 3-14. 68 RISE AND FALL OF THE CHAPTER III. Rise and Fall of the Babylonian Empire. The only authentic Record contained in holy Writ—Ptolemy’s Canon affords the only true Chronology—Nabonassar-Mc- rodach Baladan—Esarhaddon, the warlike King of Assyria —Nabopola.ssar—His Power—Nabocolassar or Nebuchad- nezzar—Aids in the Destruction of N ineveh—Overruns Syria, and carries the Jews into Captivity—Humbles Pharaoh— His Dreams—Divine Predictions—His Humiliation—Re- pentance—And Death—Evil Merodach—The Belshazzar of Daniel—Murdered by Neriglissar, who probably is identi- cal with Darius the Medo—He seizes the Throne—And is slain in Battle—Laborosoarchod—Nabonadius —Nitocris—— Her Acts and Improvements—Babylon attacked by Cyrus— Taken by turning the Euphrates—Fulfilment of the Pro- phecies—Gradual Decay of Babylon—Its Destruction by Darius—By Xerxes—Seleucia—Accounts of its Desolation by various Authors. IT is now requisite to turn back nearly a century and a half, that we may discover the establishment of the con- temporary kingdom of Babylon, the history of which is so intimately connected with that of Assyria that it is impossible to disunite them. It has been already observed that the only authentic notice of what is generally supposed to have been the origin of the ancient Babylonian power—the first mon- archy of the postdiluvian world—is contained in three verses of the 10th chapter of Genesis ; that the lists of Chaldean and Arabian kings, given by Syncellus, Poly- histor, and Moses of Chorene, are entitled to no credit, because they rest not on any authentic ground; and 70 RISE AND FALL or ran Semiramis of the Greeks, if she ever did exist as queen of Babylon, must have been the Wife of this prince, and that, as her husband commenced the city, she must have exerted herself after his death in beautifying it, from whence she obtained the reputation of being its founder. For the arguments by which this hypothesis is supported we must refer to the work itself. Of the three monarchs who according to the canon next succeed, nothing is recorded; and Mardoch Em- pades, the Merodach Baladan of Scripture,* fifth on the list, is only remarkable as having held communication with the kings of Judah. He sent a special messenger to Hezekiah to congratulate him on his recovery from illness. The next who claims notice is Asaradin, the Esarhaddon of Scripture, who, we have seen, acquired fame as the warlike Sardanapalus of Assyria, and who possibly, on the race of Nabonassar becoming extinct or rebellious, B. c. 680, took possession of the sovereignty. It was he who utterly swept away the people of Israel, and carried Manasseh king of Judah with him in chains to Babylon. Of his successors, Saosducheus and Chy- niladan, we have already spoken, as masters at once of Assyria and Babylon. The most brilliant period of the Babylonian history now approached. Nabopolassar having broken the power, if not destroyed the city of Nineveh, removed the seat of empire to his capital. During the time when the forces of these allies were employed in repelling the Scythian invasion, Pharaoh Necho king of Egypt at- tempted to recover his former possessions in Syria; and in his way to besiege the city of Carchemish overthrew the King of Judah, who lost his life in the encounterrf Nabopolassar was succeeded by his son Nabocolassar (or Nebuchadnczzar), who, after driving out the Syrians, co- operated with Cyaxares in destroying Nineveh. Having * 2 Kings, xx. 12. Isaiah, xxxix. 1. He is called the son of Baladan. + 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-24. __. ~ ~» _. "“y’vr/ " 'fir W,» / BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 71 resolved to punish other invaders, he marched at the head of a powerful army against the Egyptians, who had formed an alliance with the revolted tribes on the western bank of the Euphrates. In this enterprise he was not only successful, but on his return entered Judea, took J eru- salem, rifled the temple, and made the king a prisoner. The humble submission of the fallen Jehoiakim, and the promise of a yearly tribute, saved him from the fate of the other captives, who were sent in chains to Babylon. Pursuing his victorious career, he humbled Pharaoh; and after making himself master of the whole country between the Nile and the Euphrates he returned to Babylon, loaded with spoil and encumbered with cap- tives, when he began to enlarge and embellish the seat of his growing empire. In this he eminently succeeded, though he himself lived to experience the lowest degree of human degra- dation as well as of grandeur. His history is familiar to every reader of Scripture. The revelation which he had in the second year of his reign* was the commence- ment of a series of divine intimations which accompanied hiscareer, and were not more remarkable in themselves than for the manner of their fulfilment. The dream in question troubled Nebuchadnezzar the more, because in the morning “ the thing had gone from him ;” and al- though, with the unreasonable caprice of a despotic prince, he threatened the Chaldeans, the magicians, and the wise men with death, unless they should interpret his vision, he could give them no aid whatever in describ- ing its tenor or its nature. The tyrannical mandate had already gone forth, and the soothsayers of Babylon trembled under the upraised sword of their executioners, when they were saved by the faith and courage of Daniel, 3. young Hebrew, who, With three of his companions, had by the command of the king been educated in the Magian sciences, and Whose life was thus involved in the general sentence "' Daniel, ii. 72 RISE AND FALL OF THE of destruction. Remonstrating with the captain of the guard, who was intrusted with the execution of the royal decree, he boldly pledged himself to declare the interpre- tation to his majesty, and, together with his associates, prayed “ to the God of heaven concerning this secret, and it was revealed unto Daniel in a night vision.” And he returned thanks to the Lord, and blessed his name, and made known to the monarch both his dream and its interpretation. Nebuchadnezzar proceeded in his appointed course, each step of which was the subject of a prophetic an- nunciation. The unfortunate people of Judah, already heavily visited, fell under his displeasure; for Jehoia- kim, having, in spite of the warnings of the faithful J eremiah,* thrown off his allegiance, lost his life miser- ably, while his son Jehoiachin, who went out with his mother from the city to humble themselves to the con- queror, were made captives. The metropolis was plun- dered, the temple spoiled, and the inhabitants carried away in such numbers that scarcely were there enough left to cultivate the ground; while the victor on his return placed Zedekiah, the son of Josiah, on the tribu- tary throne. In like manner were the successes of this tyrant against the Elamitcs or Persians, the Moabites, the Am- monites, the Tyrians and others, made the subject of prophetic announcement, and J ererniahi‘ sent tokens of the impending wrath to the ambassadors of all the de- voted powers. Encouraged by Pharaoh Hophra, the people of western Syria renounced their allegiance; but the King of Babylon, an instrument no doubt of vengeance in the hand of the Almighty, overthrew first the monarch in whom they had confided, and then, turning his arms against Jerusalem, he destroyed its walls, burned it with fire, and putting out the eyes of the ill-advised Zedekiah, carried him in chains to the eastern capital. ' Chap. xxii. xxvi. 1- Chap. BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 73 The predictions" against Tyre and Egypt still remained to be accomplished. A thirteen years’ siege of the first at length gave to the conqueror possession of an empty city, for the inhabitants had retired to a neighbouring island with their effects, though his army, meanwhile, was successfully employed in reducing to obedience the Sidonians, the Ammonites, and the Edomites. But the plunder of Egypt compensated for his disap- pointment at Tyre; and having laid waste that land, “ from the tower of Syene even unto the border of Ethi- opia,”'i‘ he returned to his capital. \Vith the gold amassed in these various expeditions, and especially with the spoils of the temple of Jerusalem, it is supposed he erected the colossal statue in honour of his god Bel, which he placed in the plain of Dura, and commanded his subjects, of whatever nation or faith, to fall down and worship it. The beautiful story of the three Hebrew youths, who, refusing to comply with this tyrannical and unholy mandate, were in consequence cast into the fiery furnace, is Well known to every reader of the sacred annals. But the hour of retribution and reverse drew nigh; for scarcely had he returned from this splendid career of victory, when his mind was again disturbed by a singular and ominous dream, which seemed to prefigure events so awful as to shake for a moment even the in- trepid soul of the prophet who was called upon to interpret it. “ Daniel was astonied for one hour, and his thoughts troubled him.”1 But recovering his equa- nimity, he lifted up his voice and boldly declared the will of the Most High,—the terrible sentence which drove the haughty monarch to herd with the beasts of the field. Nor was the fulfilment of this dreadful de— nunciation long deferred, although it appears that the humbling effect of its announcement had been but tran- sitory. Only one year afterwards, we find the devoted ruler walking in the front of his palace, contemplating ' t zekiel xxvi.xxvii.xxviii. + Ibid.xxix.10. ' E ’ I Daniel, iv. 19. 74 RISE AND FALL or THE the mighty works of which he had been the author, with a heart, not filled with gratitude and veneration towards the Giver of all good for the unmerited prosperity which he had bestowed upon him, but swelling with pride and hardened with arrogance ; saying, “is not this great Ba- bylon, that I have built for the house of the kingdom, by the might of my power, and for the honour of my ma- jesty '5” But “ while the word was in the king’s mouth, there fell a voice from heaven, saying, 0 king Nebu- chadnezzar, to thee it is spoken ; The kingdom is de- parted from thee : and they shall drive thee from among men, and thy dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field: they shall make thee to eat grass as oxen, and seven times shall pass over thee, until thou know that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will. The same hour was the thing fulfilled upon Nebuchadnezzar ; and he was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles’ feathers, and his nails like birds’ claws. And at the end of the days I Nebuchadnezzar lifted up mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned unto me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and honoured him that liveth for ever, whose domi- nion is an everlasting dominion, and his kingdom is from generation to generation: and all the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as nothing: and he doeth ac- cording to his will in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth ; and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest thou? At the same time my reason returned unto me ; and, for the glory of my kingdom, mine honour and brightness returned unto me : and my counsellors and my lords sought unto me; and I was established in my kingdom; and excellent majesty was added unto me. Now I Nebu- chadnezzar praise, and extol, and honour the King of heaven, all whose works are truth, and his ways judg- ment : and those that walk in pride he is able to abase.”* Innis; iv. 30-57. BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 7 5 Never was there so overwhelming a check given to human pride,-—never a more impressive warning held forth to the impious and the vain; nor can language express a more affecting acknowledgment of error, or a deeper and more grateful piety, than breathes in the concluding words of the royal penitent’s narrative. We envy not the feelings of the man who should at- tempt to weaken the force of such a lesson, by seeking to explain, upon natural causes, events which arose out of a direct interposition of divine power. During the period of the monarch’s humiliation, the reins of government were held by his son, Evil Mero- dach, whose bad administration was severely punished by his father upon his return to reason. But the aged sovereign survived this act of justice only one year ; and the manner of his death, on which sacred history has been silent, has by profane writers been described as attended with preternatural circumstances. A spirit of prophecy is said to have come upon him as his hour approached ; and ascending to the top of his palace, he foretold the destruction of his kingdom by the Medes and Persians, praying at the same time that he might not live to witness the event. While yet speaking, it is added, that he, like Semiramis, was snatched away from the view of men, and was no more seen upon earth. Evil Merodach, called Ilvarodam in Ptolemy’s canon, and usually considered the Belshazzar of Daniel, who speaks of him as the son of Nebuclladnezzar,* now re- leased from the dungeon into which the just displeasure of his father had cast him, commenced his reign by an act of mercy. He took from the prison, where he had languished thirty-seven years, J ehoiachin king of Judah, and treated him ever afterwards as a sovereignli' But, while acting as regent during the visitation inflicted on his parent, he had the imprudence to provoke the anger of Astyages king of Media, by plundering a part of his country during a great hunting-match which he held ' Daniel, v. 2. v1- Jeremiah, lii. 31. 76 RISE AND FALL or THE on the occasion of his marriage with Nitocris, a Median lady; and an armed body being sent out to punish the aggressors, the Prince of Babylon was routed, and pur- sued with great slaughter to his capital. In this battle the great Cyrus, though only sixteen years of age, first distinguished himself.* This act of folly appears to have been the origin of those forebodings of evil uttered by the father, and which appear to have thoroughly subdued the spirit of the son, who, retiring into his palace, abandoned himself to sloth two whole years, after which he was murdered by Neriglissar, the hus- band of his sister, supposed to be a Mede, who headed a conspiracy of the nobles. In this account of the end of Evil Merodach, supposing him to be identical with the Belshazzar of Daniel, of which there seems little room to doubt, there is a re- markable coincidence between the narrative given by the prophet and that of profane authors. Berosus, an annalist it is true deserving of no great credit in his accounts of very remote periods, but who is entitled to more belief as the events he describes approach nearer to his own time, relates that he was killed at a banquet by some of his lords. Daniel writes that, on the occa- sion when the miraculous writing on the wall appeared, Belshazzar made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and commanded the golden and silver vessels, which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple of Jerusalem, to be brought, that the king and his princes, his wives and concubines, might drink therefrom. “ In that night,” says the prophet emphatically, “ was Bel- shazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. And Darius the Median took the kingdom, being about threescore and two years old.”'l' This statement, it is obvious, can refer to nothing more than the death of Belshazzar himself, which, ac- cording to Ptolemy’s canon, occurred in the year B. c. 553, seventeen years before the final destruction of ‘ Cyropaedia of Xenophon. 1' Daniel, v. 30, 31. 7w- 7 >____A *M,‘~—W ‘(Li BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 7”] Babylon, and not to the latter event, of which there is no distinct record in holy Scripture. The Darius here mentioned, and who must not be confounded with Cyrus, is supposed, with sufiicient probability, to be Neriglissar the Mede, and chief conspirator, who seized the kingdom. That this conqueror continued to reign in Babylon after his accession to the throne, appears from the sixth chapter of Daniel, where he is repre- sented as setting over his kingdom 120 princes, of whom the prophet himself was made the first ; while Cyrus is spoken of in the 10th chapter distinctly as King of Persia. That the sovereignty of Babylon existed independently of that of the Medea and Persians for a space after the death of Belshazzar, is therefore as clearly proved from Scripture as from the canon of Ptolemy and other pro- fane writers. Indeed, the concurrence of known dates renders this obvious and apparent ; but, for further in- formation upon this perplexing subject, we must again refer to the authors of the Universal History.* Neriglissar, or Darius, is represented to have been a wise and prudent prince; but the power of the Medes and Persians was so greatly on the increase, that he was forced to solicit aid from his allies to enable him to resist them. The accounts of this period are chiefly gathered from the works of Berosus and the Cyropardia of Xeno- phon, which last describes both the war and its issue. After an attempt at mediation on the part of the sove- reign of India, who sent ambassadors for the purpose of proffering his good offices, the armies met, and a general engagement ensued, in which Neriglissar was slain and his army utterly dispersed. But the day on which Babylon was doomed to fall had not yet arrived. What use the conquerors made of their victory does not appear; but we find that the throne was next occupied by a youth, son of the late monarch, who by Berosus is called Laborosoarchod, and Labassoarasc by Abydenusxt‘ In this respect they both * Ancient Universal History, vol. iv. p. 422-426. 1- Ibid. vol. iv. p. 418. 78 RISE AND FALL or THE difi'er from Ptolemy’s canon, where no such name in- tervenes between Neriglissar and the last king, Nabona- dius. Perhaps it was in consequence of his very brief reign of only nine months that he has been omitted. He evinced a most vicious and cruel disposition, which is probably the cause which led to his assassination by Nabonadius. The prince just named, the Labynetus of Herodotus, is understood to have been the son of Evil Merodach and of the celebrated Nitocris, who naturally enough was moved with indignation at seeing his country falling into ruin, and his people oppressed by the worthless heir of a usurper, who had excluded him from the throne. Yet to preserve, even for a season, his hereditary power, recovered by such violent means, was a painful struggle. The resources of the kingdom, though still sufficient to check the progress of certain invaders, had been greatly impaired by misrulc, and were still in a declining state, while probably Nabonadius was not qualified, either by talents or disposition, to restore their efficiency. It appears, indeed, that his reign of seventeen years de- rived its chief lustre from the acts of his mother Nito- cris, who exerted herself not only to embellish the city and improve the surrounding country, but to fortify it so as to resist the storm which she foresaw would come from the cast. Many of her hydraulic operations were calculated to extend cultivation and increase the resources of the state ; but she also added to the works of the capital, constructing walls along the river-banks, to prevent an enemy from gaining access in that way. Herodotus also ascribes to her the building of the bridge, which till her time had been wanting at Babylon. Of her death there is no particular mention, but it pro- bably was the forerunner of the defeat of her son and the fall of the monarchy. Cyrus, having at length not only established himself firmly on the throne of Persia, but reduced a great part of Asia to obedience, once more directed his arms against Babylon. Nabonadius attempted to oppose the great BABYLONXAN EMPIRE. 79 warrior in the field, but was beaten back into the city, and immediately placed under close blockade. The immense strength and perfect state of the fortifications, not less than the condition of the magazines, which con- tained supplies sufiicient for twenty years’ consumption, inspiring the citizens with confidence, they gave them- selves up to unbounded luxury and enjoyment. This unwise security suggested to Cyrus the means of their overthrow. Herodotus and Xenophon both relate, that after he had passed full two years before Babylon, and had even begun to despair of success, the incautious blindness of the inhabitants induced him to attempt a bold stratagem. On the night of an annual festival which they were wont to spend in drinking and jollity, he cut the bank of a canal which communicated with a great lake that had been formed to receive the super- abundant waters of the Euphrates at the period of its flood. The river poured its contents into that reser- voir, which was of capacity sufficient to receive them for a time; and placing strong bodies of troops at the points where the stream entered and quitted the city, which was divided by it into two parts, he commanded them, so soon as it should become shallow enough to admit of being forded, to enter by its channel. In the disorder of the night, the gates leading from each street to the bank had been left unclosed and unguarded. The Persians advanced unopposed; and the several parties, meeting at the palace, seized and put to death the king, on which the surviving inhabitants submitted to the conqueror. Such was the termination of the Babylonian empire ; and thus was commenced the fulfilment of that series of prophetic denunciations pronounced by Isaiah, J ere- miah, and Daniel. It is interesting to trace how closely the circumstances that are related of this event by pro- fane historians correspond with and illustrate the nar- rative of sacred Writ. Great obscurity, no doubt, still hangs over this interesting period; and chronologists are as much perplexed by the conflicting dates deduced 80 RISE AND FALL or THE from various computations, as the historians have been puzzled by the numerous discrepancies that appear both in regard to names and persons in the records of different authors. But on this one important point there is no material dispute, namely, that the kingdom of Babylon, including the empire of Assyria, was finally subverted by Cyrus the Great, about the year 536 before the Christian era. It is equally manifest, that these power- ful sovereignties never afterwards recovered a separate or independent existence, but passed as subordinate pro- vinces to each succeeding conqueror that arose in the East. Alexander, indeed, entertained views of restoring the city to its ancient glory, and making it the metro- polis of his immense dominions, but death prevented the accomplishment of his intentions. His successor, Se- leucus, established a capital on the banks of the Tigris, but it endured only for a season, and is now, like the other, deserted and desolate. The followers of Moham- med also founded an empire, of which Mesopotamia and Assyria formed a portion ; but, for their chief town, they avoided the proscribed site of Babylon, and built Bagdad on the Tigris. Yet, even their more recent power has passed away like that of their predecessors: the struc- tures they erected have ceased to exist, and the modern inhabitants can scarcely point out where the palace of the caliphs once stood. “ Babylon, the glory of king- doms, the beauty of the Chaldees’ excellency,” is indeed “ as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation : . . . . wild beasts of the desert shall lie there ; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and the wild beasts of the islands shall cry in their desolate houses, and dragons in their pleasant palaces ..... How art thou fallen from heaven, 0 Lucifer, son of the morning! how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations i”* It may, however, be interesting to trace with some- ' Isaiah, xiii. 19-22 ; xiv. l2. BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 81 what more distinctness the gradual decay of this mag- nificent city, after its first capture by Cyrus the Great. Leniently dealt with by that conqueror, who appears to have made it the seat of his government seven months in the year, the inhabitants recovered in a great measure from the effects of the calamity which had stricken their nation, and lived happily under the protection of their new master. But his son Cambyses, a dissolute and cruel prince, having loaded them with heavy taxes, and removed the royal residence entirely to Susa, they took advantage of the troubles consequent on his death, and attempted to throw off the Persian yoke. This called down upon them the vengeance of Darius, his successor, who marched with a powerful army to reduce them to obedience. Besieged within their walls, the Babylonians had re- course to a very cruel expedient, in order to economize the consumption of their stores. Each man selected from his women the wife he was most attached to, and a single maid servant ; and all the rest of his family, old men and children, fathers, mothers, sisters, and infants, were without distinction strangled. Thus relieved from the fear of want, they not only held the city, but com- pletely baffled every stratagem put in practice by Darius to throw them off their guard. The disgrace of ultimate failure on his part was prevented by the extraordinary self-devotion of one of his chief ofi‘icers. This man, named Zopyrus, having mutilated himself by cutting off his nose and ears, and mangling his body by stripes, fled to the Babylonians, feigning that he had been thus used by his master for advising him to raise the siege, and had come to them burning for reVenge. Falling into the snare, they at once received and em- ployed him. Some considerable successes over the Per- sian troops, which Darius connived at to cover the deceit, induced the inhabitants to intrust Zopyrus with a still _ more important charge, till at length the guard of the city ports was confided to his care. On the next assault the Cissian and Belidian gates were opened by him to the 1s 82 RISE AND FALL or rm: Persians, who thus, through the wiles of a pretended deserter, became a second time masters of Babylon. Re- solved to provide against the chance of future rebellion, Darius crucified three thousand of the principal citizens, and beat down the walls, it is said, from the height of 200 cubits to fifty, which, if we admit the correctness of the former dimensions, may account for the difference on this head between the measurement given by Hero- dotus and that of Strabo. But he provided for the re- population of Babylon by sending them 50,000 women to replace those they had murdered; and, to cherish a spirit of loyalty, gave them Zopyrus for their governor. His son Xerxes was still more cruel and less scrupu- lous; for we learn from Arrian that, after his return from Greece, he destroyed the temple of Belus and other places consecrated to the national worship, and carried oil“ the great golden image of which Herodotus was told by the Chaldeans. But it is not easy to reconcile the destruction of the walls by Darius, and of the temple by Xerxes, with the description which the former historian gives as an eye- witness of its condition in his own day, for he speaks of it as it existed at that time, and not merely as it had formerly been. As we hear of no further violence being inflicted on the city till the time of Alexander, it must appear not a little singular, that then, which was but one century afterwards, the temple of Belus should again have become so much dilapidated that the work of ten thousand men should be required for two months merely to remove the fallen ruins. By that time, how- ever, the city also had suffered greatly from its misfor- tunes ; and though we learn, as has just been stated, that the intention of the conqueror was to restore the fane of the national god and make Babylon his chief residence, his death put a stop to all the measures which he con- templated for carrying his purpose into effect. His suc- cessor, Seleucus Nicator, by building Seleucia on the Ti_ gris, and transferring thither the seat of government, dealt to the waning glories of Babylon a still more deadly blow, BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 83 the moral effects of which were no doubt accelerated by the removal of materials to the modern capital, which is said to have vied in splendour with the more ancient one. Pausanias indeed informs us that Seleucus compelled the inhabitants to settle in the new city, and that the walls of Babylon and the temple of Belus had then almost ceased to exist, though there were still a few Chaldeans who continued to dwell around the consecrated edifice. Pliny remarks, that the old metropolis, swallowed up by the other, had become quite a wilderness. From this time we bear little of the condition or for- tunes of the great city. A Parthian general is said about the year B. c. 127 to have destroyed what remained of the public buildings, overturned the temples, and carried off many families to Media, where they were sold as slaves. In the reign of Augustus, as Diodorus informs us, there was but a very small portion of it inhabited. Strabo, who wrote in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, but who probably never himself visited Mesopotamia, observes that “ at the present time Seleucia is actually a much more considerable city than Babylon, which is to a great degree deserted, and to which may be applied without any hesitation the words of the comic poet, ‘ The great city is a great desert.’ ” A persecution of the Jews, who had taken refuge in Babylon, in the reign of Caligula, rendered her desola— tion yet more complete, insomuch that little mention is made in the expeditions of Trajan and Severus of the metropolis once so great ; and Lucian of Samosata, who flourished in the time of Marcus Aurelius, speaks of it as formerly remarkable for its vast circumference and nu- merous dependencies, but which would soon disappear as Nineveh had done. Saint Jerome, who resided in the East more than thirty years, about the beginning of the 4th century, speaks of Babylon as a preserve of game for the Persian kings ; and Theodoret bishop of Cyrus, who died about A. n. 468, says that the city was no longer inhabited either by Assyrians 0r Chaldeans, but only by some 84 RISE AND FALL, 6:0. scattered J eWs. He adds, that the Euphrates had changed its course, and no longer passed through the town except by means of a small canal. From this time the city is no more mentioned but as a collection of shapeless ruins in a howling wilder- ness, the haunt of venomous creatures and beasts of prey; and so complete is the annihilation of all which might tell of the past, that tradition and science are equally unable to discover, among the heaps of dust and potsherds which attract the traveller’s eye, even the site of the celebrated temple of Belns or the gigantic walls of Babylon. ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, 61c. 85 CHAPTER IV. Origin, Government, Religion, Laws and Customs, 65-0. of the Ancient Assyrians and Babylonians. Sources of Information—Origin of the Assyrians—Government ~Religion—Gods of the Assyrians—Customs and Laws same as those of the Babylonian—Government of the Babylonians —Names of their Monarchs, and Derivation—Their Habits —Oflicers and Funetionaries—Establishment and Titles— Laws—Little known regarding them—Sale of Virgins—Pun- ishments—Religion—Chaldeans-0pinions regarding their Origin—Regarded as a. nomad Race by Heeren and Gesenius ——Fa.ber’s Theory of the Progress of their Religion—And of the Dispersion of Mankind after the Flood—0f the Guthim or Cushim—Remarks on Faber’s Theory—Mr Beke’s Theory -—Supported by Coincidence of ancient and modern Names —-Bocha.rt—Diflicu1ties of the Subject—The Chaldeans the dominant People in ancient Babylon—Origin and Progress of their Religion—Chaldean Cosmogony and Doctrines ac- cording to Berosus—Its Similarity with the Scriptural Ac- count of the Noechian Deluge—Mythology—Pul or Belus— Nebo, Rach, Nego, Merodach, &c.—Grossness and Depravity of their Ceremonies—Manners and Customs of the Baby- lonians —-Lea.rning——Science—Astronomy and Astrology— Ma.thematics—Music—Poetry—Skill in working Metals and Gems—Mauufactures-Commerce. Origin—Ir will now be proper to place before our readers the little that is known of the origin, govern- ment, religion, laws, and customs of the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians. The sources of information on these subjects are much the same as those from whence the 86 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, Aze- or THE general history is derived, and are neither less limited nor imperfect. From Scripture we know that Assyria was occupied by Asshur and his descendants, to whom, no doubt, it owes its name. We have the same authority for believing that a portion at least of Mesopotamia was possessed by Nimrod and his progeny ; and an attempt has been made to prove that another section became the abode of Arphaxad the son of Shem, and his pos- terity.* Government.~—Of the nature of the Assyrian govern- ment we know nothing more than may be gathered from the Bible ; that it was an hereditary monarchy, and quite despotic. We are equally in the dark respecting the laws by which it was governed. It is probable they were few and simple, depending chiefly in their applica- tion on the will of the prince, partaking in a great degree of the nature of patriarchal rules, though sometimes harshly enforced by arbitrary power. Religion.—This, there is no doubt, was a polytheisti- cal idolatry; for there is sufficient proof that the nation had various idols. In Scripture, for example, we hear of Sennacherib being slain by his sons, while worshipping in the temple of his god. In all probability, the deities and forms of adoration among the Assyrians were nearly the same as those of their neighbours, and particularly the Babylonians, a circumstance which will afterwards be more particularly noticed. It may therefore be sufficient at present to name such of their divinities as were pe- culiar to them, of which Nisroch was one. Adrammeleeh and Anammelech, both mentioned in the Old Testament, appear to have been other names for Moloch, which itself signifies Lord or supreme power; and they were revered under various representations, as that of a mule, 9. peacock, a pheasant, or a quail. Derceto, the reputed mother of Semiramis, though of Mesopotamian origin, was recognised at Ascalon. The " Or' 'nes Biblical; or, Researches in Primeval History. By Char es Tilstonc Bekc. 8vo. Lond., 1834, vol. i. p. 106. ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS- Greeks attributed to her several other names; and like their own Venus, she was represented as half woman, half fish. Hence the Assyrians are said to have had a super- stitious reverence for the finny tribes; a feeling which they extended to pigeons, from their having been the nurses of their great queen, who disappeared from the eyes of mankind in the shape of a dove. In fact, it ap- pears that, like other nations of antiquity, they deified all their deceased sovereigns who had in any degree dis- tinguished themselves. ' The customs, arts, and trade of Assyria, having, so far as is known, been similar to those of Babylon, require no separate notice ; we shall therefore proceed at once to the consideration of these particulars in relation to the latter people. Government of the Babylonians.—This, like that of all other eastern states, was essentially despotic, gradually degenerating from the pure patriarchal form into the sway of an absolute monarch. Every thing centred in the person of the sovereign ; all decrees were issued by him; and, claiming a supernatural character, he even _ demanded divine worship. The names of the kings, accordingly, were derived from those of their gods, or of former'rulers who were confounded with them ; and on a similar principle, they affected strict retirement from the vulgar eye, and seldom appeared in public. Haughty and arrogant as they were, these autocrats were nevertheless obliged to have frequent communion with their nobles, with whom we find them occasionally feasting, and from whom were selected the chief ofiicers who administered the government of the country. Of the duties of some of thesc functionaries we are incident- ally informed by various authors; and it appears that the judges were divided into three sections, and chosen from the gravest personages of the empire. On the first class devolved the regulation of marriage, and the punish~ ment of all crimes which violated its sacred obligations ; the second took cognizance of robberies and thefts ; and the third decided in all civil afl'airs. We find also from 88 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, &c- on THE the book of Daniel that Nebuchadnezzar deputed his authority to princes, governors, captains, judges, trea- surers, counsellors, and sherifi's, whose duty it was to maintain good order in all departments of the imperial service. Again, from the same source, we gather that the great king had a household corresponding in the extent of its establishment to his mighty state ; includ- ing the captain of his guard, the prince of his eunuchs, the supreme judge, and the chief of the magicians, who were always in attendance. The first of these was the minister of his justice; the second had charge of the interior of the royal dwelling, and the education of the youth who were brought up within the palace ; the third sat at the king’s gate, that is, in an adjoining apartment, to hear complaints and to pass judgment; the last at- tended near his person, to interpret all omens and dreams, fix fortunate periods, and to satisfy the monarch’s mind With regard to every thing that related to prognostica- tion. All these were chosen on account of their per- sonal qualities, as well as the excellence of their mental endowments. He was saluted with the oriental form of “ 0 king! live for ever!” which resembles nearly the mode of address adopted at the present day towards the great sovereigns of Asia, whose courts, in respect of attendance and magnificence, bear a close resemblance to those of the Assyrian and Mesopotamian empires. Of their laws nothing in detail appears to be known, except that strange and revolting arrangement, parti- cularly described by Herodotus and Strabo, whereby it was provided that, instead of parents disposing of their own daughters in marriage, all young women should he brought to a public place appointed for the purpose, and put up for sale, one by one, to the highest bidder. The money thus obtained for the most beautiful was employed in obtaining husbands for those left without an offer, and who were disposed of in the same manner, with a premium proportioned to their want of personal attraction. But the historian informs us also that the whole business was conducted with the strictest attention ANCIENT ABSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS- to decorum, being always under the superintendence of the officers appointed for this duty, respectable by their age and rank, and who, before the bargain was concluded, received security from each purchaser that he would marry the object of his choice. We have no information respecting their punishments, farther than that they appear to have been inflicted according to the will or caprice of the reigning monarch. This we see exemplified in the story of Shadrach, Me- shach, and Abednego, and in that of the prophet himself, when, through the intrigue of his enemies, he was cast into the den of lions. The administration of their various religious rites was committed to the Chaldeans, who composed the hie- rarchy of the country, and engrossed the whole of their boasted learning. They were not only the priests, but formed the scientific body of the nation, pretending to the gift of prophecy, a knowledge of augury and divi- nation, and the power, by means of enchantment, of in- fluencing the destinies of men. By these means they acquired a most dangerous influence over their supersti- tious countrymen; but who these Chaldeans originally were, is a problem that has never yet been satisfactorily solved, although frequently made the subject of much learned discussion. Even the stock from which they sprung, and the land where they first acquired power, are matters still involved in darkness. From the pro- fane writers of antiquity we gain little knowledge on the subject; and although they are frequently mentioned in Scripture, the notices are isolated, and sometimes ob- scure. Thus far it is certain, that they were a distinct nation, as far back as the days of Terah the father of Abraham, who lived “in Ur of the Chaldees ;” and it may be inferred from a statement in the book of Job* that they were a predatory race. Yet the prophet Isaiah, it might be thought, must have had some other people in his view when he said,+ “ Behold the land of * Chap. i. 17. 1- Chap. xxiii. l3. 90 ORIGIN, aovsnsnmxr, nnucrox, he- or THE the Chaldeans: this people was not, till the Assyrian founded it for them that dwell in the wilderness.” Could this have been applied to a tribe who lived in Mesopo- tamia in the days of Terah and Abraham! Heeren,* following Gesenius in his disquisition on this very text, is disposed to seek for the original Chaldeans in the mountains of Kurdistan, or still farther to the north, and suggests that the name may have been applied by the Semitic nations to the more barbarous tribes of upper Asia, as that of Turani afterwards was, by the inhabitants of Iran or Persia, to the Tartars. He regards them as a nomad race, who, about the year B. c. 630, descending from the mountains of Taurus and Caucasus, 0Verwhelmed Southern Asia, and entering the Mesopo- tamian plains, first as mercenaries, at length started forth as conquerors, and made themselves masters of the rich provinces of Babylonia and Syria. This, however, ap- pears to be a mere conjecture, founded on insufficient grounds, and inconsistent with the declaration of Scrip- ture as to the existence of the Chaldeans in Mesopota- mia at a much earlier period. Mr Faber, who has treated the question fully in his ingenious work upon Pagan Idolatry, regards the Chal- deans as a branch of the descendants of Cush the son of Ham; and his theory is so curious, that we shall attempt a very slight sketch of it, in order to give the reader an idea of the yarious speculations to which this dark subject has given rise. This learned author supposes that the descendants of Noah did not quit the land of Armenia at an early period after the Flood, but that the patriarch lived and died in the vicinity of the spot whence he issued from the ark. No sooner did his personal influence cease to be felt, than divisions took place among his progeny, which disposed the different families or clans to a separa- tion. Nimrod, a man of an ambitious spirit and powerful " Historical Researches, 3 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1833, vol. ii. p. 147, and note. ANCIENT assrsuss AND BABYLONIANS. 91 mind, being surrounded by his kindred, who regarded him with devotion, naturally controlled the councils of the whole body, who, passive and disunited, easily sub- mitted to his sway. To restrain the turbulent, laws soon became necessary, as well as officers to administer and an armed police to enforce them. These statutes were framed of course by the great leader, whose family con- stituted the magistrates, and from whose tribe were chosen the conservators of the peace ; who, thus armed, and formed into a disciplined band, became the first military establishment—an irresistible engine in the hands of the mighty hunter. But the religion professed by these early inhabitants of the earth—a devotion to the will of the one almighty Creator—was unfavourable to the project of absolute dominion entertained by Nimrod; for the command of God had gone forth that they were to separate, and re- plenish the earth with human beings,—a consummation which the ambitious chief sought to prevent. To effect his purpose, a change of worship was necessary, and that accordingly became his next object. To administer this new religion 8. priesthood was indispensable, selected from his own military caste, whose interests were iden- tified with those of the tribe, and in whom alone their ruler could trust. Such an institution would of course be reverenced and upheld by soldiers proud of their pri- vileges, who at the same time would naturally regard their holy brethren as their best coadjutors in obtain- ing and preserving their own power. Such was Nimrod, the leader of the Noachites, and on such a basis was his power constituted, when, according to our author, he led the unbroken nation of mankind, about 559 years after the Flood, from the country of Armenia into the plains of Shinar, and about 54 years later commenced the tower and city of Babel. This undertaking, a short time afterwards, was brought to an abrupt conclusion by divine interposition ; whence fol- lowed the ordained dispersion of mankind. The moral effect of so severe a blow upon such a proud 92 omam, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, he. or THE nation would, it is supposed, appear in dividing them into many portions, each of whom would seek their own fortune, where chance might lead, some containing individuals of all classes and castes, others composed entirely of priests and military ; which last would carry with them a high notion of their former privileges, and claim for themselves the peculiar honours due to a race of unpolluted nobility. This tribe or clan, of which Nimrod was the chief, and in fact the king, is designated by Mr Faber the Gushim or Cuthim, as being the descendants of Cush the son of Ham ; and they are regarded by him as fulfilling a very exalted destiny and sustaining a most remarkable part in the history of mankind. It is imagined by many that Ham and his race became accursed on account of the sin against his father Noah; but this exposition of the well-known passage in the 9th chapter of Genesis is rejected by the author just named, who, for reasons which he sets forth, conceives the curse to be limited to Canaan, while he confers the sceptre of the world on the warlike posterity of Cush, notwithstanding that reading of the sacred volume which blesses both Shem and Ja- pheth, and gives to them Canaan as their servant. He also maintains that the first postdiluvian empire, that of the Cuthites, commenced with the institution of an idolatrous religion at Babel. After this, he admits, Scripture is silent on the future fate of the family; but he nevertheless asserts, that there is no quarter of the world where the name and the race are not to be found. He conceives that while many of them emigrated to different quarters of the earth, Nimrod, with the portion who adhered to him, founded Babel, and three subordi- nate towns ; and that he afterwards wentforth to Nine- veh, where he discovered the family and descendants of Asshur already settled. These he drove out, and built a city after his own name, while his former capital, now abandoned, sunk for a time into a merely provincial town. Meanwhile, the dispersed Cuthites took their way in various directions, settling at first principally in the ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS- mountainous tract which stretches from the head of the Ganges by the south of the Caspian Sea to the north-east of the Euxine, including all that lofty region called by the natives “the stony girdle of the earth,” from whence they overran most parts of the world. Thus in Africa they occupied the whole country from the Thebais to the source of the Nile and Mountains of the Moon, as well as the land of Egypt, which was subjugated by a tribe of pastoral Cushim from Upper India and Ethiopia. In Asia their rule stretched from the banks of the Indus to the Mediterranean Sea ; while, migrating northwards, they covered Touran (Tartary) with an unmixed race, under the name of Scuths or Scyths. These were the Celto-Scutlis of the West, and the Indo-Scuths of the East. In short, “ this enterprising people, who, by a singular fate, have ever been, at different periods, the corrupters and the reformers, the disturbers and the civilizers, of the world, were known by various names, either general to the whole, or particular to certain divi- sions. They were called Souths, Chusas, Chases, Cisseans, Cosseans, Coths, Ghauts, and Goths, from their great ancestor Oush ,' whose name they pronounced Cusha, Chusa, Ghoda, Chasa, Chasya, or Cassius. They were styled Palli, Bali, Bhils, Philistim, Palistim, Bolgs, or Belgae, from their occupation ; for the term denotes shep- herds. And they were partially denominated Phanakim or Phoenicians, and Huc-Sos or Shepherd-kings, from their claiming to be a royal race ; Sacas, Sagas, Sacasenas, Sachim, Suchim, Saxe, or Saxons, from their god Saca or Sacya; Budins or Wudins, from their god Buddha or Woden; Teuts or Teutons, from their god Teut or Taut ; and Germans or Sarmans, from their god Saman or Sarman, and his ministers the Samaneans or Sarina- neans or Germaneans, as they are indifferently called according to a varied pronunciation of the same wor .”* The Chaldeans, then, according to Mr Faber, were * The Origin of Pagan Idolatry. By George Stanley Faber, B. D. 3 vols. 4to, Lond. 1816, vol. i. pp. 85, 86. 94 onmm, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, &c. or ran those descendants of Cush who, under Nimrod, built Nineveh and founded what has been called the Assy- rian empire, but really the Cuthic ; and the first Chal- dean dynasty he supposes to coincide with that of the seven monarchs mentioned by Eusebius and Syncellus —and which lasted 224 years, or according to Alexander Polyhistor only 190—and with the Mahabadians of the Iranians. To these he adds the list of kings given by Ctesias, which, commencing with Ninus, terminates with Thonos Concolerus ; and from this results a line of sove- reigns of the Cuthic lineage, extending through a space of 1495 years from Nimrod. These positions he en- deavours to establish at great length and with much ingenuity ; dwelling particularly on a passage of Justin, quoted from Trogus Pompeius, which mentions a Scy- thian race of kings, who, prior to the era of Ninus, coming from the north, and extending their sway even to Egypt, were the dominant power for some time in India. These he contends were the imperial Cuthim, for they must have been Nimrodic monarchs: and thus, says he, “ we may be morally sure that the descent of the Scythians from the Armenian Caucasus, previous to their acquiring the'sovereignty of Asia, really means, however it may be disguised, the descent of the Cushim, at the head of the rubjugated Noaohidaz, from Mount Ararat into the Baby- lonian plain of Shinar, and that the national appellation of Scythians 0r Scuthim is the selfsame word, pronounced only with a sibilant prefix, as Cuthim or Cushim.”* We have enlarged on this author's views, because he enjoys a high reputation for learning, and his work, however open to criticism in some points, assuredly dis- plays much research as well as talent. But, though we do not mean to enter the lists with him, we cannot avoid observing, that his account of the origin of the Chaldees appears not to coincide with the facts narrated in Scripture, nor with the probable condition of the world in those early ages. * Origin of Pagan Idolatry, v01. iii. p. 402. ancnm'r assrmans AND BABYLONIANS. 95 In the first place, the Noachidae, whether subjected or not by a section of their number, and whether remaining in Armenia or existing in the plains of Shinar at the period in question, comprehended at all events the whole of the human race.* There could not, therefore, be any other of the sons of men whom they might subdue on their descent, either in Egypt or in any part of Asia; indeed none of the countries could have received their names, as the several families of Noachidse, from whom they derived their respective appellations, had not yet dispersed to seek their several abodes. In the second place, it seems scarcely possible to identify the Chaldees of Ur in the days of Terah and Abraham, with the Cushim of Ninus, who in sacred writ are always designated as Assyrians, and whose descendants, if Mr Faber’s hypothesis be just, must about that time have been in great glory, and enjoying the power won for them by the victorious Semiramis. In fact, it seems difficult to conceive thatya monarchy, so extensive as that of Assyria is represented to have been, could have existed contemporaneously with so many petty sove- reigns in its vicinity; and the presence of any great power in that quarter must appear extremely doubtful when we read of Abraham rescuing Lot and defeating the King of Elam with only 318 men of his household. Mr Beke propounds a theory totally different from that now stated. Ur of the Chaldees he supposes to have been peopled by the descendants of Arphaxad the son of Shem, who, according to the system laid down in his work, settled in the north-western parts of Mesopo- tamia, and as their numbers increased, extended them- selves southward and eastward along the valley of the Hermas, from Nineveh to the territory of Shinar, which latter he conceives, upon grounds to which we may hereafter have occasion to advert, not to have been in Babylonia, but near the foot of Mount Masius, These Arphaxadites or Casdim he conceives to have been the * Gen. xi. 1-9. 96 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, 610- on THE ancient Chaldeans; considering the latter term as an abbreviation of the Hebrew patronymic Arphacasdim, that is, the children or descendants of Arphaxad.* This reasoning receives some corroboration from the fact that many places in that neighbourhood retain the appellations they bore in ancient times, and which they probably received from their first settlers. Thus Haran,'l‘ which still exists in the vicinity of Ur, received its name no doubt from the brother of Abraham; and Serug in the same country was most probably the dwelling- place of the grandson of Peleg. Nineveh is not the only spot which preserves the name of Nimrod. Babel re- mains unchanged; and Mosul even at this day is known to its Christian inhabitants as the city of Atur,—a fact which is implied in the titlepage of the Syro-Chaldean Bibles, found in every church. Nor need this immutability of name be regarded with surprise when we reflect that the Syrian, Chaldaic, He- brew, and Arabic are all cognate tongues, which have not as in other lands been superseded or even greatly corrupted by the more barbarous dialects of the strangers who from time to time have overrun the district. The unchanging-Arabic is still the general language of all those regions, while Jews and Christians use, with little variation, the forms of speech that were common in the days of the captivity. This is a state of things singularly favourable for etymological discoveries and the advance— ment of comparative geography ; and though the appli- cation of the one science to the other may occasionally be carried too far, there is, in the present case, strong grounds of probability at least for the derivation of the term Casdim and the location of the Chaldees in Ur. In both these points, it is true, Mr Beke is opposed by high authority. The learned Bochart ridicules J ose- phus and others, when they maintain that the Chaldeans were formerly called Arphaxadites, and insists that they * Origines Biblicae, vol. i. p. 107. -|- Mr Beke, however, does not admit this to have been the Haran of Abraham’s brother. ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS- derive their name from Chased- or Chesed, the son of Nahor, brother of Abraham, who was their progenitor, ' and from whom in the ancient Scripture they are always called Chasdim. In confirmation of this he quotes Hieronymus, who says that “ Chased also is the fourth, from whom the Chasdim, that is the Chaldeans, were afterwards called ;” from whence too, Ur Chasdim, that is, Ur of the Chaldees, is always described as the region or city in which he dwelt. He confesses indeed that Chased was not born at the time when we read that Abraham went forth from Ur of the Chaldees ; but that the city was so called by anticipation,—a figure he says common in Scripture, as the one from which that celebrated people were to spring. Arphaxad, he adds, appears to have given his name to that part of Assyria, called by Ptolemy Arrapachitis.* . Enough has now been stated to show the difficulties of this subject, which would be perplexed rather than elucidated by the recital of further conjectures. But notwithstanding this obscurity, there is no doubt that the Chaldeans, as the dominant people in ancient Babylon, possessed all power and learning, as well as the influence which belonged to the priesthood. Whether their idolatry commenced with the era of the dispersion or not, it probably arose in the manner common to all such superstitions. The Almighty, invisible to mortal eye, was worshipped through the medium of his most glorious works ; and thence sprung Sabaisni,—the ado- ration of the heavenly host. To this simple and pure veneration another element was soon added. The souls of those kings who had greatly distinguished themselves on earth were regarded after their death as protecting spirits, who continued to watch over their people and families upon earth. From heroes they were transformed to demi-gods, and at length, each was identified with some onerof the heavenly host. The * Boeharti Geographia Sacra, editio quarta, folio, Lugd. Bat., 1707, lib. cap. W. p. 74. r ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS- Oannes also taught the Babylonians the use of letters, and made them acquainted with the principles of archi- tecture, jurisprudence, and geometry,—showed them valuable seeds, and was their instructor in all useful arts. Of this merman there were four appearances, one of which was under the name of Odacon. To Xisuthrus the god Cronus appeared in a vision, and told him that a flood would take place in a particu- lar month, and that he should write a history of all things down to the time, and bury it in the City of the Sun at Sippara.* He was instructed to build a ship, and embark in it with his family, friends, and a pilot, together with animals of all sorts. Having obeyed the mandate, he sailed about the world, floating on the face of the waters until the deluge abated, when the vessel stranded, as is supposed, among the Gordyaaan moun- tains, where, like Noah, after sending forth birds, he found that the earth was dry, and, with his wife and daughter and the pilot, quitted their asylum. Having then built an altar, and sacrificed to the gods, he and his companions disappeared. Those who remained in the ship now disembarked, and began to lament their lost companions, calling upon the name of Xisuthrus. Him they saw no more; but they heard his voice in the air, admonishing them to pay due regard to religion, and telling them that on account of his piety he had been translated to live with the gods, and that his wife, children, and the pilot enjoyed the same honours. He further told them to make the best of their way to Babylonia, and search at Sippara for the records he had left, and which were to be made known to all mankind. The similarity of this account to that of the Noachic deluge must be quite apparent, although the whole is greatly disfigured by its Chaldean dress. At what period idolatry began, we know not, nor when the simplicity of the patriarchal system gave way to the fantastic ' The Perisabora of the ancient eographers, and Anbar, the ruins of which are still to be seen c 050 to the castle of Felugia. 100 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, (he. or THE innovations of man ; but we learn from Scripture that images were made use of as objects of adoration as early as the days of Terah the father of Abraham. The period of hero-worship soon followed ; and the gods of the Chaldees from henceforth are to be viewed in images and monsters made by the hands of men. The first of the ancient kings who received the honours of deification was Pul or Bel, Belus, to whom his son, the Tiglath-pileser of sacred writ, or Ninus of profane writers, erected an image ; and his title to this distinc- tion appears to have been acknowleged throughout Mesopotamia as well as Assyria, for a temple was built to him in Babylon at a very early period, where he was regarded as the tutelary divinity. In this celebrated structure, however, there appear to have been two gods, one of whom was understood to be invisible, while the other was represented by a colossal statue of gold. There were also two altars ; on the one, which was of the same precious metal, and of moderate size, only young vic- tims could be offered ; on the other, which was larger, none but such as were full grown ; hence it would appear that one of these gods was held subordinate to the other. The next in importance of their deities appears to have been represented by an idol called Succoth-benoth, mentioned in 2 Kings, xvii. 130, and which is said to mean the tabernacle? of the daughters. Herodotus says that this goddess was by the Babylonians called Mylitta, signifying mother ; and Selden considers the name as the root of the Venus of later mythologies, a derivation which is supported by other authorities, and involves but an easy change of orthography. Another of the Assyrian or Babylonian deities was Nebo or Nabo, whose name so often enters into those of their kings, and who, therefore, may be supposed to have been held in high estimation. He is found in Isaiah (chapter xlvi.) coupled with Bel, and may possibly have been the same with Chemosh or Baal-peor of the Moab- ites; but little more is known of him than that he is understood to have been much consulted as an oracle. ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 101 To these may be added Rach, Nego or Nergal, Mero- dach, and many others that have not reached our time, who were objects of worship to the capricious Babylo- nians, whose city appears to have been the resort of all idols. The epistle of Jeremy the prophet, appended to the book of Baruch, contains a view of their ceremonies, their temples, and their priests, which gives a very re- volting picture of grossness and utter depravity. Not only was immorality encouraged by example, but hu- man victims were sacrificed in order to appease the im- aginary deities of a barbarous people. It is supposed, however, that this atrocious violation of all the feelings of humanity, as well as of divine law, was too revolting to be long continued, and that the shedding of human blood was afterwards confined to the inhabitants of a particular district, who were called Sepharvites from the name of their city Sepharvaim, and who oifered even their own children in sacrifice. But the practice appears to have been revived at Hierapolis, where all that is abominable in idol-worship seems to have taken refuge after the destruction of Babylon. , With regard to the manners and customs of the Ba- bylonians, the little information we possess is collected from the writings of Herodotus, Strabo, Berosus, Quin- tus Curtius, and other ancient authors, who quote prin- cipally from one another, and who, doubtless, chiefly recorded those things which seemed strange to them, and in which the people of Babylon differed from other nations. But we hear nothing of their employments, their domestic habits, or of those minute Observances that make up the greater portion of human life. We learn, indeed, that the people were peculiarly credulous, superstitious, and immoral,—that they were gorgeous in their apparel, expensive in their establishments, affect- ing even a degree of efl'eminacy in their dress and adorn- ments. Their under-garment was of linen, reaching to their heels; over this they wore a vestment of woollen, and above all, a white mantle or cloak, often 102 ORIGIN, oovannmnnr, summon, 81c or rm; very expensively ornamented. They were their own long hair, their heads being covered with a tiara or mitre. They anointed their bodies with oil of sesamum, and were particularly lavish of perfumes. Each man carried on his finger a seal-ring,* and in his hand a staff or sceptre, which, by law, was adorned on the head with some badge or figure, as a rose, a lily, an eagle, a beast; and their feet were shod with a sort of slipper, such as is observed in the sculptures at Persepolis. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that this account applies only to the latter period of the empire, and not to the earlier times, when their manners must have been more simple, the public mind more energetic, and habits of vice less prevalent. The whole learning of the nation rested, as we have already said, with the Chaldees, who refer their first in- struction in astronomy, geometry, and astrology, to that Oannes of whom we have just spoken. Sir Isaac Newton leans to the opinion that this person was an Egyptian, who, not long before the days of David and Solomon, fled into Chaldea, carrying with him the science of his country. This opinion, however, seems rather at vari- ance with the Scripture, where the learning of the latter nation is spoken of as remarkable at a very early age ; and the attempt of the first postdiluvians to‘ build the tower of Babel, implies an acquaintance with the prin- ciples of architecture which could only belong to an advanced state of the exact sciences. Besides, accord- ing to the tradition of Jews, Arabs, and Indians, the Egyptians owed all their knowledge to the Chaldeans, from whose country it was conveyed by Abraham : and, rivals as the two nations were, both in arts and arms, the claim to superior antiquity, at least, did certainly lie in favour of the Mesopotamians. But whatever may have been its source, it is manifest that their science in later times was stationary. They * Great numbers of these are picked up at this day in the ruins of Babylon, and the surrounding country. ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANB- departed not from the rules they had been taught; professed neither to know, to require, nor to teach more than they themselves had learned from their ancestors; and their principal merit appears to have consisted in being perfectly acquainted with what they professed to know. In point of fact, their attainments were very trifling, and their notions of astronomy, in particular, were fanciful and absurd. They appear to have con- sidered the earth as being like a vessel or boat, hollow within, round which the sun and moon and stars re- volved, but at what relative distances they were totally ignorant; hence they attributed the greater length of time occupied by their respective revolutions, only to a greater tardiness of motion. The moon, however, they con- ceived was an exception to this hypothesis; they taught that she shone with a light not her own, and accounted for her eclipses by her immersion in the shadow of the earth ; but as to the eclipses of the sun they were totally uninformed. ‘ They divided the zodiac into twelve spaces, each being distinguished by a sign, and throughout which the several planets performed their revolutions. These bodies were six in number, enumerated according to their respective shares of influence as follows,—-Saturn, the Sun, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Jupiter; and they were denomi- nated interpreters, as portending by their motions and aspect the will of the gods. Under the planets they ranged thirty stars, which they called counselling gods; half of whom took cog- nizance of what was done under the earth, the other half of that which was done by men, or in the heavens; and they taught that once in ten days one of the supe- rior stars descended as a messenger to the inferior, and vice uersd, by which a regular correspondence was kept up. Of these deities there were twelve chiefs, one of whom was assigned to each month of the year and sec- tion of the zodiac. Out'of the inferior stars again they selected twenty-four, placing twelve towards the north pole and twelve to the south. Will J‘;~_"*;T_:>“':»“ “'“ “"r _m_' ;z—‘q \_, k 104 omem, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, so. or THE All these luminaries were believed to exercise great power over the fortunes of men; and from their aspects . and position with reference to each other, they predicted all of good or evil that should befall the individuals born under their sway. This, it will be observed, was less a system of astronomy than of astrology, to the knowledge of which, indeed, they made the highest pretensions. As to the world, they taught that it was eternal— without beginning and without end ; and they acknow- ledged a divine Providence, who directed the motions of the heavens and the course of nature, by means of inferior agents or deities. Beyond this little is known of their doctrines on those lofty subjects. That the Chaldeans had a considerable acquaintance with mathematics and geometry appears certain, as we have already observed ; for without some knowledge of these sciences they could not have constructed the build- ings and other important works which are attributed to them, and of which the vestiges still remain. It is likewise manifest that they had musical instru- ments and performers, as in the book of Daniel we read of flutes, comets, harps, sackbuts, psalteries, and dulci- mers ; but we are ignorant of their real form ; and it is not improbable that they bore some resemblance to those used by the rude band, now called the Nokam Khanch, which in Persia and other eastern countries, plays at stated times over the gateway of the royal palace. Of their poetry we know nothing; and their total ignorance of medicine may be estimated from the fact that it was their custom to expose their sick publicly in places where every passer by might see them, in the hope that some one who had been similarly afflicted, might communicate the means of cure. That they were skilful in the working of metals and in the cutting of stones and gems, appears not only from the uses they made of these substances in their palaces, temples, and houses, but from the fragments which are even at this remote period occasionally found among - the ruins of Babylon and other cities of Mesopotamia. ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 105 They were also celebrated for their manufacture of linen and woollen. The cloaks called sindones, usually made of cotton, were highly valued for fineness of texture and brilliancy of colour, insomuch that they were commonly set apart for royal use. Their carpets of finest fabric and most splendid dyes, also their gorgeous drapery and embroideries, were equally famous. The former were in great request in Persia, where every bed and couch were covered with them. Pliny mentions a suit of Babylonian hangings for a dining-room which cost a sum equal in our money to £6458 : 6 : 8; and Plutarch, in his life of Cato, tells us that the stern patriot, having received in a legacy a Babylonian cloak or mantle, sold it immediately, as being far too fine and costly for him to wear. This people too as well as the Assyrians were celebrated for their purple dye. That the commerce of ancient Babylon must have been very great, is unquestionable. The riches and luxury of the country alone afford sufficient proof of this; and assuredly no city of that period could boast of a more advantageous position as a trading entrepot. Built upon one and commanding the navigation of two noble streams, both leading to the Persian Gulf, and sur- rounded by populous districts, nothing was wanting to encourage a spirit of adventure ; and that such did exist to a very great extent we know, though of the exact nature and particulars of the commerce itself we have no detailed account. The natives were fond of magnificence and full of artificial wants,——costly in dress, perfumes, ornaments, and in their general habits of life. Their own country did not produce the articles they consumed in such abundance, and they must therefore have im- ported them; and as the land around afforded little to give in return, the means of purchasing must have arisen in part from the profits of trade and barter. It is known also that many of the early sovereigns gave great encouragement to merchandise as well as to agriculture. Gcrrha, supposed to have been near the ;__,<_;',_' \HV_ _ '_>1__\1<\._/~‘ \~\ QM \_._~ l» 106 carom, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, M. on THE site of the modern El Katif, was a commercial station ; Teredon on the Pallacopas was founded by Nebuchad- nezzar; and Semiramis is said to have built towns upon the banks of the Tigris, as marts for Media and Persia. The land-trade of Babylon is divided by Heeren* into five chief branches,—that to the east with Persia and Bactria,—to the north with Armenia—to the west with Phoenicia and Asia Minor,—-and finally to the south with Arabia. The great road to the east ran by Ecbatana to the Cas- pian Gates, through which it led to Hyrcania and Aria, and thence in a northerly direction to Bactra, which last was the entrepot of Central Asia, Tartary, and the more southern provinces. The path for western commerce, according to Strabo, passed north through Mesopotamia to Anthemusia on the Euphrates, twenty-five days’ journey, where it turned towards the Mediterranean. This line could only be traversed by strong caravans, on account of the Scenite Arabs, who occupied the Desert, and plundered all whom they could overpower. The northern route to Armenia and Asia Minor was the great military communication made by the Median sovereigns, from Susa by Babylon to Sardis. It was divided into 110 stages of five parasangs or about twenty miles each, every one having a splendid caravansera at- tached to it. Tavernier traced it from Smyrna to Tokat, from whence in later times it went to Erivan for the purpose of reaching Ispahan, subsequently the capital of Persia. The great road now leads by Erzeroum to Ta- breez and the north of Persia. But the commerce with Armenia was chiefly main- tained by the river Euphrates on rafts of timber bound upon inflated hides, or in rude boats. These were loaded with wine and other produce of the country, and when they reached Babylon were sold, together with the com- modities which they conveyed, the force of the stream ' Historical Researches, vol ii. p. 203. m~v~ ~ --—--'~— W.- ANCIENT ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS- 107 rendering it impossible for them to return up the river. The owners, however, carefully preserved the skins, which were folded upon asses or mules, and carried back by land. This traffic is described as having been prose- cuted to a great extent. But the main branch of trade was undoubtedly that with India and the countries beyond the Gulf. This was carried on of course in ships, many of which, it may be presumed, were the property of Chaldean merchants ; for that this people possessed a mercantile navy is not only alluded to in Scripture,* but is rendered certain from many incidental notices preserved to us in the Greek writers. Still there is reason, as Heeren observes, for believing that much of this intercourse was conducted by the Phoenicians, who had settlements on the eastern coast of Arabia and were the great carriers between India and Babylon-1‘ The principal objects of this trade were frankincense and drugs, spices, especially Ceylon cinnamon, ivory, ebony, fragrant woods, precious stones, pearls, gum-lac for dye, robes, gold and gold dust, and Indian dogs; which last were greatly in demand all over Central Asia. One of the satraps of Babylon is said to have devoted the revenue of four towns to their maintenance; and Xerxes carried an immense number along with him when he invaded Greece. The chief places in the East to which this navigation was directed, were on the western coasts of the Indian peninsula,—-to Crocola, now Curachee, probably to Barygaza, now Baroach, and to Ceylon. Heeren speaks of certain ports in the gulf which were places at once of produce and of commerce. Tylos, an island according to Ptolemy fifty miles from the Bay of Gen-ha, supplied walking-sticks, and timber for ship- buildingj. the Aradus and Daden of the Hebrew poets. * Isaiah, xliii. 14. + Historical Researches, vol. ii. p. 246. IbThere is no island of the gulf which now produces any tim er. 108 ORIGIN, GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, ac. Bahrein must then as now have supplied abundance of pearls. The trade to Persia and Bactria afforded to the Baby- lonians many articles both of luxury and manufacture. Carmania (Kerman) sent its wool ; Bactria, lapis-lazuli, emeralds, rubies, and other precious stones ; Cabul, onyxes and sardines; Khorasan, turquoises ; and though not mentioned particularly by any author, there is no doubt that the various commodities which form the lading of caravans at this day were then equally objects of commerce. Their saffron, indigo, and assafetida, with the various gums and drugs, dyes, and manufactures of Upper India, as well as of the countries between it and Persia, were brought in abundance to Babylon, not only for consumption there but for transit to the coasts of the Mediterranean. Cotton and wool must have been re- quired to a great extent, for their manufactures; and even silk, as some suppose, may have found its way from China. ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. CHAPTER V. A ntiquities—Babylon. Greatest Interest of these Countries attaches to the early Periods of their Existence—Vestiges of former Greatness every where abundant—Ruins of Babylon—Discussions re- garding the Identity of Site of ancient Babel and Babylon—- Denied by Beke, who places the Land of Shinar in Upper Mesopotamia—Ainsworth’s geological Observations—Tower of Babel—No Scriptural Authority for supposing that it was destroyed at the time of the Dispersion of Mankind—Loca- tion of the other Cities of Nimrod—Acead—Erech—Calneh —All Traces of the most ancient Postdiluvian Fabrics prob- ably efl‘aced by subsequent Structures—Ancient Babylon de- scribed—By what Anthors—Extent—Height of its Walls according to various Authorities—Structure—Streets—Inter- sected by the Euphrates—Bridge—New Palace and hanging Gardens—Temple of Belns—Described by Herodotus—Golden Statue—Other gigantic Works—Canals—Artificial Lake—— —Its Construction attributed to Semiramis, to Nebuchad- nezzar, and to Queen Nitocris—Population—Space occupied by Buildings—Scriptural Denunciations against Babylon. IT is obvious, from the slight sketch we have given of the history of the countries under consideration, that the great interest they possess attaches to the early period of their existence, when they were the seats of empire, populous and rich, and covered with cities, towns, and villages, of which now in many cases not even the names remain. Before, therefore, describing the country in its present decayed condition, it is fit that our attention should be turned to the vestiges of that fallen greatness; the venerable remains of departed l 10 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. prosperity which meet the traveller’s eye in every quarter,—in the alluva plains of Babylonia as well as in the rocky mountains of Assyria. In describing the most prominent of these, we shall endeavour, by ex- amining what time has spared, and making use of the imperfect lights which history or tradition presents, to compare in some degree the brilliant past with the de- solate present, and trace in the obscure mounds and shattered walls that now encumber the land, the abodes of generations who once were among the wise and mighty of the earth. Of these vestiges no place aifords a more abundant display than Babylonia and Chaldea, the Irak-Arabi of the Mohammedans. Not only are the ruins of the ancient capital, the first and probably the greatest city of the world, to be found within their precincts, together with those of Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Orchoe, and Waasut ; but the whole plain is thickly covered with traces of former habitations. Scarcely, indeed, is there a single rood of ground which does not exhibit some fragment of brick, or tile, or glass, or sepulchral urn, to tell that man has lived in a region which now presents to the eye but one vast expanse of arid desert,—a howling wilderness, where the only evidence that he still exists is afforded by the black Bedouin tent or the wandering camel which here and there dots its dreary surface. Among these numerous vestiges the mounds of ancient Babylon claim of course the first place in interest and importance; and we shall accordingly proceed to con- sider it as it was and is. But, before attempting a de- scription of this great city, there are some preliminary questions which can scarcely fail to suggest themselves as involving considerations of the highest interest, and which it is therefore proper to examine; In the first place, are we to consider the ruins which are now very generally admitted to be the remains of the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar, as occupying also the posi- tion of the Tower of Babe], and the first city of the postdiluvians'! Do any one of the mounds which now ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. 111 meet the traveller’s eye represent the relics of that earliest architectural effort of the human race! Or did the Babel of Nimrod, the capital of the mighty hunter, occupy the same spot as the metropolis of the Chaldmo- Babylonians’f These questions lead directly to another, on the solu- tion of which the replies to them must mainly depend, namely, whether the land of Shinar, mentioned in the book of Genesis, is identical with the Babylonia of more recent times! To the consideration of this point we shall first address ourselves. Many learned disquisitions have been promulgated upon this subject, and various results embraced by their authors. The opinion most commonly received is, that the plains of Babylonia do really represent the land of Shinar. Some writers, however, are disposed to deny this proposition; and among these Mr Beke has en- deavoured to prove not only that the territory of Baby- lonia is not identical with the land of Shinar, but that we must look for that land in Upper Mesopotamia; and he is inclined to fix it in the plains about Ur* or Orfa, in the province of Diar-Modzar. But there are better data on which to proceed in examining this question ; and Mr Ainsworth, in his “ Researches,” has furnished proof, first, that the country, indicated by Mr Beke as answer- ing to the Shinar of the postdiluvians, agrees in no par- ticular with the description of that land in Scripture; and, secondly, that the alluvial formations of Babylonia did not, at the period when the Tower of Babel was built, differ greatly in extent, consistence, or natural appearance from their condition at the present day. In regard to the first point, it may be sufficient to re- mark, that the whole of Upper Mesopotamia, with the exception of particular and limited spots, consists of gravelly tracts intersected by ranges of hills, in no place affording an expanse of flat country answering to the Scriptural account of Shinar. The only two level tracts * See the map annexed to his work. 112 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. of great extent are those which stretch eastward from the Khabour and south from Sinjar to the Hamrine range of hills; and both of these, so far as is known, are rather of a gravelly than an alluvial character, and in no case far removed from mountains. Now we are especially told in Scripture that the builders of the Tower of Babel used bricks, well burned in the fire, instead of stones, and slime or bitumen for mortar. But in no part of Upper Mesopotamia could there have been oc- casion for such expedients, the two last-named materials being far less abundant than stone and mortar; wherem in the alluvial district of Babylonia the use of brick would become a measure of necessity; and the ever- flowing fountains of Hit, which unquestionably furnished the bituminous cement for the capital of Nebuchad- nezzar, were at hand to supply the builders of Babel with the same ingredient. These considerations may serve perhaps to prove that, notwithstanding the tempting lure which the name of Sinjar or Singara holds out to etymologists, the posi- tion of that land must be sought for at a lower point in the valley of the Euphrates, if indeed the whole country, from the Sinjar hills downwards to the sea, did not in those early times pass under the same name. In fact, the geological researches of Mr Ainsworth supply us with the means of showing, that the early postdilu- vians could have had no such serious obstacles to con- tend with in choosing the locality which is generally believed to have been the scene of their daring attempt. We shall not follow him through the elaborate inquiry of which he has given us the result. It goes chiefly to prove that the large beds of breccia and gravel which abound throughout Mesopotamia, must have been brought to their present situation by the agency of water, at some period antecedent to the Deluge of Scripture : first, because these beds in many places underlie formations of a plutonic character, which must have been produced by physical convulsions, of which there exists no record since that event; secondly, because these gravelly for- ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. 113 mations extend in the valley of the Euphrates to a dis- tance below the site of ancient Babylon, having been discovered at Iskenderia, in the ancient bed of the Palla- ccpas, and to the west of Semava ; and thirdly, because there is every reason for believing the greater part of the alluvium of Babylonia and Chaldea to have been formed by the Flood, and to have experienced little alteration since the progress of alluvial encroachment upon the waters of the gulf by the washings of the rivers became comparatively slow. Mr Ainsworth proves, that, reckon- ing from the time when Babylon attained its high rank as a. city, a period of 2600 years, the increase of land by the deposition of alluvium at the head of the gulf, into which the Euphrates, Tigris, and all the rivers of Susiana empty their waters, has not exceeded the rate of thirty yards per annum. Thus it may be considered as established, both that the Shinar of Scripture, or at least the portion of it re- ferred to in the 10th chapter of Genesis, was not in Up- per Mesopotamia, and also that it lay further down the valley of the Euphrates, in an alluvial soil, and in the neighbourhood of bituminous springs. A full considera- tion of all the circumstances detailed, will, we think, lead to the conclusion that the Tower of Babel and first city of the postdiluvians must have been founded on some spot not very distant from the ruins of Babylon which are seen at this day. Whether that celebrated structure did actually occupy the exact position of those mounds that now attract the traveller’s eye, is a point which, from the scanty information we possess, will never in all human probability be decided. Adopting, however, the reasoning of Mr Rich, in his first Memoir on the ruins of Babylon, it may be observed that there is no Scriptural authority for supposing that the building was destroyed at the time of the dispersion of mankind, although its further progress was arrest- ed. We learn that the Babel of Nimrod was certainly placed in the land of Shinar, and there appears nothing unreasonable in the supposition that the city of the c 114 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. dispersed might continue to be the abode of the mighty hunter and of his descendants; while those who, in a later age, undertook to raise a monument to the honour of Belus may have availed themsslves of the labours of their forefathers as a foundation for their own. At the same time, it may be remarked that there are no grounds for even conjecturing to what extent the building had preceeded when stopped by the interposition of the Al- mighty, or whether it had attained a magnitude calcu- lated to impart an enduring grandeur to its ruins. Assuming, then, that the Babel of the postdiluvians did actually occupy the same or nearly the same place as the mounds which represent the Babylon of a subsequent period, a step at least will be gained towards establishing the positions of the other cities of the kingdom of Nim- rod, “ Erech, and Accad, and Calneh,” in the land of Shiner. Recent researches, both geographical and his- torical, have induced several learned persons to fix the sites of these ancient cities as follows : Accad is supposed to be represented by the huge mound of Akkerkoof, above six miles from Bagdad, and the smaller ones by which it is surrounded. Erech, by the still more imposing remains known by the name of Workha, in Chaldea Proper, below Lem~ lum. Calneh, is referred to the site of Ctesiphon or Madayn, which cities have of course obliterated all vestiges of a prior state. The proofs on which these conclusions rest are not as yet before the public ; and it would exceed the bounds of a work like this to give in detail a chain of evidence and reasoning which, it is to be hoped, will soon appear in a perfect shape. But, with regard to the first, it may be mentioned that, while the remains of ancient embank- ments, canals, and other buildings, fragments of pottery, glass, and similar substances, no less than the nature of its structure and materials, attest its having in very remote times been a place of great importance, the name applied to it by several ancient authors approaches to ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. 115 that of the ancient city of Nimrod. Thus, in the text of the Talmud, it is called Aggada, and the learned Hyde quotes from Maimonides the expression “ Extat Aggada tres annos natus” in reference to this spot. That the Accad of Scripture should be found in the vicinity of Babel was to be expected ; and it is worthy of remark that the Akkerkoof of the Arabs is by the Turks called Aker-i-Nimrod or Akree-Babel. The name of Erech appears to be well preserved in the present appellation of Irkah, Irakh, or Workha ; while its locality with reference to that of Babel as now assumed, appears confirmatory of the conjecture that it commemorates the second-mentioned city of Nimrod. Yet it is possible that it may repreSent only the Orchoe of the Chaldeans instead of Umgeyer, or Mugeyer, a ruin hitherto unknown or undescribed, and which by some is conceived to occupy the ground of that city; while, on the other hand, the term Orchoe may be nothing more than a modification of the ancient Erech, and Workha or Irkha a more modern pronunciation of both. The comparative vicinity of the site of Ctesiphon to that of ancient Babel may, in like manner, lend plausi- bility to the conjecture which places the Calneh of Nimrod’s kingdom on the ground afterwards occupied by the former; and it is further strengthened by the appellation of Chalonitis, subsequently borne by the whole district, which was the seat of one of the early bishoprics. Yet, even in the position of Chalonitis there appears to be a doubt ; for Isidore of Charax, him- self a native of that quarter, says that Apolloniatis com- menced at Seleucia, extending eastward thirty-three shaeni or parasangs, the city of Artemita, then called Chalasar, being distant fifteen of these measures from Seleucia, nearly direct east. From thence,—that is, from the boundary of Apolloniatis,-stretches Chalonitis, twenty-one shmni broad, of which a Greek city, Chala, is the capital, fifteen shaeni from Apolloniatis, and 156 miles east of Seleucia. Five shaeni cast from it is Mount 1 l6 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. Zagros, the boundary between Chalonitis and the terri- tory of the Medes.* That any portion of the mounds now seen, or the sites we have described, belong to those earliest cities of the world, which are presumed to have been there erected, it would be more than rash to affirm. On the contrary, it is almost certain, that in the long period of more than 4000 years which have elapsed since Nim- rod founded his kingdom in Shinar, every portion of the original fabrics must have mouldered into dust, and that the huge mounds which astonish us in various parts, —-such as the Birs Nimrod, Akkerkoof,Workha, Mugeyer, Sunkhera, Zibliyeh, J ibel Sanam, and others,—belong all to far later, though still very remote ages, and were temples erected at the instance of the Chaldean priest- hood, in the days succeeding Bel or Pul, to the honour of their various deities. From the consideration of these heaps of dust and pot- sherds, it is now time to turn our eyes for a while to the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar, “ the glory of the kingdoms,” “the golden city,” “the praise of the whole earth,” which the arrogant monarch, in the days of his impious pride, declared that he had built by the might of his power and for the honour of his majesty. But in order to form some idea of this splendid metro- polis, we must have recourse to other sources besides Scripture; for, although we find in the sacred volume many direct allusions to the great power of the empire, and the magnificence of its capital,—its walls, its palaces, its temples, and its idols of massy gold,—to give a de- tailed description of Babylon, in its high and palmy state, formed no part of the design contemplated by the in- spired writers. We must therefore turn to the pages of Herodotus, Ctesias, Strabo, and Diodorus, where we shall find ample materials. These authors all describe the city as having been ' Two Essays on the Geogra hy of Ancient Asia. By the Rev. John Wil iams. 8vo, Lon . 1829, p. 58 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. l l 7 in form a square, each side of which, according to the first of them, extended 120 stadia, or about fifteen miles. But as the accounts differ greatly in regard to the dimen- sions and extent of the walls, the following table, taken from Rennell’s Geography of Herodotus, will serve to give at a glance the results of the several authorities :— Circuit of Walls. Height of Wall:- Breadth of Walls. Slldin. Cubill Feet Cubih. Fat. Herodotus 480 200 300 50 75 Ctesias 360 ' ... Pliny 480 . . . ..i Clitarchus 365 ... ... ... ... Curt-ins 368 100 150 . . . 32 Strabo 385 50 T5 32 The walls, according to the old historian, were pro- tected from approach by a large wet ditch, the mud from which served to form the bricks that were used in the building. These were cemented together with melted bitumen, and the moat was lined with the same ma- terials. In each side of the square there were twenty- five portals, making 100 in all, which were furnished with gates of brass. On the summit of the wall, between each two of these gateways, were built three towers: there was one at each corner, and three between each corner and the first gate, all of them rising ten feet above the parapet of the wall. In some parts, however, where the line led through a morass, these towers were omitted, as unnecessary for defence, so that there were but 250 in all. Within the walls there was left a space of 200 feet clear of houses, forming a spacious path- way all round. The city was intersected by straight streets, running from each gate on either side to that corresponding opposite, so that the whole area of it was divided by fifty streets—each fifteen miles long, and crossing each other at right angles—into 676 squares. Around these stood the houses, not contiguous, but with spaces between them, and all three or four stories high, having their fronts ornamented in various ways. The ‘ Fifty orgya are given; it should probably be fifty cubits. 118 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. interior of each square was laid out in fields and gardens, so that more than half the space within the walls was occupied by cultivated land. Babylon was intersected by a branch of the Euphrates, which, running from north to south, divided it into two parts, each of its banks being lined by a breast-work or wall of burned brick, in which were small portals fur- nished with gates of brass corresponding to each of the streets. These parts were united in the middle of the city by a bridge thirty feet in breadth, and not less than a furlong in length,* and built with much ingenuity. At each end of this bridge, according to some authors, there was a palace, the old and the new,—the former, on the east side, occupying four of the square divisions, that is, being three miles and three quarters in circum- ference ; the latter on the west, covering nine of them, that is, having a circuit of seven and a half miles. The temple of Belus, which filled a single square, rose near the former. Herodotus mentions but one of these pa- laces, stating that it stood in an enclosed circular space at one end of the bridge,—the temple of Belus, with its brazen gates, standing in the other. The new palace, according to Diodorus, was a place of vast strength sur- rounded by three walls, having considerable vacancies between them, and each, as well as those of the old palace, being embellished with a variety of sculptures. To this new structure, which, it is pretended by Be- rosus, was but the work of fifteen days, were attached what have been called the hanging gardens, built by Nebuchadnezzar, to gratify his wife Amytis, a Median lady. These occupied a square of four plethra, or 400 feet on each side, and are described as rising in terraces one above another, till they attained the height of the city walls ; the ascent to each terrace being by a flight " Diodorus states that it was five furlongs in length, while according to Strabo the Euphrates at Bab lon was only one furlong broad. The bridge may, however, ave been of such 8. Ian h as to connect the two portions of the city in the event of a ooding of the river. ANTIQUITIES—BABY LON. 119 of steps ten feet wide, the pile resting upon a series of arches, tier above tier, and strengthened by a surround- ing wall twenty-two feet thick. The floors were formed by a pavement of stones, each sixteen feet long by four broad, over which two courses of brick, cemented to- gether with plaster, were laid in a, bed of bitumen; over these were spread thick sheets of lead ; and on this solid terrace was placed suitable mould, deep enough to nourish and support the largest trees. On the highest of these terraces was a reservoir, which, being filled by an engine from the river, served to water the plants. Such, according to Diodorus, were the celebrated hanging gardens of Babylon erected by Nebuchadnezzar. The temple of Belus, which, at all events, was enlarged and embellished by that monarch, is described by Herodotus as two furlongs square, in the midst of which rose a tower of the solid depth and height of one furlong, upon which, resting, as a base, seven other turrets were built in like manner and in regular succession. The ascent, which was on the outside, winding from the ground, was continued to the highest tower, and in the middle of the vast structure there was a convenient resting-place. - In the last tower was a large chapel, in which was placed a couch, magnificently adorned, and near it a table of solid gold ; but there was no statue. No man was suffered to sleep there ; but the apartment was occupied by a female, who, as the Chaldean priests affirmed, was selected by their deity from the whole nation, as the object of his pleasures. “ They themselves,” adds the historian, “ have a tradition, which cannot easily obtain credit, that their deity enters this temple, and reposes by night on this couch.” In the temple there was also a small chapel, which contained a figure of Jupiter, in a sitting posture, with a large table before him. These, with the base of the table, and the seat of the throne, were all of the purest gold, and were estimated to be worth 800 talents. On the outside of the chapel there were two altars ; one was of gold, on which only young animals were sacrificed; the other was of immense size, and appropriated to the ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. to restrain the river on each side, were, he says, really wonderful from their enormous height and substance. The earth used for them was taken from an immense lake which she dug,—the circumference of which was not less than 420 furlongs (about forty-two miles),— and the banks were strengthened by stones brought from a distance. One use of this lake, he remarks, was to receive the waters of the Euphrates, which were turned into it, so that the bed below becoming dry, she was enabled to erect a bridge over the channel ; previous to which pe- riod, all persons desiring to cross from the one half of the city to the other were forced to make use of boats. To have been available for this purpose, the lake must doubtless have communicated with some of the low marshy tracts to the southward, by which the water made its way to the sea, or was absorbed by the sand; and it may now be represented by some of those very tracts south-west of Babylon, as, however large, it could scarcely have absorbed the river for a time sufficient to admit of the construction of a bridge over so broad a stream. It proved in the sequel a fatal work to the city, as it was by a repetition of that very operation that Cyrus gained an entrance, and wrested it and the empire from King Labynetus. With regard to the population of this great metropolis, and the extent of inhabited ground contained within its walls, a great deal has been written, and various opinions entertained. D’Anville, upon a calculation of what he conceives to be the most probable data, reduces its area to thirty-six square miles; while Rennell, following a similar method, inclines to assume for its extent a square of eight and a half British miles, or seventy-two square miles, observing, that even this estimate is far below the one in Herodotus, which would give an area of 126 square miles, or about eight times that of London. It is not, however, to be imagined that the whole of this enclosure was covered with houses; on the contrary, we learn that the interior of every division was occupied by gardens,-—and Quintus Curtius, particularly, limits 122 ANTIQUITIES—BABYLON. the space under building to eighty stadia, adding, “ nor do the houses join, perhaps from motives of safety; the remainder of the place is cultivated, that, in the event of a siege, the inhabitants may not be compelled to de- pend upon supplies from without.” What the eighty stadia of Curtius may have meant, it is by no means cer- tain ; but this much is sure, that a great limitation was intended of the inhabited space within the walls. It is very well known, that most oriental cities usually con- tain a large space of garden-ground within their circuit; and when we find Nineveh called a city of three days’ journey, we may be sure that this description compre- hended a vast extent of orchards or even fields. Those who desire to see what has been written on this subject by a deservedly esteemed writer, may consult Rennell’s Geography of Herodotus, section xiv. It will there be seen, that the learned author is inclined to think that Babylon, in its most flourishing state, may have con- tained 1,200,000 inhabitants. Such, then, was the capital of Nebuchadnezzar and his successors, until sacked and destroyed by Darius, according to the testimony of Herodotus, who visited the place scarcely a century after its first reduction by Cyrus, and about eighty-seven years after the more severe treatment inflicted on it by his successor. We have now to visit its mouldering remains, after the full accomplishment of the Divine denunciations, pronounced against it by the mouth of his prophets : “ How art thou fallen from heaven, 0 Lucifer, son of the morning! how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations !—-I will make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of water; and I will sweep it with the besom of destruction.”* “ And Babylon shall become heaps, a dwelling-place for dragons, an astonishment, and an hissing, without an inhabitant.—-Her cities are a de- solation, a dry land, and a wilderness, a land wherein no man dwelleth, neither doth any son of man pass thereby.”'t ' Isaiah, xiv. 12, 23. ’i‘ Jeremiah, Ii. 37, 43. RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED. 123 CHAPTER VI. Ruins of Babylon described. Allusions to them by ancient Authors—From A. n. 917 to 1616 -Described by Niebuhr and Beauchamp—By Olivier-By Rich-General Aspect—Face of the Country—Principal Mounds described—Hill of Amran—El-kasr—Remarkable Tree—Embankment—Mujelibé—Coflins discovered there— Birs Nimrod—Vitrified Masses—Al Heimar—Other Ruins _Buckingham’s Account and Opinions of the Mujelibé, El-kasr, &c.-—Al Heimar— The Birs— Sir Robert Ker Porter-His Description of the same Ruins—His Search for further Ruins on the west Side of the Euphrates—Difficulty of reconciling the Position of these Ruins with the Accounts of ancient Historians—Speculations regarding the ancient Walls of Babylon—Probable Mistakes of Buckingham— Changes in the Course of the Euphrates—Conjectures con- cerning the Birs Nimrod—And the ancient Borsippa—Dis- crepancy between ancient Accounts—Arrian and Berosns— Cities built from the Ruins of Babylon—Ainsworth’s Sug- gestion of a Change of Names for the several Ruins—His Mistakes in Regard to Measurements—The vitrified Masses—— Much Room yet for Investigation respecting these Ruins and the circumjacent Country—Prospects of this being efl'ected. THE gigantic mounds and mouldering heaps, which are now all that remains of this great capital, have for ages past attracted the notice of travellers. Ibn Haukul, the Persian geographer, in 917 A. c., speaks of Babel as a small village, and assumes that hardly any remains of Babylon were to be seen. Abnlfeda describes the former merely as the place where Ibrahim ul Kllaleel was cast into the fire. The city, he says, is now destroyed, and replaced by a diminutive hamlet, and, quoting from Ibn 124 RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. Haukul, he calls it the most ancient structure of Irak, from which the surrounding country took its name. “ The Canaanitish kings and their descendants dwelt here; its ruins declare it to have been an extensive city.” Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveller of the twelfth century, remarks that nothing was to be seen but the ruins of Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, into which no one dared to enter, on account of the serpents and scor- pions with which it was infested. In 1583, Eldred, an English merchant, on his way from Bir to Bagdad, passed the “ old mighty city of Babylon, many ruins whereof are easily to be seen by daylight ;” and he mentions in particular the Tower of Babel, which he describes as a quarter of a mile in circuit, and about the height of St Pauls,” but it “ sheweth much bigger ;” and he fur- ther states, that it was built of very large sun-dried bricks, cemented by courses of “ mattes, made of canes, as though they had been laid within one yeere.” Rawolff, who visited the place in the sixteenth cen- tury speaks of the remains of an ancient bridge, of the relics of ancient fortifications, and of the Temple of Belus, which was so much destroyed, and so full of venomous animals, that it could only be approached during two months of winter, when they do not leave their holes. In 1616, Pietro della Valle visited the ruins, and de- scribed them rather generally as a confused heap of frag- ments, so covered over with earth that they looked sometimes as much like bills as buildings. There are on record the narratives of several other persons who travelled thither during the same century; but Niebuhr, in 1765, and Beauchamp, twenty years later, are the first among more modern authors who have given any account of the remains. The latter states that the ruins of Babylon are very conspicuous about one league north of the town of Hillah. “ Above all the rest, is one which is rather flat on the top, of an irregular form, about thirty toises or 180 feet high, and much out up by furrows down the sides. It would never have been taken for a work of man, were it not for the regular RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 125 layers of bricks which are visible, and which prove that it was no natural hill. Beyond this mound, on the bank of the river, are immense masses of building, which sup- plied bricks for the building of Hillah.” Besides these ruins, M. de Bcauchamp likewise men- tions a brick wall, which he calculates must have been sixty feet thick. “ It ran,” he observes, “parallel with the river, and may have been part of the wall of the city. I discovered also a subterranean channel, which, instead of being vaulted, was covered with flat stones three feet broad by six or seven long. These ruins extend several miles to the north of Hillah, and satis- factorily prove this to have been the site of ancient Babylon.” He also alludes to Brouss, on the opposite side of the river; but he does not describe it. A few years after, Olivier visited these ruins, which he describes as being so far from presenting any traces of a city, that a careful examination is required before some of the mounds, dug into on all sides, are discovered. Among these heaps he particularizes one, which, he says, appears to be the remains of the Temple of Belus, built by Semiramis. The surface of it is formed of earth; but from the interior the Arabs dig out large baked bricks, cemented with a layer of reeds and bitumen; and the circumference he estimates at 1100 to 1200 ordi- nary paces. This is certainly the Mujelibé, as he says that it is situated about one league north of Hillah; and he adds, that between it and the river there are a great many heaps, and many foundations of ancient walls. “ Here it is that in general are found the large bricks on which are the inscriptions in unknown characters. There are some ruins to be found on the west side of the Euphrates, where likewise are sometimes found bricks with inscriptions on them; but I sought in vain for traces of the palace of the kings, nor could I discover in any direction the ramparts or walls of the city.” Hence it is plain that Olivier did not see or at least did not visit the Birs. The first comprehensive and authentic account we 126 muss 0F BABYLON nascmnan. possess is from the pen of Claudius James Rich, of the East India Company’s civil service, who for many years filled the important situation of Resident at Bag- dad, and through the consideration he enjoyed from his official situation and high character, possessed peculiar advantages for prosecuting his researches. Of these he fully availed himself; and, repairing to Hillah, accom- panied by the requisite guards, he spent ten days upon the ground, zealously occupied in investigation and in- quiry. \Ve shall therefore take his description of these ruins as the groundwork of our own, adding what further may appear expedient from the observations of subse- quent writers. “ From the accounts of modern travellers,” says he, “ I had expected to have found on the site of Babylon more or less than I actually did. Less, because I could have formed no conception of the prodigious extent of the whole ruins, or of the size, solidity, and perfect state of some of the parts of them; and more, because I thought that I should have distinguished some traces, however imperfect, of many of the principal structures of Babylon. I imagined, I should have said,——‘ Here were the walls, and such must have been the extent of the area ; there stood the palace, and this most assuredly was the tower of Belus.’ I was completely deceived: instead of a few insulated mounds, I found the whole face of the country covered with vestiges of building, in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh, in others, merely of a vast succession of mounds of rubbish of such indeterminate figures, variety, and ex- tent, as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion ..... I shall confine myself, in the present Memoir, to a plain, minute, and accurate statement of what I actually saw, avoiding all conjectures except where they may tend to throw light on the description, or be the means of exciting others to inquiry and consideration. “ The whole country between Bagdad and Hillah is a perfectly flat and (with the exception of a few spots RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 127 as you approach the latter place) uncultivated waste. That it was at some former period in a far different state, is evident from the number of canals by which it is traversed, now dry and neglected, and the quantity of heaps of earth, covered with fragments of brick and broken tiles, which are seen in every direction,—the indisputable traces of former population.”* Little need be added to this general description of the appearances on the ground, for the accuracy of which every one who has visited the spot will readily vouch. The wide extent of mounds and vestiges of buildings must in truth arrest the attention of every beholder, who, at the same time, will not fail to remark how little the shapeless heaps on which he gazes can suggest in any degree either the nature or object of the structures of which they are the wrecks. After a minute account of the surrounding country, Mr Rich goes on to describe the ruins. The principal masses on the eastern side of the river extend from a point about two miles north of Hillah for a space of three miles in the same direction, and are chiefly embraced by a long circular't mound, which commences near the south-east corner of the Mujelibe’, and taking a wide detour to the eastward, terminates at the south-east corner of the eminence called the hill of Amran. There is, besides, a long ridge called by him the Embankment, which extends 750 yards along the river, and bending to the eastward, is continued beyond the village of J umjuma, till, further east, it crosses the road from Hillah t0 Bagdad. The whole area included within these rampart-like mounds is two miles and 600 yards from east to west, and two miles 1000 yards from north to south. It is again cut nearly in half, longitu- dinally, first by a straight dike, like the boundary, but of less magnitude, of which only a mile in length re— mains; and there is to the west of this a still smaller ‘ Narrative of a Journey to the Site of Babylon, 810., by Claudius J ames Rich, Esq., 8vo., London, 1839, p. 33-46. + Sir R. K. Porter describes it as two straight lines converg- ing to an angle. 128 RUINS OF BABYLON DESCRIBED. and shorter ridge, which terminates to the north in a high heap of rubbish of a red colour, nearly 300 yards long and 100 broad, but containing few whole bricks. All these, and the rest of the ruins hereafter to be de- scribed, consist of mounds of earth formed by the decom- position of buildings channelled by the weather, and the surface of them strewed with pieces of brick, bitumen, and pottery. Beyond the southern enclosure or embankment, which affords little interest, and proceeding towards the north, is found the first grand mass of ruins, which, in conse- quence of having upon it a small domed building, said to be the tomb of a son of Ali named Amran, has been named the hill of Amran. Its figure approaches that of a quadrangle of about 1100 yards long and 800 broad, very irregular in height, but rising in the highest part from fifty to sixty feet above the plain. It has been much dug into for the purpose of procuring bricks; but there is nothing in its appearance to require a more par- ticular description. On the north of this mound there is a valley of 550 yards in length, covered with tufts of rank grass, and crossed by a low ridge of ruins. To this succeeds the second important class of remains, which form nearly a square of 700 yards in length and breadth, and are connected with the mounds of Amran by a bank of considerable height and nearly 100 yards in breadth. This square, named the Kasr or Palace, Mr Rich con- siders as the most interesting part of the Babylonian ruins, as all that can be seen of it attests its having been composed of buildings far superior to any which have left traces in the eastern quarter. The bricks are of the finest description, and notwithstanding the immense quantities of them that have been carried off, they ap- pear still to be abundant. But the search for them has caused further dilapidation and confusion, by burrowing into the mound, and cutting it into ravines in all quarters, so that it is impossible to guess at the original plan of the structure. In these excavations, walls of burnt brick and excellent mortar are constantly met with, and frag- RUINS or BABYLON mascmsan. 129 ments of alabaster vessels, fine earthenware, marble, and great quantities of varnished tiles, the glazing and colouring of which are surprisingly fresh. He found in a hollow a sepulchral urn of earthenware, and vnear it some human bones, which pulverized with the touch. One ravine, hollowed out by explorers, ran into its substance near 100 yards by thirty feet wide, and forty to fifty deep, displaying on one side some yards of a. perfect wall, the front no doubt of some building; the other, an utterly confused mass of rubbish, as if the way had been made through a solid structure. At the. south end was found a subterraneous passage, floored and walled with large bricks laid in bitumen, and covered OVer with blocks of sandstone a yard thick and several yards long. It was half full of brackish water, is nearly seven feet in height, and, the workmen said, increased farther on so much in size, that a horseman might pass through it. The superstructure over it is cemented with bitumen ; in other parts of the ravine mortar has been used ; and all the bricks have writing on them. At the northern end of this cavity, Mr Rich, in consequence of hearing from an old Arab of an image or idol of black stone having been seen, set some men to excavate, and disinterred a lion,* rudely sculptured in dark gray stone, and of colossal dimensions, standing on a pedestal. A little to the west of the ravine is a pile of building, consisting of several walls and piers which face the ear- dinal points, eight feet in thickness, in some places orna- mented with niches, and in others strengthened by pilasters and buttresses built of fine burnt brick, still perfectly clean and sharp, laid in lime cement of such tenacity that those whose business it is to find bricks have given up working on account of the extreme difficulty of extract- ing them whole. The tops of those walls are broken, so that they may have originally been much higher. This remarkable ruin is by the natives called the Kasr * This lion having been again disinterred, and examined by the oflicers of the Euphrates expedition, has been pronounced to bean elephant, of which the trunk is broken off. H 130 RUINS or BABYLON nnscmnan. or Palace, which appellation has been used to distinguish the whole quadrangular mass. A little to the north- north-east may be seen the singular tree, the only one found near these remains, said by the Arabs to have flourished in ancient Babylon, and to have been mira- culously preserved to afford Ali a convenient place to tie up his horse after the battle of Hillah. It is thought to resemble the lignum vita: ; but it is in fact a peculiar species of tamarisk. Mr Rich then describes the embankment on the river-side, which is separated on the east from those of Amran and the Kasr by a winding valley or ravine, 150 yards broad, the bottom of which is covered with nitrous efliorescence, and apparently never had any buildings on it. The face of the mound to the river-side is abrupt and perpendicular, having been cut by the action of the water, and exposes at the top a number of urns filled with human bones, which have not undergone the action of fire. The river has encroached here, as fragments of masonry are seen in the water beneath the bank. The other mounds within this space deserve little at- tention, as they present no remarkable appearance ; but the huge mass farthest north requires particular notice. It is called by the Arabs Mukalibé or Mujelibé, the first of which words means the “overturned,” a term which, Mr Rich observes, is sometimes applied to the Kasr. The second, Mujelibé, has been rendered “the place of captivity,” from jalib “ a captive ;” and is sup- posed to identify the place as the prison in which the Israelites were confined. It is of an oblong shape, but irregular in its sides, which face the cardinal points, -—the northern one being 200 yards in length; the southern 219; the eastern 182; and the western, 136. Its height is still more unequal, but at the highest point, which is the south-eastern angle, it measures 141 feet. Near the summit of the western face, which is the least elevated part, there appears a low wall with interruptions, built of unburned bricks mixed up with chopped straw or reeds, and cemented with clay-mortar RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 131 of great thickness, having between every course a layer of reeds. On the north side there are vestiges of a similar construction. The south-western angle is crown- ed by something like a turret or lantern; the other angles are in a less perfect state, but may once have been similarly ornamented. All its faces are furrow- cd by the weather, and in some parts ploughed to a very great depth. The top is covered with heaps of rub- bish, in digging into some of which layers of broken bricks cemented with mortar are discovered, and entire ones with inscriptions may here and there be found; the whole being interspersed with innumerable fragments of pottery, bitumen, pebbles, vitrified scoria, and even shells, bits of glass, and mother-of-pearl. There were dens of wild beasts in several parts; and Mr Rich per- ceived in some a strong smell like that of a lion. Bones of sheep and other animals, with abundance of porcu- pine quills, were seen in the cavities, with numbers of bats and owls. It is a singular coincidence, that here for the first time he became aware of the belief held by the natives as to the existence of satyrs—animals like men from the waist upwards, but having the thighs and legs of a goat. It is added, they hunt them with dogs, and eat the lower part, abstaining from the upper portion of the figure on account of its resemblance. Having heard that a coffin of mulberry wood, con- taining a human body, swathed in tight wrappers, and partially covered with bitumen, had been observed in a passage which leads into the interior of the mound, he set tweIVe men to work, in order to uncover the cellar to which it leads. They dug into a shaft or hollow pier, sixty feet square, lined with brick laid in bitumen and filled with earth, in which they got a brass spike, some earthen vessels, and a beam of date-tree; and after three or four days’ toil, and making their way through several passages, lined chiefly with fine bricks, but exhibiting also some that were unbumt, they found a wooden coffin containing a skeleton in high preserva- tion. Under the head of it was a round pebble, on the 132 RUINS or BABYLON nascnmsn. outside a bird, and in the inside an ornament of the same material, which had probably been suspended to some part of the corpse. A little further on was seen the skeleton of a child. N o doubt can be entertained of their antiquity. Such are the principal remains on the eastern side of the river. Upon the western, Mr Rich found but one object worthy of much attention ; and indeed on look- ing to that quarter from the height of the Mujelibé, none else was to be seen. The ruin in question was the Birs Nimrod, by far the most interesting and gigan- tic of the whole that underwent his examination. This huge and venerable pile, which is situated about six miles* south-west of Hillah, is a mound of an oblong figure, the total circumference of which is 762 yards. The eastern side is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than fifty or sixty feet high; but the opposite side rises in a conical figure to an elevation of 198, and is crowned by a solid pile of brick-work, thirty-seven in height, by twenty-eight in breadth, diminishing in thickness to the top, which is broken and irregular. It is rent by a fissure to a great extent, and is also perfo- rated by square holes, disposed in rhomboids. The fine bricks of which it is built have inscriptions on them ; and so admirable is the cement by which they are fas- tened, and which appears to be lime-mortar, that, though the layers are so close together that it is difficult to dis- cern what substance is between them, it is nearly im- possible to extract one of them whole. The other parts of the summit are occupied by immense fragments of brick-work, of no determinate figure, tumbled together, and converted into solid vitrified masses, as if they had undergone the action of the fiercest fire, or been blown up with gunpowder, the layers being still perfectly discernible,—a curious fact, and one for which Mr Rich professes himself quite unable to account. " By some of the oflicers of the Euphrates expedition it is considered to be ten or eleven. RUINS or BABYLON nsscnmnn. 133 The whole of the mound on which those fragments are deposited is itself a ruin, channelled by the weather, streWed also with the usual debris, as well as with pieces of black stone, sandstone, and marble. In the eastern face, layers of unburnt brick are plainly to be seen, but no reeds were discernible in any part, and in the north side may be observed traces of building, exactly similar to the brick pile. At the foot of the mound a step is observed, scarcely elevated above the plain, but exceed- ing in extent by several feet each way the true or mea- sured base ; and there is a quadrangular enclosure around the whole, as at the Mujelibé, at once much more perfect and of greater dimensions. At a trifling distance from the Birs, and parallel with its eastern face, is a mound, not inferior to that of the Kasr in elevation, but much longer than it is broad. On its top are two small oratories, one of which is called Makam Ibrahim ul Khaleel ; and around the Birs to a considerable extent are traces of smaller elevations. This very remarkable ruin, more striking from its utter loneliness, burst upon Mr Rich’s view, under cir- cumstances of a peculiarly impressive nature. It was a stormy morning, and dark clouds obscured every sur- rounding object, till, when just within a favourable dis- tance, they broke and discovered the Birs, with its pic- turesque mound, relieved against the opening sky, yet enveloped with a gauzy haze that added to the sentiment of mysterious awe which the sight of this venerable pile cannot fail to inspire. The mound of Al Heimar resembles the one now described, though on a much smaller scale, and stands about six miles east of Hillah, being generally included among the Babylonian ruins. It is a conical mass of rubbish, surmounted by a structure of brick-work which, like that of the Birs, but far inferior in style, evidently rises from the foundation. It is called Al Heimar from its red colour. Several other remains are noticed in the vicinity of these, the most remarkable of which are Nebbi Eyoub, 134 RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. _\__._".. a. ;_ ._'._,_,.—_.~_ _ _ _ the tomb of the prophet Job, three leagues south of Hillah, near the Euphrates, with a canal and two large mounds ; and a collection of ruins, named Boursa by the natives, near J erbouiya, a village four leagues south from the same town, but distant from the river. Two con- siderable elevations are visible from the top of the Mu- jelibé, looking southward, and another, called Towereij, to the north-west. The governor also mentioned one as large as the Mujelibé, thirty-five hours south of Hillah, where, a few years ago, a cap or diadem and some other articles of fine gold were found. This was probably Mugheyer, of which we shall hereafter have occasion to speak more at length. Such is an abstract of Mr Rich’s account of these in- teresting relics; and in the few observations which he has offered regarding them, his object has rather been to enable his readers to form their own opinion, or to make their own conjectures, than to pronounce any decision himself. He has been followed by Mr Buck- ingham and Sir Robert Ker Porter, who have each of them given a detailed narrative, not only of what they saw, but of the conclusions they arrived at, respecting the various mounds which they describe from personal inspection. The first~mentioned gentleman spent only two days in his examination—the latter ten; but, as the result very nearly corresponds with that attained by Mr Rich, we shall only notice the points on which any difference exists. Mr Buckingham, indeed, on all occasions refers to the Memoir as to a document which cannot be improved in point of accuracy. He adopts Rich’s measurements generally; and quotes extensively from his publication. He thinks the Mujelibé was certainly enclosed by walls and ditches, but differs en- tirely from those who have been disposed to regard it as the ruins of the temple of Belus ; being satisfied that it must have comprised a variety of edifices varying in form as well as in use and materials. On its exterior surface are the remains of walls sufficient to prove that its base is still a solid building, very little enlarged by debris; RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 135 while the summit, for similar reasons, affords ample evi- dence that its elevation could never have much exceeded that of its present height. All this goes to establish that it cannot be the tower of Belus, which must haVe left an infinitely larger quantity of ruins. Its area, too, is larger than what has been attributed to that cele- brated structure, which, besides, is stated by Diodorus, Strabo, and others, to have been built of fire-burned bricks and bitumen, whereas the chief part of the Mn- jelibé is composed of sun-dried ones, cemented with clay- mortar and layers of reeds or rushes. Mr Buckingham is rather disposed to consider this mound as the old castellated palace mentioned by Dio- dorus, which he supposes to have been built on the side of the river opposite to the temple of Belus. The Kasr, distant from the Mujelibé somewhat more than a mile, is, he observes, occasionally called Babel; and here he conjectures was the royal abode to which were attached the hanging gardens. “ Were it not that the palaces are said to have been seated on opposite sides of the river, I should have said, when looking towards the Mujelibé, There was certainly the old palace, and here is the site of the new ;” but this he acknowledges to be at variance with all existing accounts, though he suggests that the stream may have changed its course and once passed between them. Viewing the mounds of Amran and the Kasr, con- nected together as they are with a broad and lofty ridge like a causeway, and faced by an embankment on the edge of the river, he is inclined to regard them as forming the space and buildings, which, according to Diodorus and Strabo, were surrounded by three walls, one of sixty stadia in circuit, one of forty, and a third of which the extent is not mentioned. The first of these walls, he observes, may be represented by the mound which strikes off from the east corner of the embank- ment, and which he says may be traced at its northern end in an eminence appearing north-west of the Muje- libé. The wall of forty stadia is the circular ridge 136 RUINS or BABYLON nascnmnn. mentioned by Mr Rich, joining the south-eastern corner of Amran, and coinciding nearly with the south-east angle of the Mu jelibé. The third he considers to be represented by the straight mounds E and F of Mr Rich's plan.* After surveying this place, Mr Buckingham and his companion rode eastward across the country, to try if they could find any traces of the walls of Babylon. Their more definite object was A1 Heimar, in their way to which they saw many straight lines of mounds running in various directions, some intersecting others, which that gentleman identifies at once as being the remains of the rectilinear streets of the old capital, because they rise too high above the soil to be formed of the earth from the intervening space, which was level with the surrounding land. Had Mr Buckingham been better acquainted with the nature of the ancient canals of Ba- bylonia, he would have known that their banks generally rose above the surface; and that these mounds, there- fore, more probably represent aqueducts than houses, which were too insignificant both in point of size and material to have continued so long where so many great fabrics have entirely disappeared. This author enters into a long and elaborate disquisi- tion, to prove that the mound at Al Heimar is the remains of part of the wall of the ancient metropolis; a. conclusion which we shall notice hereafter. As to the Birs Nimrod, he estimates the mound at 200 feet high, and the brick building on the top at fifty more. He describes four stages in this remarkable ruin, besides the step already mentioned, a little raised above the ground, and exceeding in extent by several feet the true base of the building. Within this rises the lowest stage, showing a part of its material only where a pit has been dug or worn. These are of sun-dried though firmly made brick, cemented with bitumen or mortar, but with- out reeds. The second stage presents at the north-east angle, which is exposed, a wall, externally at least, of ‘ Rich’s Journey to the Site of Babylon, &c., p. 60. RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 137 burned brick. The third, which, like the last, recedes in a due proportion, is also formed of the same material. Above all, rises the fourth and last stage, which is the tower-like pile. The summit of this, still 250 feet above its base, occupies, says he, nearly an area of 100 feet, only one side of which is now erect, being a wall of thirty feet in breadth, fifteen in thickness, and fifty feet high. He adverts to the vitrified masses at its foot, and seems to think, that had fuel been collected in the upper stage, and set on fire, it might have burst the fabric asunder and produced such effects; alluding here to a quotation by Sir Isaac Newton from Vitringa, in which that author speaks of a Parthian king having, about 130 years B. (1., burned many of the temples of the Babylonians with fire. Mr Buckingham entertains no doubt that this is really the remains of the tower of Belus, not- withstanding the objections that may be urged against it on the ground of its locality or otherwise. Sir R. K. Porter spent ten days at Hillah, great part of which was employed in examining the ruins; and his accounts, though in some respects more detailed, differ little in substance from those furnished by Mr Rich. He limits the circumference of the Birs Nimrod to 694 yards; but the difference between this and the measurement of his predecessor may probably have arisen from the difficulty of determining the exact limit of the base. The mound he states to be 200 feet high, and the fragments of the brick wall thirty-five. He remarked, that in the upper part of the masonry, lime is exclusively used for cement, while bitumen has been confined to the lower parts of the building. The bricks, too, used below were larger, so that in some parts of the wall, exposed at the eastern angle, he found them twelve inches and three quarters square by four inches and three quarters thick, and laid in mortar an inch deep. In a portion of the wall at the north-west angle, the several courses, instead of being on a level, had a gentle inclina- tion; those facing the north sloped towards the east, and those on the western face towards the south. Still lower 138 RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. down, a large hole afforded a peep into what Sir Robert calls the pith of the building, which was composed of large sun-dried bricks, cemented with clay-mortar mixed with broken straw or reeds to the thickness of an inch and a half. Hence he supposes that the whole interior of the lower part is constructed of these materials, each stage or story being cased with furnace-baked bricks, binding the rest together; and that the bitumen was used only near the foundation, where damp was likely to do injury. He entertains no doubt that the Birs is the ancient temple of Belus. Of the Mujelibé his de- scription is quite the same as that of Mr Rich ; but his measurements vary. As to its height be nearly agrees, the south-east corner being the highest point; but states that the north side measures 552 feet ; the south, 230 ; the east, 230 ; and the west, 551. In this there is pro_ bably some error, as the south instead of the west side must correspond with the northern one. He thinks it never rose much higher than at present, and concludes that it must have been a platform on which more mag- nificent buildings were meant to be erected, as at Per- sepolis. He repudiates entirely the opinion that this could have been the tower of Belus, and inclines to con~ sider it as the remains of the castellated palace. In the measurements of the Kasr he agrees in the main with Mr Rich, since whose visit, he remarks, the excavations had greatly altered its external form. Here, also, he observed the use of bitumen in the lower part of the building, but adds, that the core or pith of these mounds is comp05ed of furnace-baked bricks cemented with lime. He entertains no doubt that the two mounds of Amran and the Kasr conjointly formed the new palace, of which the first enclosure was the rampart-like mass that joins it to the Mujelibé, and which Sir Robert lays down as forming an angle with the apex pointing east- ward instead of a circular sweep. The second and third enclosures he conceives to be represented by the several ridges which divide the enclosed space in a direction from north to south, and subtending the angle; along the RUINS 0F BABYLON DESCRIBED. 139 summit of one of which the present road to Hillah runs. He considers Rennell’s idea of the river having ever flowed between the Mujelibé and Kasr as totally chi- merical. At A1 Heimar, Porter discovered nothing new. He visited certain mounds about a mile to the eastward, but conceives that they could never have stood within the precincts of Babylon. He took considerable pains also in searching for ruins on the western side of the river, and found two groups of mounds between the village Anana and the Birs. The largest of these was thirty- five feet high, and the neighbouring country was dotted with heaps. He asks whether these can be the remains of the lesser palace. He observed also, in proceeding round by the village Thamasia, that for a mile and three quarters before reaching the Birs, the land was covered with the usual vestiges, which continued to the foot of that ruin; and relying on this fact, he argues that the Birs did actually occupy a space in the city. Such is the amount of the three best descriptions of the Babylonian remains, written by persons who, in our own day, have enjoyed the most favourable opportunities for carrying on their investigations; and it will be seen that, upon comparing the delineations of ancient writers with the actual state of the ruins, they have all come to the conclusion that the temple of Belus is represented by the Birs Nimrod, and the palace and hanging gardens by the ruins of the Kasr, in combination perhaps with those of the Amran hill. T0 reconcile the positions of these two places, and the present course of the Euphrates, with the details given by Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, and others, appears impossible. Yet, from many circumstances, it seems more probable that their writings have been inaccurately copied, or imperfectly understood by us, than that the mounds in question can represent any other buildings of the ancient capital than those now specified. For, in the first place, assuming that the Euphrates has changed its course, the distance of seven to eleven miles at least 140 news or BABYLON nascnrsnn. —which we find between the Birs* and the Kasr—can never be made to correspond with that which would appear to have existed between these celebrated edifices according to every description of Babylon that has reached our times. On the other hand, it must be ad- mitted, that no other structures could have left remains so gigantic as those which have just been described, and are presumed to represent the temple of Belus and the palace of Nebuchadnezzar. So great, indeed, is the distance between the principal mounds, that it seems impossible by any process of measurement to bring them within the space assigned to the walls of the old city. For, even supposing the enclosed sections in each division of it,—in one of which was the palace, in the other the temple of Belus, as men- tioned by Herodotus,—not to have been, mathematically speaking, in the centre of their respective squares, it is scarcely possible to wrest the sense so far as to imagine that either building could have been placed in a corner or at an extremity of the town; and yet, if the Birs and Kasr are assumed to represent the temple and palace described by the Greek historian, such must needs be the case with one of them, supposing the other to have been near the centre of its division. Some very ingenious antiquaries, in seeking for the boundaries of ancient Babylon, haVe been inclined to regard the Birs as forming the south-western angle of the city,—-A1 Heimar as that of thesouth-east,--the Towebah as representing the north-east angle; while the one to the north-west must be looked for in the marshes that stretch westward in that qualter. This, of course, would exclude the Birs from the distinction, which others are disposed to bestow upon it, of representing the temple of Belus, even if we concede to the metropolis the utmost extent assigned by any historian ; but there appears to be no ground for supposing such a theory, nor does ' A late traveller, Colonel Chesney asserts that the distance of the Birs from Hillah is not less than ten miles 5 if this he so, it must be eleven at least from the Kasr. sums or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 141 actual observation warrant it. The writer of these pages examined great part of the ground between A1 Heimar and the river in a line with the Birsland northward from Al Heimar towards the Towebah; and the result was, that though great part of the country appeared covered with vestiges of former buildings, he not only failed in detecting any continuous course of mounds, such as might indicate the direction of the wall, but actually observed a greater number of these remains eastward of the imaginary line than to the west of it. Mr Buckingham is disposed to regard that conical mound as constituting a portion of the ramparts of Baby- lon. He probably overlooked the distance between Al Heimar and the Bits—not less than fifteen miles*— which would either shut out his tower of Belus alto- gether, or make it nothing more than a, corner bastion. Sir Robert Porter, with better judgment, is disposed to exclude Al Heimar and all the mounds eastward of it from the space assigned by Herodotus; but even this will not remove the stubborn obstacle, with which every theory for reconciling ancient accounts with modern appearances is met at the threshold,—the distance be- tween the principal masses of ruins. A good deal of stress has been laid upon the probability of considerable changes having taken place in the course of the Euphrates; and there can be no doubt that such have occurred, though in what direction and to what extent has not hitherto been ascertained. Its encroach- ments on the mound called by Mr Rich “ the embank- ment,” by which so many sepulchral vases have been brought to view, is obvious; and through the whole dis- trict, the remains of mason-work on its sides and even in the water bear witness to the former existence of build- ing where the river now flows. Colonel Chesney con- ceives that he saw a former bed of the stream in the tract between its present course and the site of the Birs ; and another gentleman, who visited and examined that part ' According to Colonel Chesney more than twenty. 142 sums or BABYLON nascnrsnn. of the country with great care, has suggested that there is quite sufficient space between the Birs and the mound of Ibrahim ul Khaleel to admit of the river or a branch of it having run between them. In this case, the posi_ tions of these two mounds would identify them as the remains of the temple of Belus and the palace, just in the proper situations at either side of the stream. But the remains of old canals to the eastward, between the Birs and Hillah, would seem to indicate, that the Euphrates must of old, as well as now, have run in that direction ; and at all events, we should be equally at a loss what to make of the gigantic ruins on the present eastern bank —-the Mujelibé, the Kasr, and others-which must re- present some stately fabrics pertaining to the city. Another conjecture has been hazarded with regard to the Birs, namely, that it may be the remains of a temple of the ancient Borsippa or Bursif, which is mentioned as being near ancient Babylon if not once forming a section of it. In this place, after the downfal of the empire, and partial destruction of the great city, a number of the Chaldean priests and artificers took up their abode ; and thither also, we learn, Labynetus fled from Cyrus, after the conquest by that prince. The name Bum], so easily passing into Birs, seems to favour this idea, which would also account for the otherwise unintelligible appellation by which this re- markable ruin is known ; for the word Birs has no sig- nification in Arabic or the cognate languages. Mr Rich, it is true, alludes to a collection of mounds, four or five hours south of Hillah, near the village J er- bouiyah, known by the name of Boursa, which may lay claim to being the Borsippa mentioned by Strabo and other writers. But Buckingham casts some doubt on the position and even on the existence of this Boursa; for it appears, that of all his escort, there was only one man who pretended to any acquaintance with the place, and even he had no clear notions respecting it. Sir R. Porter mentions a station called Boursa Shishara, two hours from Kiahya Khan on the way from Bagdad to RUINS or BABYLON DESCRIBED. 143 Hillah, where is a true Babylonian mound thirty feet high, with a layer of reeds between each course of bricks; and he speculates on the possibility of this having been the Borsippa where Alexander halted on his way from Ecbatana to Babylon. But if the Birs be pronounced a relic of Borsippa, and not of Babylon, where are we to look for the temple of Belus, which, of all the buildings in that metropolis, must, from its uncommon height, have left the most imposing ruins!‘ It has been shown that neither the Mujelibé nor Kasr can pretend to be its representative, and there is none other to fall back upon. There is, indeed, no small difiiculty in reconciling the accounts of historians respecting the state of this cele- brated structure from time to time. Herodotus, who describes it as an eyewitness 430 years B. 0., though he alludes to the destruction of its walls by Darius, and the partial pillage of its shrines by Xerxes, speaks of it as by no means dilapidated ; on the contrary, he describes its two walls as still existing, the outer one castellated and 200 cubits high, and the temple of Belus as being quite perfect and undesecrated, except by the plunder of its golden image by the Persian prince. Yet barely a century afterwards, Alexander, according to Arrian, found it so encumbered by ruins that 10,000 men were not able to remove them in two months; while Bero- sue, a priest of Belus, who flourished at the same period, writes a history of the Chaldean cosmogony, chiefly from the allegorical representations which he saw on the walls of this very temple. That it must, however, have suffered greatly prior to this time, is certain ; and in tracing the progress of its decay, we have witnessed a rapidity of destruction, which is the more impressive as it corresponds so accurately with all the denunciations of divine wrath which were hurled against the sinful and devoted city. But Providence works by instru- ments, and it is striking indeed to trace the Almighty hand in the human agents who overwhelmed that mighty city by a rapid succession of attacks; nor need we be 144 RUINS or BABYLON nascnman. surprised at the disappearance of great part of her ruins, when we reflect, that out of them were built in suc- cession, Seleucia and Ctesiphon, Coché, Cufa, Kerbelah, Meshed Ali, Bagdad old and new, besides many smaller towns and villages. No wonder that, when the more solid materials were carried oil“, the mud and sun-burnt bricks, exposed to the action of rain and wind, should crumble into the soil whence they were taken. A late and very acute traveller, Mr Ainsworth, whose work has already been referred to, has suggested a change of names for the several ruins, which he thinks will simplify the investigation. The Mujelibé, he says, ought to be called Babel; and he applies the former term to the Kasr, which last appellation he again bestows upon the mound called by Mr Rich the embankment. We do not know to what extent he prosecuted his dis- coveries upon the spot ; but it appears to us, that had he inquired minutely, he would scarcely have found grounds on which to rest his new nomenclature. We think he would rather have adopted the conclusion held by other travellers that the northern mound could never have been much higher than it now is, and consequently that it could not be the tower of Belus; while certainly there is strong internal evidence that the Kasr, called by him the Mujelibé, represents the palace and hanging gardens. We think him greatly in error, too, in the elevation which he assigns to the several mounds, sixty- four feet to the northernmost or Mujelibé of Rich,— twenty-eight feet to the Kasr of the same author,— twenty-three feet to the Amrau ibn Ali. In these there can be no doubt of his being mistaken. The Birs, ac- cording to him, belonged to the most westerly quarter of Babylon, if not to a distinct city, and is therefore more likely to represent Borsippa than the tower of Belus. There is one fact, in connexion with the most remark- able of these relics, which we cannot dismiss without a few more observations. All travellers who have as- cended the Birs have taken notice of the singular heaps of brick-work scattered on the summit of the mound, at RUINS or BABYLON nascnmnn. 145 the foot of the remnant of wall still standing. To the writer of this volume they appeared the most striking of all the ruins. That they have undergone the most violent action of fire is evident from the complete vitrification which has taken place in many of the masses. Yet how a heat, sufficient to produce such an effect, could have been applied at such a height from the ground, is unaccountable. They now lie upon a spot elevated 200 feet above the plain, and must have fallen from some much more lofty position, for the structure which still remains, and of which they may be supposed to have originally formed a part, bears no mark of fire. The building originally cannot have contained any great pro- portion of combustible materials ; and to produce so in- tense a heat by substances carried to such an elevation, would have been almost impossible from the want of space to pile them on. Nothing, we should be inclined to say, short of the most powerful action of electric fire could produce the complete yet circumscribed fusion which is here observed ; for that the melted masses have had some connexion with the building yet remaining can_ not be doubted. Of such a catastrophe we have no record, unless we accept as such the prophecy of Jeremiah,* “ and her high gates shall be burnt with fire ;” but there are many events connected with the history of this city which remain in total obscurity, and this we are inclined to think must be placed among them. These fragments are of various hues, brown, yellow, and gray. Although fused into a solid mass, the courses of bricks are still visible, identifying them with the standing pile above ; but so hardened have they been by the power of heat, that it is almost impossible to break ofl" the smallest piece; and though porous in texture, and full of air- holes and cavities, like other bricks, they require, on being submitted to the stone-cutter’s lathe, the same machinery as is used to dress the hardest pebbles. Their specific gravity is very great, and they are capable of receiving a very good polish. ‘ Chap. Ii. 58. 146 RUINS or BABYLON nascmnsn. From the statements now made it is obvious, that however much has been written on the subject, the locality of ancient Babylon is as yet but very imperfectly understood,—a circumstance which arises chiefly from the difficulty of residence and of making the necessary observations upon the spot, so that no traveller hitherto has been able to devote to the examination of the ruins themselves as well as of the circumjacent country, that time and attention which are indispensable for illustrat- ing so obscure a subject. But matters will probably not remain long thus. Something has already been done towards removing the obstacles that have hitherto ex- isted : the Euphrates expedition has familiarized the Arabs on the banks of that river with the sight of Euro- peans; and we know that even now there are in those regions travellers peculiarlywell qualified by intelligence, zeal, and perseverance, for prosecuting these interesting investigations. Hence there is good ground to hope that the secrets of ancient Mesopotamia and Babylonia, his- torical, geographical, and antiquarian, will erelong be laid at least as open to the present generation as those of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. OTHER mums or BABYLONIA AND canons. 147 CHAPTER VII. Other Ruins of Babylonia and Ohaldea. Akkerkoof-The Site of Accad—Umgeyer-According to some Opinions the ancient Orchoe_Jibel Sanam-Jl‘eredon _Workha-Sunkhera—Yokha_Til Eide_Guttubeh_ Isk- huriah—Zibliyeh-Tel Siphr, &c.—Waasut or Camera—- Seleucia and Ctesiphon—Tauk e Kesra-Cupidity of a Pasha _Kalla mal Kesra-Opis, Situation of—Median Wall—Tra- ditions regarding its Use-Sittace_Sheriat el Beitha_Sa- marra- The Malwiyah—Large Mosque—Kat“ 0r Chaf— Giaoureah—Kadesia-Statue of black Basalt—Tecreet—Al Hadhr or Hatra—Felugia-New Fields of Enterprise for Explorers. NEXT to the ruins just described, and as certainly con- temporary with them, we must notice the isolated but enormous pile of Akkerkoof 0r Aggerkoof, called also Tel Nimrod, and by the Turks Nimrod Tepessi. Sir R. Porter says the former name is only applied to the district around it. It is six miles from Bagdad, and stands upon a hillock that slopes gently upwards from the level of the plain to a considerable height, above which it rises to an elevation of about 125 feet. Its general resemblance to the Birs Nimrod struck Mr Rich forcibly; and the mass of the building, which is solid, is composed of unburnt bricks mixed with chopped straw, having layers of reeds two inches thick between every five or six courses. These reeds protrude from the weather- worn edges of the bricks, communicating to the profile of the edifice a singular serrated look visible from a distance. In appearance they are still perfectly fresh, differing only from those that grow in the circumjacent 148 ornna RUINS or BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. marshes in being a little darker in colour. As in the Birs, there are also here square holes running through the body of the pile, as if to afford ventilation. The shape is now so irregular, owing to the effect of time, that its original form can scarcely be detected; but it seems to have been a square, the sides of which faced the cardinal points. The circumference, taken above the mound of rubbish, is 800 feet, and the diameter at the largest part about 100. The mound consists of loose sandy earth, probably drifted by the wind, mingled with fragments of brick, pottery, and half-vitrified clay. Like the Birs, it has a mound of debris on the eastern side ; and this is supposed to indicate the site of Aocad, one of the cities of N imrod,—-a conjecture which is thought to be supported by its position with reference to Babylon, by the name of Akkerkoof, and the tradition which ascribes it to the mighty hunter. Embankments, and the usual debris, testify to its having been a considerable town; while its vicinity to Bagdad accounts sufficiently for the disappear- ance of its furnace-bricks and all transportable materials. The remaining antiquities of Babylonia will not detain us long, as, though some may represent places of im- portance, they do not possess the great interest which attaches to the capital or to Nineveh. We shall men- tion a few of the most remarkable. Following the course of the Euphrates, we find upon its right bank, about twenty-five miles south-east of Semava, and ten or eleven from the river-bank, the most perfect remains of one of those lofty edifices which, like the Birs and Akkerkoof, are supposed to have been Chal- dean temples. It is called Mugeyer or Umgeyer, which in Arabic signifies “ the place of bitumen ;” and as it has not as yet, we believe, been described, if indeed it has ever before been visited by any modern traveller, we shall here introduce an account of it derived from personal inspection. It is a huge quadrangular building, rising to the height of eighty or a hundred feet above the plain from a great mass of dilapidated matter. The lower half was hid from view by these ruins, out of OTHER RUINS 0F BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA- I which the masonwork emerged in two distinct stories. The sides, which faced the cardinal points, were on the west fully sixty yards in length, and on the north about forty; there being no means at hand for more accurate measurement. The structure resembles that of the Birs ; but there was no such fine masonry as appears on the top of the latter. The bricks were coarser and softer; many were marked with the arrow-headed character, and in most cases laid together in very thick beds of bitumen, which bore the impression of the matted reeds. The workmanship on the whole was very good, and much of it quite perfect, as there have not been any materials abstracted from it as at Babylon. The mass is pervaded with small holes as is the Birs; and a circular one was observed on the top, at present filled with rubbish, but which may possibly descend into the building. The northern and western faces exhibited two distinct stories, the upper diminishing in extent as in some of the In- dian pagodas, which it a good deal resembled ; but the bricks were so altered by long exposure to the weather, that it was impossible to pronounce whether those that now met the eye constituted part of the original outside coating or not. Looking from the top, vestiges of a wall of no great thickness could be traced, apparently forming an enclosure to the building. Its north face, the only one at all perfect, measured 118 long paces ; of the rest, only the corners were visible, and near the south-eastern angle rose a pretty large conical mound, like the ruins of a bastion. There were many others about it, especially towards the south-east ; and the earth was extensively covered with ruins, among which were fragments of se- pulchral vases sticking out of the ground, flints, pebbles, and numerous pieces of old copper. The whole character of this edifice testifies that it must be coeval with the Birs. Mr Ainsworth has pronounced it to be the ancient Orchoe of the Chaldeans, of the situation of which we know little ; but there is rather more reason for believ- ing that city to be represented by the ruins of Workha, in Chaldea Proper, and to which we shall soon allude. 150 OTHER RUINS 0F BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. Mugeyer is also believed to stand on the banks of the ancient Pallacopas; but the exact course of that canal has not been traced in modern times, and there was nothing seen from the top of the ruin to confirm the idea. There were, however, one or two lofty mounds observed to the westward, bearing much the appearance of the place itself when first seen above the horizon; but circumstances did not permit us to visit them. Of the remains to the south and eastward of this place little is known, although there is every reason to believe that relies abound in the course of the Pallacopas. Jibel Sanam, which marks the site of the ancient Tere- don, a city built by Nebuchadnezzar at the mouth of that outlet of the Euphrates, is described as a true Baby- lonian mound of prodigious size, lofty, and of infinitely greater extent than the Birs, but in other respects re- sembling those already described. ' The territory of ancient Chaldea, extending from ' Dewannieh and the Euphrates to the Boo je Heirat canal, is thickly dotted with immense mounds, among which that of Workha rises pre-erninent ; but from the difiiculty of approaching it, owing to the surrounding lakes and marshes, it has never been examined. We could descry this elevation at a distance of about four miles, but were unable to reach it. Not far from Workha is seen Sunk- hera, one of a large number of mounds forming a sort of circle, built of fire-burnt bricks; the whole surface being strewed with scoriae,agates and cornelian fragments, and bits of copper, but no glass. The chief one was very large, and from fifty to sixty feet high ; and the entire circle must have been more than a mile in diameter. The surface of the land around it was irregular, raised in heights and hollows ; but whether or not these were sites of buildings could not be ascertained. In the area were traces of foundations, a square consisting of houses and courts, which, as they do not rise above the level of the soil, are probably of recent date. The rest was un- doubtedly ancient. To the north and east were several clusters of mounds, the largest of which was called Yok- OTHER RUINS OI" BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA- ha, of considerable size, and in the centre of a wide tract of debris. To the north-west of this was observed a lofty pyramidal mass called Til Eide, surrounded by the relics of old habitations. ' Six or eight miles north-east of this last, our attention was attracted by an elevation, which belonged to a place that must have been of very great magnitude in its day. It appeared to have been a quadrangle of at least five or six miles each way, and of which the building in question formed the north-eastern corner. It was a structure like a great bastion, formed of sun-burnt bricks of the usual size, with layers of reeds between each tier as at the Mnjelibé, and rising to a height of at least fifty feet from the plain, including the tame]: or hillock of ruins out of which it springs. It was split from top to bottom into four pieces, and each opening afforded the means of entrance into the interior, which was partially hollowed out; but whether by original construction or efi’ected by the rains, is uncertain. From the summit may be traced, by irregular heaps and fragments, the course of the northern and eastern sides, converging at right angles to each other. The greater part of the area was bare, as is usual in such cases, and dotted all over with the black camps of Arab tribes. Following the line of the north wall for nearly five miles, the country on the northern side appeared also covered with debris, and a boundless extent of them stretched to the West of the square space ; besides which, there are huge ridges about the same distance to the south, which the natives call Hummam. They gave no name to the ruins in general, but assigned to the country at large the appellation of Guttubeh. The evidences of an extensive population in former times were more remark- able here, perhaps, than in any other part of the J ezirah. A large portion of this district is low, and, to a great extent, periodically over-flowed, so that the remains were less conspicuous ; but about thirty miles northward the mounds again become frequent. Among the most re- markable are those of Iskhuriah, not far from the Tigris; OTHER RUINS 0F BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. and Zibliyeh, south-west of the former, nearly half-way between the two rivers. The first is a name applied by the Arabs to a huge group, of which the highest may rise to twenty-five or thirty feet above the plain, and are covered with immense quantities of scoriae and slag- like stones resembling the refuse of a brick furnace. These are either black, porous, hard, and heavy, or com- posed of yellow vitrified matter, being, in some cases, several feet square by six inches thick. The mounds themselves, except in this particular, are not very re- markable ; but the size and multitude of the slabs were perplexing. It was told us that they are formed into millstones and various other articles ; and, in truth, they might be supposed to have constituted some peculiar manufactory. The Arab name implies a “ stony” place ; and the tradition regarding them is, that this was the country of Lot (Loot), and that Heaven in its wrath shOWered them down on the wicked inhabitants. Look- ing from the top of the highest of these mounds, the whole region seemed covered with others of various sizes ; insomuch that there was scarcely a quarter of the horizon without a height of some sort, all of which must be the remains of towns or villages. The line of march, adopted from a camp of the Zo~ beid Arabs where we had halted for a night, led, for twelve or fourteen miles, over a country littered with ruins, to a group which rose in a circular space covered with bricks and potsherds. Of these, the principal ob- jects were four pyramidal mounds, rising abruptly to a height of forty or fifty feet, and built of sun-dried brick. Two or three miles distant from these was a still loftier structure, consisting of a tower or bastion-shaped build— ing, about eighty feet in height. The exterior of it was formed of sun-dried brick, like the Mujelibé, and pierced with holes; but the interior was composed of furnace-bricks, like those of the Birs and similar edifices. The walls were plainly perceived in one part, and the external coating of sun-dried brick was deeply fun-owed by the rains. The Arabs called it Zibliyeh, and gave a ..::a {flaw ( M mam: "F ‘lm w>w~¢ WA a “1 ll 1 l ‘1‘ ‘ if 1 1;: i ‘ “‘4‘ V ‘ “mi l ‘ ‘ l “‘1‘, L :l ‘ it!“ a with“ M: i ‘ Ill 11' ‘— "ll? Tauk e Kesra. OTHER RUINS OF BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA- trivial name to each of the lesser mounds. The traces of a very large canal and two or three smaller ones, crossing from north to south near this place, showed that the district had been extensive and well cultivated. These are but a very few of the relics of antiquity that lie scattered over this comparatively small tract, to which might be added many more, such as Tel Siphr, Atlah, Tel Medinah, Jera Supli, Mizisthah, Jayithah, and Abu-ghuroot, proving that this land must have once borne a dense population, and now possibly represents Beana, Chunduca, Chumana, Caesa, Birande, Bethana, Thalme, Forthuda, J amba, Rhajia, Rhalta, Chiriphe, and others merely mentioned by Ptolemy and Cellarius. Waasut, the capital of the ancient province of Cascara, has lately been visited by two travellers, Lieutenant Ormsby and Captain Mignon; but neither appears to have discovered any remains worthy of notice. It con- sists of forty or fifty wretched houses, built of mud and fragments of brick taken from the old city, which last is strewed around in the shape of sand-covered hillocks, without a single object to give interest to the scene. The next ruins that demand our notice are those of Seleucia and Ctesiphon or Ul Madayn, on opposite sides of the Tigris, nineteen miles below Bagdad. Of the first, little indeed is left to tell of what it was, if we except part of the north and south walls, of great thick; ness and built of unburned bricks, and an immense extent of mounds, covered with debris. Of Ctesiphon, besides a portion of the wall, which resembles that of Seleucia in fabric, there remains only one very remarkable object. It is known as the Tank 0 Kesra, or the Arch of Khoosroo, and may be regarded as the facade of a very magnificent building that appears never to have been completed. It consists of a wall 284 feet long, rather more than 100 feet high, and nineteen feet thick at the bottom, ornamented, not in very good taste, with four tiers of pilasters, having niches like windows rising above one another,—the higher ones diminishing in height and increasing in number towards the top. In 156 ornsa RUINS or BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. the centre there is an archway, which rises to a point, the apex of which is 101 feet from the ground, and of eighty feet span. This gives entrance to what has been a noble hall, 153 feet long, of which the arched roof re- mains in great part entire, though there are in it some extensive chasms. It is plastered and perforated with holes, from whence tradition tells that in the time of Khoosroo there hung a hundred silver lamps. These, no doubt, disappeared at the period when Ctesiphon was sacked by the Arabs ; but there still remained a ring of yellow metal in the ceiling, near the centre of the arch, which tempted the cupidity of a Pasha of Bagdad. He first caused his troops to fire at it with musket balls, which shattered the roof; but this expedient failing, he sent an Arab up who contrived to run a rope through the ring, and this being yoked to a number of buffaloss, it was at length torn down, and proved to be of simple brass. There are also the remains of a fort now intersected by the Tigris, called Kallah mal Kesra, in which are found broken sepulchral urns or jars; and, half an hour’s march distant from the Tank, there is a space of 1450 yards square, surrounded by walls of sun-dried bricks, in which are likewise seen shattered vases. It is called by the natives the Garden of Kesra or Khoosroo. The next points of interest to the antiquary and geographer, particularly as cormected with the celebrated retreat of the Ten Thonsand, are the site of Opis and the line of the Median wall. That city is said by Xeno- phon to have stood on the northern side of the Phys- cus, where the stream was 100 feet broad, having a bridge over it; and we know from other sources that it was also on the Tigris. Now, Dr Ross, who made a journey to Samarra, the ruins of a Moslem city on the latter river, bounded by two branches of the Nahrawancanal, found the angle between the north-western bank of the Physcus and the left bank of the Tigris covered with Very ancient mounds, which, in common with some other inquirers well informed on these subjects, he be- ornan RUINS 0F BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. 157 lieves to be the remains of Opis. But Mr Ainsworth, who conceives that the Tigris has shifted its bed a good deal towards the north-east, looks for the ancient junc- tion of it with the Athem further west than the present point of union, where there are certain ruins called Babelin (the second Babel) ; and these he is inclined to regard as marking the site of the Opis recorded in the Ambasis and in the campaigns of Alexander. Strabo maintains that the Median wall was to be found on the Tigris as high as Opis ; and such must in all probability have been the case, as, had it touched the river lower down, it would have cut through the Dijeil canal, an ancient work, which has its derivation from that stream immediately below Samarra. According to Xenophon, it was said to extend twenty parasangs (about seventy miles) in length; and in the account of Julian’s expedition, it is mentioned as originating at Mace- practa. Now, the distance from the point of junction of the Athem with the Tigris to Felugia, which re- presents the ancient Macepracta, is just about seventy miles; and both Dr Ross, in his visits to that part of the country in 1836, and Lieutenant Lynch of the Eu- phrates expedition, examined a continuous mound or embankment which, there can be little doubt, is the remains of this celebrated wall. The former describes it as a single straight and solid mound, twenty-five long paces in thickness, and from thirty-five to forty feet high, running in a line from north-north-east 71 east, to south- south-west % west, as far in the latter direction as the eye can trace it, but cut off by the Dijcil canal about half a mile from the point where he discovered it. On its western face there are bastions at every fifty-five paces, and on the same side a deep ditch twenty-seven yards broad. The Bedouins told him that it ran in the same line across the country till it touched two mounds named Ramelah, on the Euphrates, some hours above Felugia ; and that in places far inland it is built of brick, in some points worn down to the level of the desert. Where Dr Ross saw it, near the village of Jibbarah, it was con- 158 o'rmm RUINS or BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. structed of the common pebbles of the country, embedded in a tenacious lime cement. The Arab tradition is, that it was built by Nimrod to keep off the people of Nineveh, with whom he was at feud. The land in the vicinity presents numerous remains of ancient buildings ; among which the doctor mentions particularly those of Ista- bolat as being of considerable extent and very perfect.* Lynch confirms this account of the Median wall, along the side of which he says he galloped for more than an hour without finding any appearance of terminationJ' This vicinity is thickly strewed with ancient ruins. The banks of the Athem and Tigris and the Nahrawan were also found by Ross to be crowded with the relics of extensive towns and cities ; and among these, on the right bank of the Tigris, must be sought the Sittace of Xenophon. It was twenty parasangs below Opis, and fifteen stadia from the river; and Mr Ainsworth con- ceives that he has discovered it in an extensive series of mounds and embankments, consisting of the usual ma- terials, and stretching from “ Sheriat e1 Beitha” west- ward, almost to Akkerkoof ; from which, however, these works are for most part of the year separated by the overflow of the Euphrates. The ruins of Samarra, the Sarra-manraa of Abulfeda, and the Labab, are extensive; and denote that it must have been a great city in the time of its prosperity, which was during the reign of the Caliph Motassem, its founder. The most remarkable specimen is an immense conical tower of brick called the Malwiyah, upwards of 100 feet in height ;1‘ to the top of which a man could ascend on horseback, by means of a spiral path running round its outside. It has also a stair in the interior. Close to it are the remains of a jameh or mosque, of great dimen- sions, to which the other is said to have served for the minaret. ' Journal of Geographical Society, vol. ix. p. 446. + Ibid. p. 473. 1 Rich considered it to be nearly 200 feet. ornnn RUINS or BABYLONIA AND anLnEA. 159 1 _ It is a quadrangular building, 264 paces by 160, having walls eleven spans thick, with turrets at short intervals, and a large bastion at each corner. There are five doors in the largest and three in the smallest sides; and here, in the time of the caliphate, the whole population of Samarra used to assemble for prayer. There are also the remains of the caliph’s palace, magnificent walls, arches, gates, subterranean chambers, and courts, built of brick and mortar, little of which however is perfect except the great entrance, consisting of a very lofty arch, with smaller ones on either side. Besides these, there are Til Allee, a high sloping mass of rubbish ; a group of mounds named Kaf or Chaf, which the Arabs believe to be the abode of the seven sleepers, and of their dog, which is occasionally heard howling on a Friday night; and Giaoureah, or the pa- lace of the infidels, a large assemblage of rubbish and brick, all of which are of a date far more ancient than the Mohammedan era. At Gaim, six or seven miles south of Samarra, is seen a square pyramidal building of rough stone and mor- tar, from fifty to sixty feet in height, which marks the point of the lowest derivation of the Nahrawan canal. Opposite to this, on the western bank of the Tigris, are Kadesia, a perfect heptagon fort, with bastions at every angle, and seventeen smaller ones, with a gate on each face, the distance from one bastion to another being ten or twelve yards. It is built of mud and sun-burned bricks, four inches thick, and the walls even now are twenty feet high. Around it the country is strewed with relics as well as the banks of the Tigris on both sides. From a part of these ruins was taken the lower portion of a statue of black basalt in a sitting posture, resembling the figures at Persepolis, and which is now in the possession of Colonel Taylor, British resident at Bagdad. The Arabs say that the upper part of it is still in the water beneath the bank, from whence the other fragment was dug. At Kadesia there was formerly a great glass manu- factory, the slag of ‘which is scattered about in large 162 OTHER RUINS or BABYLONIA AND CHALDEA. to report, it rose to a degree of wealth and power that attracted the cupidity of the last of those emperors, who led an army against it; but though he spared no means for reducing it to subjection, his exertions proved vain. It probably owed its riches to commerce, being, like Palmyra, an entrepot in the midst of a wide desert. When Niebuhr passed this way he was assured by some Arabs of the 'l‘ai tribe, that among the ruins of Al Hadhr there are to be found multitudes of petrified bodies ; and they even pretended to have themselves seen those of muftis, cadis, women, and children in every possible attitude, who, according to the tradition of the place, had all been turned into stone in a single night. It is possible, as the traveller suggests, that this may be an exaggerated account of sculptures which might be well worthy of a visit. The neighbourhood of Felugia, where is found the southern termination of the Median wall, abounds also in vestiges of ancient habitations ; the remains, we pre- sume, of the Perisaboras of J ulian’s expedition orAncobar of Ptolemy. Nor can there be any doubt that the wild realm of Mesopotamia from this wall to the line of the Khabour, would in like manner, if explored, prove fer- tile in discoveries indicative of a teeming population wherever the soil admitted of culture: but as yet no traveller has had opportunity, or been tempted to brave the perils of the Arabs and the desert, in order to enter upon this new field of enterprise. mmsvsn am: rrs msvmons. 163 CHAPTER VIII. Nineveh and its Environs. Ancient Nineveh nowhere particularly described in Sacred \Vrit — Account of byDiodorus—ItsWalls-Incidentally men- tioned by Herodotus—By the Prophets Jonah and Nahum as an exceedingly great and profligate City—Mr Rich’s Account of its Ruins—Visible Remains—Tel Koynnjuk—Sepulchral Chamber and Inscription, &c.—Nebbi Yunus—Inscribed Gypsum—And Antiques—Mosque in Memory of the Pro- phet Jonah—Conjectures—Strabo’s Account of the City’s Extent—Mounds of Yaremjee, Zembil Tepessi, &c.—Vestiges not numerous—Mounds of Nimrod or Al Athur-Larissa of Xenophon i—Resin Z~Remains—Pyramid—Mr Rich’s Voy- age down the Tigris to Bagdad—Ancient Sites on the Banks —His Visit to Mar Mattei-Villages of Yezidees and Jaco- bite Christians—Ain u Sofra—Yezidees—Thcir Pope — Some Particulars of their Faith and Worship-Position, Appearance, and Description of the Convent—History— Establishment—View from its Terrace—Rats ul Ain—Ex- cursion to Rabban Hormuzd—And A1 Kosh-Character of the Yezidees—Al Kosh-Birth and Burial Place of the Prophet Nahum—Ascent to and Appearance of the Convent of Rabban Hormuzd—Establishment—Aspect of the Priests and Monks-Discipline—Period of Founding—Grottos-- Manuscripts — Destroyed —— Chaldean Villages populous — Convent of Mar Elias—Churches of Mar Tom and Mar Shemaoon. THE principal places of Upper Mesopotamia have already been mentioned, and we shall afterwards take an op- portunity of adverting to the antiquities they contain, when describing the country from the accounts of tra- vellers who have lately visited it. We shall act in like manner with regard to Assyria; but there is one object 164 NINEVEH AND ITS anvmoss. in that region, which, though now its remains are al- most utterly obliterated, demands more than a passing notice, as being associated with our earliest religious im- pressions, and forming a prominent point in the ancient annals of the East,—we mean the capital of Asshur, “ Nineveh that great city.” It is remarkable that neither in sacred nor profane history have we any very particular description of Nine_ veh. In the former indeed it is often spoken of as “ an exceeding great city of three days’ joumey ;” but this description is incidentally introduced, and its name for the most part is only coupled with denunciations of vengeance for its wickedness. Neither in the latter have we any where so elaborate an account of it as is given of Babylon. Diodorus indeed informs us that it was still larger than this other magnificent capital, inasmuch as it was an oblong square of 480 stadia in circumfer- ence. He adds that it was surrounded by a wall a hundred feet in height; so broad that three chariots might conveniently drive abreast upon its summit ; and defended by 1500 towers, each rising to double the height of the wall. But nothing further is stated ; and the accuracy even of this detail may be doubted when proeeeding from an historian who mistakes so grossly as to place the capital of Assyria upon the Euphrates in- stead of the Tigris. Thus, though Nineveh is mentioned casually by several authors, including Herodotus,—who says that he means to return to the subject, but whose work upon it, if he ever wrote one, has not reached our times,-—-we in truth know nothing more than what we gather from the books of the prophets Jonah and Nahum, that it was “ an exceeding great city ;” and, like most large cities in those days, so sunk in profligacy and crime, as to excite the wrath of the Almighty. That the indignation of heaven did at length burst on its devoted head, we know from the history which relates its overthrow ; and the account furnished by Mr Rich,* * Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, 8w. 2 vols 8vo. London, 1836. NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS. who visited its site and spent many days in examining its remains, affords pregnant proof of the complete fulfil- ment of all the denunciations we meet with in the sacred volume. The ruins of Nineveh, which are situated opposite to the modern town of Mosul, are comprehended chiefly in an oblong enclosure, narrowing greatly towards its southern end, and extending about four miles in length, by two in breadth. It is irregularly intersected by the Khausser rivnlet, and contains two principal mounds; the one called Tel Koyunjuk, and the other N ebbi Yu- nus. There are beyond this enclosed space, to the east- ward, some long banks like ramparts ; and several small hillocks scattered around at greater or less distances in the vicinity. These elevations are all clothed with turf, or have their summits cultivated; so that an inexpe- rienced eye could not distinguish them from natural ground. On the first mentioned of them there is a small village ; and on the second has been erected a mosque of considerable size, which covers the supposed tomb of the prophet Jonah, and also a diminutive town, consist- ing of about 300‘indiiferent houses, which, however, do not occupy its whole surface. The Tel Koyunjuk, according to Mr Rich, is in height forty-three feet, and 7691 in circumference ; of rather an irregular form, approaching to oval ; its top nearly flat ; its sides very steep ; and its angles quite unmarked by remains of turret or bastion ; nor does it bear the appear- ance of having ever been much higher than it now is. There are, however, evidences of its having been built upon at least round the edges; and stones and bricks are ploughed up on all hands. At a place where it had been dug into, he observed masonry of coarse stone and mortar, and a piece of the same rock, shaped like the capital of a column, without carving. A flooring or pavement, too, of small stones rammed down with earth, was seen on many parts of its surface; and fragments of pottery, as well as bricks with bitumen adhering to them, were found among the debris. While he, was 166 NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS- there, a piece of the finest kind of pottery was exca- vated, covered with beautiful cuneiform writing. and quite resembling the large cylinders of that substance occasionally seen at Babylon. Mr Rich also mentions that, while a certain Turk was digging for stones in this very mound, his workmen brought to light a sepulchral chamber, in which was an inscription; and among fragments of bone and rub- bish, a woman’s ancle-ornament of silver, covered with turquoise-coloured rust ; another, called a hezil, of gold, made for a child; a bracelet of gold beads, quite per- fect ; and some pieces of engraved agate. But the gold and silver were melted down, the agates thrown away, and the chamber broken up by the Mussulman traveller. The soft parts of this mound alone are subjected to the plough. The one called Nebbi Yunus is estimated by Mr Rich to be about fifty feet high in the loftiest part ; its length from east to west, 431 feet; and its breadth north to south, 355. On being dug deeply into, bricks and fragments of pottery and of gypsum, covered with cuneiform writ- ing, are found in abundance, testifying to the antiquity as well as the artificial character of the mound. Some of those pieces of inscribed gypsum were seen built into the walls of houses; and one particularly, in a small room occupied by the women of a villager, was said to be several yards long, but, except about three feet of it, had all been plastered over with mud. The stone is rendered more interesting by the fact that, having been discovered in its original position while the cottage was in building, it was permitted to remain just as it was; so that the characters are seen in their proper light. Certain narrow, dark, and vaulted passages, with apertures leading into one another, hava been found on the eastern side of the court of the mosque. They appeared as if intended for the reception of dead bodies, and were declared to be very ancient. It is in this mound that the best and most curious antiques have been discovered. A remarkable little NINEVEH AND ITS anvmoss. 167 stone chair, in Mr Rich’s possession, was dug up here, with several inscribed bricks and cylinders. The mosque of Nebbi Yunus, which is a considerable building with a ribbed conical dome, occupies the site of a Christian monastery that was erected to commemorate the preaching of Jonah; but there appears to be no ground whatever for the belief that it covers his tomb. The vestiges of building within the enclosure, besides Nebbi Yunus and Tel Koyunjuk, our author informs us, are but slight; and he gives it as his opinion, that the ground thus enclosed contained merely the citadel or royal palace, or both perhaps, while, if we are to believe either the accounts of ancient geographers or the words of sacred writ, the town may, and indeed must, have extended on all sides to a great distance ; for Strabo says it occupied the whole space between the Tigris and the Lyons; and in Scripture it is declared to be a “ city of three days’ journey.” Accordingly, our countryman, in his reSearches around, perceived numerous traces of building of the same character as that within its limits ; such are the mounds of Yaremjee, nearly four miles to the south ; of Zembil Tepessi, to the south-east ; and the vestiges observed on the way northward to the convent of St George. We have here given a summary of the observations and researches on the site of Nineveh made by the English resident. It is a scene, as may be gathered even from our abridgment, which speaks rather to the feelings than to the senses; for there is nothing grand or su- blime to strike the eye. There is not there the majestic vastness of the pyramids, nor the lonely grandeur of the “ Throne of J emshid,” nor even the scathed and ghastly desolation of Babylon, to impress the imagination. The dust of Nineveh rests beneath a green and smiling sod ; but, nevertheless, those lowly mounds contain all that remains of the second city of the patriarchal world,-—of that great capital which, sinful as were its people, the Almighty, once at least, iii his mercy spared ;-—and who is there that could pass them by with indifference 2 168 NINEVEII AND ITS mwmoss. About six caravan hours below those ruins and the city of Mosul are found the vestiges of an ancient place called Nimrod by some of the inhabitants (according to Mr Rich, regarded as Nimrod’s own city), and named by others Al Athur or Asshur, from which the whole country received its appellation. That gentleman re- garded it as the Larissa of Xenophon; and there ap_ pears some grounds for supposing that it may represent the Resin of the book of Genesis, for Al Resin, that is, Resin with the Arabic article affixed, might by the Greeks be easily transmuted into Larissa. The principal remains found here were a pyramidal mount of 144 feet in height, which forms the north-west angle of a flat mound, of about 1000 feet north and south by 514 east and west. The area of this platform is somewhat de- pressed below the height of the sides, giving the idea of a wall having surrounded them. The pyramid is steep, and the top very small ; but its base measured upwards of 700 feet in circumference. At the western side of this were found marks of concrete buildings, such as had been seen at Nineveh; and fragments of bricks with cuneiform inscriptions were scattered about. They were thicker than those of Babylon. Both t0 the north and east there were ruins to be traced ; and the hills on the opposite side were interspersed with mounds. The country was well cultivated, and sprinkled with villages, one of which still bears the name of Nimrod, though sometimes called Deraweish. Mr Rich sailed down the Tigris from Mosul to Bag- dad on a kellek or raft, one of the primitive boats of this country, described by Herodotus as formed of pieces of wood supported upon inflated skins. On his way he saw numerous sites, indicated by the usual mounds and heaps. Among the principal of these were Keshaf, at the mouth of the Zab, supposed to be Haditha of the ancient geographers, Tel Sitteih, Tel Geloos, Mekook, Toprak Kalaa or Kalaat ul Shirgath,* Tecreet, Tel el ‘ Or Shirkat, near Al Hadhr. NINEVEH AND ITS nsvmoxs. 169 Meheji, Samarra, Kadesia, and others which we have already mentioned. While remaining at Mosul, he was indefatigable in examining the neighbourhood, and discovered many ob- jects worthy of attention ; among which we may include the convent of Mar Mattci, the Chaldean town of Al Kosh, and the convent of Babban Hormuzd. The convent of Mar Mattei or Sheik Muttee is si- tuated on a mountain about twenty five miles east of Mosul ; and Mr Rich, having passed through the alluvial tract in which the ruins of Nineveh are situated, rode over an undulating country to Baashcka, a village of Yezidees and Jacobite Christians, embosomed in olive trees. The oil from this and a similar wood surrounding Baazani chiefly supplies the city of Mosul, and is much used in the manufacture of soap. Baasheka is situated just in front of a defile, where there is a fountain that appears to be an object of veneration to the Yezidees, who in spring repair thither, and to another called by them Ain u Sofra, to make merry, offer sacrifices, play at various games, and to get drunk. “ The Yezids,” it is remarked, “ seemingly have Christianity or some bar- barous remains of it among them. They admit both baptism and circumcision; believe in the metempsy- chosis; never say ‘ such a one is dead,’ but that ‘ he is changed ;’ never enter a Christian church without kiss- ing the threshold and putting off their shoes. Their principal burying-place is at Bozan, a village at the foot of the mountain of Rabban Hormuzd, and bodies are carried there from all parts. It was formerly a Christian village with a monastery. “ The Khan of Sheik Khan or Baadli is the pope of the Yezids. He is descended from the family of the Ommiades, and is esteemed the Emir Hadji of the Ye- zids. Their great place of pilgrimage is at Sheik Adi, three hours distant in the mountains beyond Sheik Khan, and it is said* to have been a Christian monastery. ' A note informs us that it in reality was a Christian church: dedicated to St Thaddeus. 170 NINEVEH AND rrs ENVIRONS- The church, conventicle, or whatever it may be called, is said to resemble that at Jerusalem, every different tribe of Yezids having its own separate station in it. Their peer or sheik reads prayers, every one at intervals crying out ‘ amen ;’ and this is the whole of their wor- ship. It is true that they pay adoration, or at least a sort of Worship, to Mellek Taous, the figure of a bird placed on a kind of candlestick.* They will not spit into the fire, or blow out a candle with their breaths. When the sun just appears above the horizon, they salute it with three prostrations. \Vhen they are taxed by the Christians and Turks with having no books, they say it is because God has so peculiarly enlightened their minds as to render books and a written law unnecessary.” Several mounds of ancient debris were seen in the country around this village.”+ Next day, proceeding by a path through defiles and over hills, Mr Rich reached the convent, which is situated on the mountain of Makloube, overlooking the course of the Bumadus or Ghazir-su, and to which he ascended by a steep path winding up the face of a precipice. This edifice, he observes, “has much the appearance of a stronghold, being composed of two large towers, or buildings resembling towers, at each extremity, united by a common wall. Had this curtain been embattled, and the wall a little thicker, it would pass for a very tolerable baron’s castle of the fourteenth century. It is situated on the very edge of the precipice, and the bare rock rises immediately behind it, in which, indeed, are ensconced many chambers and parts of the structure. It is, in short, built in the abrupt face of the mountain, like a martin’s nest ; and the general plan it is not very easy to describe. It consists principally of the afore- said towers, and two courts between them, with an infinity of little detached holes, nooks, and chambers; but from a great many of them now being in ruins, it ‘ It is the figure of a cock, and is produced but once a-year for the purpose of worship. 'I' Rich’s Koordistan, vol. ii. pp. 69, 70. NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS. 173 the soil admitted of it 3 and it is observed, that the Mosul territory appeared well cultivated wherever it was Sus~ ceptible of improvement. After ascending for some time, a gentle descent brought the party close to Al Kosh, a little way up the mountain, having on their right a fine extensive plain, Very well improved and studded with villages. Baadli, which is nine miles distant, under the bare hills, near a defile whence the Gomel issues, is situated in the territory of Amadieh. On the left, while descending, was seen a large artificial mound, which gives its name, Girghiaour (the infidel’s hillock), to the place ; and several other such tnmuli of greater or less size were scattered about. Of Al Kosh, which is entirely a Chal- dean town, Mr Rich tells us but little, as he did not visit it, choosing to proceed at once to the convent of Rabban Hormuzd. From his observations, that the Al Koshites are a very stout and independent class of men, who can muster about 400 musketeers, we gather that it is not either large or populous; and perhaps it may derive its chief interest from having been the birth and burial place of the prophet Nahum “ the El Koshite,” who was of a Jewish family that resided here during the captivity of Nineveh. Israelites from all parts come on pilgrimage to his tomb. Having passed very near this town, the party turned to the right, where, about a. mile higher up, in a rocky defile or opening in the mountains, was the convent, and which from thence wore a most imposing appearance. “ Nothing,” it is remarked, “ was clearly distinguishable but a heavy square building of a dusky red colour, hang- ing quite over a precipice, like some lama pagoda. The dark clouds rolled overthe summitof the mountain almost down to the convent, and greatly increased the gloomi- ness of its aspect, and its apparent height. We seemed to be retreating from the world, and entering on some Wild and untried state of existence, when we found our- selves in the rocky strait by which it is approached. The situation appeared to be well chosen for devotion, but devotion of a savage and gloomy character. The hills 174 NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS. gradually rose very soon after the slope had terminated. An immense torrent, now dry, had brought down pro- digious fragments of rock. Keeping along its edge, we reached at eleven o’clock the entrance of the defile along a rocky and rough road. This defile expands, and scoops out the mountain into a kind of wild amphi- theatre, in which, not half-way up, the convent is situ- ated. It was only the latter part of the road which was very steep. The red building we had seen from afar was part of a church, or rather churches, there being several together. All the amphitheatre, from the top to the bottom, is full of little caves and grottos, those near the church, and extending up the rock far above it, being appropriated to the use of the monks, of whom there are fifty ; only four or five of whom are priests. Each monk has a separate cell ; and the communications be- tween them are by little terraces. The rocks are craggy and broken, and of fine harmonious tints, being of free- stone, of which the church is built. It stands on a plat- form elevated from the precipice ; but very little of the ancient fabric remains. “ We arrived at half past elevsn. We were accommo- dated in rather an airy lodging, in a kind of sacristy or chapel adjoining the church. Our people established themselves as well as they could in the surrounding caves; and the horses we sent back to the village. “ In the afternoon I went to vespers. The congregation of rustic dark-looking monks, together with the gloomi- ness and simplicity of the church,—which is merely a narrow arched or vaulted room, with no light but what is admitted from the small dome,—might well remind one of the solitude of St Saba. Indeed, the monks were not less Thebaid in their appearance, being dusky- looking men, clothed in the coarsest manner like pea- sants, but more sombre in their colours,—their gown being of a dark blue or black canvass, with a common abba or Arab cloak of brown woollen over it. On their heads they wear a small skull-cap of brown felt, with a black handkerchief tied round it. The priests are rather NINEVEH AND 11's ENVIRONS. 175 better clothed in black dresses, with black turbans on their heads. The monks are of all trades,—weavers, tailors, smiths, carpenters, and masons ; so that the wants of the convent are entirely supplied by the convent itself. Their wants are indeed very few, the order being that of St Anthony, and very rigorous in its Observances. The monks never eat meat except at Christmas and Easter. Sometimes, indeed, if any of their friends bring them a little as a present, they are not forbidden to eat it ; but no meat is provided for the convent. The daily food is some boiled wheat and bread, and even this in small quantities. Wine and spirits are altogether pro- hibited ; and none but the treasurer is allowed to touch money.” To this account the editor adds in a note, that “ the monks live separately and alone in their cells, when not employed at their work, and are forbidden to talk to one another. A bell summons them to church several times a-day; besides which, they meet in the church at midnight for prayer; again at daybreak ; and at sunset, when they each retire to their cells without fire or candle. Some of these cells are far from the others, in very lonely situations, high up the mountains in steep places, and look difficult to get at by day; how much more so in dark and stormy nights! They are sur- rounded by wild plundering tribes of Kurds, who might come down and murder them in their ditterent retreats, without their cries for help being heard ; but their poverty preserves them from such attacks. There were several young men among them, who had retired here, being, as they told us, weary of the world, and hoping to find rest in this solitude, and acceptance with God through religious exercises of a painful and mortifying nature. They did not look happy or healthy, and we are told they die young.”* v The monastery was founded, according to the abbot’s account, by Tomarsa, patriarch of the Chaldeans at Seleucia. or Ctesiphon between A. 1). 384 and 392. ' Rich’s Koordistan, vol. ii. p. 90-93. 176 NINEVEH AND rrs ENVIRONS. Assemanni“ says that Rabban Hormuzd, the bishop, was martyred about the thirty-sixth year of the persecution, and the sixty-sixth of the reign of Shapour: and it appears that John Sulaea, who was ordained Patriarch of the Chaldeans at Rome in 377, lived at the monastery of Rabban, which seems to have then consisted of fifty monks. Rabban Hormuzd is said to haVe been after- wards the residence of the Nestorian bishop, the Catholic- Chaldean one residing at Diarbekr.'i‘ This Hormuzd, who is reported to have been the son of a king of Persia, and put to death for his faith, is the grand national saint of the Chaldeans, whether Nestorian or Catholic. His body was brought from Persia, and de- posited here. “ The quantity of caves and little grottos all over the hollow of the mountain orrocky amphitheatre,"continues the travuller, “ is quite surprising. An earthquake filled a great many of them, and the natural ruin and crum- bling down of the mountain has also obliterated mul- titudes. The monks say they frequently discover grot- tos in clearing away rubbish. It is not likely that this immense number of grottos, dispersed at all heights and distances, should have been purposely constructed by the founder of the church ; yet that the greater part cannot be natural is quite evident on the slightest inspection. Some may possibly have been made in cutting stone; but this cannot be the case with by far the greater number, as their form testifies, being small oven-like excavations, with a little aperture, and sometimes two, for a door and a window. One or two of those which I entered had two stone beds or niches in the wall, exactly as if they had been intended for the reception of dead bodies, like those at Kufri. They may all at one time have served for this, and this immense amphitheatre have been no more than a dakhmeh or burying-place of the old Persians. Some of the lost Syriac and Chal- * Vol. i. p. 525. + Rich’s Koordistan, vol. p. 94, with note to ditto ; and Assemanni, vol. i. p. 528, note. ' NINEVEH AND ITS ENVIRONS. 177 dean manuscripts would in all probability have thrown light upon this curious place. There were formerly kept in this convent about 500 volumes of old Strang- helo manuscripts on vellum; but they Were thrown together in an old vault on the side of the hill, a part of which was carried away by a torrent ; and the books being damaged, were deemed of no further value, and consequently were torn up and thrown about. Some scattered leaves were shown to me, which Were unques- tionably of the highest antiquity. Manuscripts are fast perishing in the East, and it is almost the duty of a tra- veller to rescue as many as he can from destruction.“ On their way back to Mosul, Mr Rich and his party passed through Teliskof, that is to say, “ the Bishop’s Mount,” where there are some nuns, but no monastery. These live in the houses of their parents or relations, as they do at Al Kosh, there being no female establishment. Prodigious crowds of Chaldean Catholics assembled to see the strangers, taking pleasure, as it seemed, in be- holding a Christian coming among them with some_ thing like the appearance and attributes of power. These villages are described as large and populous. The Kiahya of Tel Keif, a town wholly inhabited by that people, informed our countryman that it contained a thousand houses, in some of which were thirty souls. This may be overrated; but it was certainly crowded with people, who, like most of the race, were dirty, ill favoured, and dark complexioned, and all much addicted to the use of strong liquors. On his return to Mosul, the traveller visited the re- mains of the convent of Mar Elias near the town, and the churches of Mar Toma and Mar Shemaoon Sava within it. The former is now a heap of ruins, having been destroyed by Nadir Shah, but still exhibiting some in- teresting remains. It was founded, according to Asse- manni, in the latter end of the sixth century. The church of Mar Toma is unquestionably ancient, and is divided ' Rich’s Koordistan, vol. p. 94-96 178 NINEVEH AND ITS asvmoss. into a centre and two aisles by three heavy-pointed but obtuse arches, supported by octagonal piers. The great door of the sanctuary was surrounded by a border of carved work in marble, containing figures of Christ and the tWeIVe apostles in medallions, with twisted scroll- work. Mr Rich discovered a stone which on examina- tion proved to be adorned with an inscription in flowered Arabic letters of the age of the Sahibs, containing the very chapter of the Koran particularly directed against Christians. “ So here,” he observes, “ had these poor people been devoutly rubbing their foreheads against a monument, of which, had they known its import, they would have had the greatest horror and detesta- tion. I believe the archbishop gave orders for its re- moval from its present place.” The other church is very ancient, and, like that of Rabban Hormuzd, con- sists of a single room. suasaquanr HISTORY, Am. 179 CHAPTER IX. Subsequent History of Mesopotamia and Assyria.- Rennell’s Opinion of Xenophon’s Retreat—Advance of Cyrus —-Battle of Cunaxa, and Death of Cyrus—Truce between the Greek Generals and the King—The former advance to the Tigris, and cross it at Sittace—Their March to Opis-And to the Banks of the Zab—Treachel'y of Tissaphernes_ Clearchus and other Officers put to Death- Further Attempts at Treachery—Defeated by the Prudence of the Grecian Offi- cers-Xenophon appointed to the Command-The Greeks cross the Zab—Are assailed by Mithridates—Arrangements for repulsing the Enemy’s light Troops—March to Larissa.— To Mespila—Struggles during their Progress to the Cardu- chian Mountains—Resolve to ascend them in Preference to crossing the River—Are resolutely opposed by the Cardu- chians—Abandon their useless Slaves and Baggage—Difli- culties of the Ascent—Severe Contests with the Enemy-And Losses—Cross the Centrites, and pass into Armenia—Change of Dynasty—Battle of Arbela-The Seleneidm—Arsacidze- Appearance of the Romans in Mesopotamia—Reduced to a. Roman Province—First Expedition of Crassus-Embassy from Orodes-The Romans driven out by the Parthians— Second Expedition of Crassus—Advice of the King of Ar- menia—Treachery of Abgarus—Who conducts them into the Deserts of Chane—Infatuation of Crassus—His Army at- tacked by Surenas-His Son slain—The Romans forced to retreat with great Loss to Charms—Again betrayed and sur- rounded-Crassus forced by the Legionaries to negotiate-Is slain during an Interview with Surenas—The Army destroyed _Reflections on the Conduct of Xenophon and Crassus. Anrnouen the history of these provinces, as the seat of a separate nation, undoubtedly terminates with the con_ quest of Babylon by Cyrus, yet their claim to attention 180 svnanunnr HISTORY 01:- O cannot be held to have ceased with their independent existence. On the contrary, it will be found that they long continued to be the theatre of the most remarkable events, and have, in point of fact, been at all times the battle-field on which the empire of the East has been contended for and won. We shall therefore present our readers with a short sketch of the changes they have witnessed, and briefly describe some of the more import- ant occurrences of which they have been the scene. The first of these which we shall notice is an exploit that has been pronounced by a high authority" to be “ one of the most splendid of all the military events that have been recorded in ancient history,”-we mean the retreat of Xenophon with his Ten Thousand Greeks; which, as is well known, arose out of an unsuccessful effort of the younger Cyrus to dispute the throne of Persia with his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon. Both these princes were sons of Darius Ochus, by his queen Parysatis, who, preferring the younger to the elder, sought to secure for him the succession. Failing in this, she induced him to conspire against the life of the lawful heir, and finally laboured to protect him from the consequences of his unsuccessful attempts. Cyrus, who retired from court to his government in Asia Minor, smarting under disgrace and disappointment, resolved on revenge. In order to achieve this, he maintained an intercourse with the Grecian states on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, and having presented Clearchus, a banished Lacedaamonian, with large sums of money, succeeded, chiefly through his influence, in levying an army of 12,800 Greeks, at the head of which, and 100,000 natives, he advanced towards Persia in the year 13. c. 401, in order to pull Artaxerxes from his throne. It is unnecessary to dwell upon his progress from Sardis, whence he commenced his march, to the bor- ders of Mesopotamia, nor on the difficulties he expe- rienced in persuading his western mercenaries to proceed against the great king, his brother. It is sufficient to ' The late Major Rennell. 182 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY or 100,000 barbarians, and twenty scythe-armed chariots, marched three parasangs in order of battle, expecting the enemy would fight that day ; but the policy of Ar- taxerxes seems rather to have been to embarrass than overwhelm his opponent, for he caused a trench to be dug near the Euphrates by way of fortification, leaving, however, a narrow pass through which the invading army was permitted to pass unopposed. This would appear to have been done in order to throw Cyrus ofl" his guard; and we accordingly find that prince riding on the third day in his car, his soldiers having left their ranks, and many of them laid their weapons upon sumpter horses or wagons, when Patagyas, a Persian in his con- fidenee, rode up at full speed, and informed him that the king was actually at hand, marching in regular order. This news causing an immediate bustle, the men ran to their arms, and prepared for action. It was the after- noon,howeVer, before “a dust like awhite cloud appeared, which soon spread itself like a darkness over the plain. When they drew nearer, the brazen armour flashed, and their spears and ranks appeared, having on their left a body of horse, armed in white corselets (said to be commanded by Tissaphernes), and followed by those with Persian bucklers, besides heavy armed men with wooden shields reaching down to their feet (said to be Egyptians), and other horse and archers, all which marched according to their respective countries, each nation being drawn up in a solid oblong square; and before them were disposed at a considerable distance from one another, chariots, armed with scythes fixed aslant at the axletrees, with others under the body of the chariot pointing downwards, that so they might cut asunder every thing they encountered, by driving them among the ranks of the Greeks to break them. But it now appeared that Cyrus was greatly mistaken when he exhorted the Greeks to withstand the shouts of the barba- rians, for they did not come on with cries, but- as silently and quietly as possible, and in an equal and slow march. “ Here Cyrus, riding along the ranks with Pigres the V. - . a ' ~~-——-—--—-m . 4 masoro'ramm AND ASSYRIA. 183 interpreter, and three or four others, commanded Clear- chus to bring his men opposite to the centre of the enemy (because the king was there), saying, ‘ If we break that, our work is done ;’ but the latter observing their position, and understanding that the king was beyond the left wing of the Greek army (for his majesty was so much superior in numbers, that when he stood in the centre of his own army, he was beyond the left wing of that of his brother), would not be prevailed on to withdraw his right from the river, fearing to be surrounded on both sides, but answered that he would take care all should go well. “ Now the barbarians came regularly on, and the Greek army, standing on the same ground, the ranks were formed as the men arrived. In the mean time, Cyrus, riding at a small distance before the ranks, sur- veying both the enemy’s army and his own, was observed by Xenophon an Athenian, who rode up to him and asked whether he had any thing to command. The prince stopping his horse, ordered him to let them all know that the sacrifices and victims promised success. While he was saying this, he heard a noise running through the ranks, and asked him what it meant! Xenophon answered that the word was now giving for the second time. Cyrus wondering who should give it, demanded what the word was. The other replied, ‘ Jupiter the Preserver, and Victory ;’—Cyrus rejoined, ‘ I accept it-- let that be the word,’—after which he immediately re- turned to his post ; and the two armies being now with- in three or four stadia of each other, the Greeks sung the Paean, and began to advance against the enemy ; but the motion occasioning a small fluctuation in the line of battle, those who were left behind hastened their march, and at once gave a general shout, as their custom is when they invoke the God of War ; and all ran forward striking their shields with their pikes (as some say) to frighten the enemy’s horses, so that before the barba- rians came within reach of their darts, they turned their horses and fled; but the Greeks pursued them as fast 184 suasaqnasr HISTORY or as they could, calling out to one another not to run, but to follow in their ranks. Some of the chariots were borne through their own people without their charioteers, others through the Greeks, some of whom seeing them coming, divided, while others being amazed, like spec- tators in the hippodrome, were taken unawares; but even these were reported to have received no harm, neither was there any other Greek hurt in the action, except one upon the left wing, who was said to have been wounded by an arrow. “ Cyrus, seeing the Greeks victorious on their side, rejoiced in pursuit of the enemy, and was already wor- shipped as king by those about him ; however, he was not so far transported as to leave his post and join in the pursuit, but, keeping his 600 horse in a body, observed the king’s motions, well knowing that he was in the centre of the Persian army ; for in all barbarian armies the generals ever place themselves in the centre, looking upon that post as the safest ; on each side of which their - strength is equally divided, and if they have occasion to give out any orders, they are received in half the time by the army. The king, therefore, being at that time in the centre of his own battle, was, however, beyond the left wing of Cyrus ; and when he saw none opposed him in front, nor any motion made to charge the troops that were drawn up before him, he wheeled to the left in order to surround their army; whereupon Cyrus, fearing he should get behind him, and cut off the Greeks, advanced against the king, and charging with his 600 horse, broke those who were drawn up before him, put the 6000 men to flight, and, as they say, killed Arta- gerses, their commander, with his own hand. These being broken, and the 600 belonging to Cyrus dispersed in the pursuit, very few were left about him, and those almost all persons who used to eat at his table ; however, upon discovering the king properly attended, and unable to contain himself, he immediately cried out, ‘ I see the man,’ then ran furiously at him, and striking him on the breast, wounded him through his corselet (as Ctesias MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA. the physician says, who affirms that he cured the wound), having, while he was giving the blow, received a wound under the eye from somebody who threw a javelin at him with great force; at the same time, the king and Cyrus engaged hand to hand, and those about them in defence of each. In this action, Ctesias (who was with the king) informs us how many fell on his side ; on the other, Cyrus himself was killed, and eight of his most considerable friends lay dead upon him. When Arta- pates, who was in the greatest trust with Cyrus of any his sceptred ministers, saw him fall, they say he leaped from his horse, and threw himself about him, when (as some say) the king ordered him to be slain upon the body of Cyrus, though others assert that, drawing his sciinitar, he slew himself ; for he wore a golden scimitar, a chain, bracelets, and other ornaments which were worn by the most considerable Persians, and was held in great esteem both for his affection and fidelity. “ Thus died Cyrus, :1 man universally acknowledged by those who were well acquainted with him to have been, of all the Persians since the ancient Cyrus, endued with the most princely qualities, and to have appeared the most worthy of empire?“ The leader of the expedition having fallen in the manner now described, the king attacked the camp of his enemies, which was deserted by the barbarians who had been left to defend it. The Greeks, however, saved a portion of the baggage, while their countrymen con- tinued pursuing the fugitives until they were thirty stadia distant. When informed of the plunder of their tents, they returned, put themselves once more in a posture of defence, and even offered to make another attack ; but the natives again fled, leaving their wearied allies to sleep under arms upon the field they had so gallantly won, unrefreshed with food, and uncertain of the fate of their chief. Morning brought them the news of their loss, and ' Spelman’s Xenophon, 2 vols, 8vo, Cambridge, 1776, vol. i. p. 85~95. 186 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY or the intelligence that they were alone in the country of their enemies ; for Ariaeus, who commanded the Asiatics in Cyrus’ army, and who fled on hearing of his death, declined the crown which the Greeks offered to win for him in place of the fallen prince, and soon after proved one of their worst fees. The king, in the mean time, finding that to destroy this valiant band would be a task of much danger, at- tempted to effect his purpose by treachery, and accord- ingly sent persons to negotiate with them for delivering up their arms. This being indignantly refused, Tissa- phernes came forward as their friend, to mediate, as he said, between them and his majesty for a safe conduct beyond his dominions ; and after considerable delay, during which food was provided for the Greeks accord- ing to the terms of truce, they moved across the country from Cunaxa, where the battle was fought, towards the Tigris. The exact position of that town is unknown; but it must doubtless have stood somewhere above the present Felugia, the ancient Ancobar or Macepracta, because, in the first place, after the fight, they passed through the Median Wall on their way to Sittace, which lay east of it. Now, this wall ran from Macepracta, or Ancobar, or Sippara, to Opis or Samarra, at the con- fluence of the Tigris and Physcus. Secondly, there are no hills whatever in Babylonia below Felugia ; and the one of which Xenophon speaks must have been higher up and nearer to the Pylaa. We come to the same con- clusion, when we reflect that the two large canals, which they crossed after passing the wall, must have been those which branched off below Felugia, and stretched towards the site of the present Bagdad and Ctesiphon. Sittace, to which they next came, standing near the river Tigris, is probably to be looked for at Sheriat el Beitha, above the large village of Kazemeen ; this situa- tion agreeing well with the distance from the river and from Opis, as it is given by Xenophon. Here the Greeks appear to have been needlessly apprehensive that they would not be permitted to pass the bridge of boats, but 188 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY or Thus deprived of their officers, and fatally convinced of the hostile designs of the Persians, the Greeks flew to arms, on which immediately came forward Ariaeus, Ar- teazus, Mithridates, and others, who attempted to excuse the transaction by imputing to Clearchus a violation of his oaths; adding, that the other generals were safe, and exhorting the army to surrender their weapons, which were, they said, the king’s property. But the snare was too palpable. They upbraided Ariaeus with his infamous treachery,—challenged the Persians, as a proof of their sincerity, to send back to them Proxenus and Menon, whom they had declared to be alive,—and refused indig- nantly to abandon their arms. The royal chiefs retired ; and the Greeks, sad and dejected, passed the night in painful anxiety. Well it was for them that they had in their number some whose minds were more strongly nerved, and capable of exertion in the hour of danger ; and one more especially, whose fortitude, energy, and judgment were fully equal to the fearful emergency in which they stood. This leader was Xenophon, an experienced soldier of mature age, but only a volunteer, associated with Prox- enus by the ties of friendship and hospitality. Unable, as may be well imagined, under such circumstances, to sleep soundly, he arose in consequence of a troubled dream. “ As soon as he awoke, the first thought that occurred to him was this: ‘ Why do I lie here? the night wears away, and as soon as the day appears, it is probable the enemy will come and attack us ; and if we fall under the power of the king, what can preserve us from being spectators 0f the most tragical sights, from suffering the most cruel torments, and from dying with the greatest ignominy? Yet no one makes preparation for defence, or takes any care about it ; but here we lie as if we were allowed to live in quiet. From what city, therefore, do I expect a general to perform these things 3 What age do I wait for? But if I abandon myself to the enemy this day, I shall never live to see another.’ ”* “ Spelman’s Xenophon, v01. i. p. 179. masoro'rsmm AND assrnra. 189 He accordingly arose, assembled the remaining cap- tains of Proxenus’ party, forcibly pointed out to them the perils of their situation, and offered either to take the command or follow whomsoever they might appoint to lead them in this extremity. The consequence was an immediate feeling of confidence in Xenophon, and an entreaty that he would assume the direction of affairs. Before midnight, the whole remaining officers were as- sembled ; and to them, at the request of an old captain, Hieronymus of Elis, he repeated all he had before said, and suggested what he thought advisable to be done in their position. The result was a confirmation of his appointment as general, and the nomination of other officers in the room of those they had lost. The night was passed in counsel ; and by break of day the soldiers were informed of the resolution taken by the com- manders, tendered their oaths, and received instructions. The morning found those who had lain down a prey to doubt and almost to despair, transformed into a resolute army, determined to defend themselves to the last ex- tremity, and to make every sacrifice for the common welfare. Another base attempt on the part of Mithridates, to entrap the Greeks by professions of friendship, was baffled by the prudence of the generals; and the very next afternoon saw them, after having bumed all their carriages, tents, and superfluous baggage, across the Zn.- batus, unassailed, and marching in order of battle. Upon seeing this, the treacherous King of Pontus threw aside the mask, and appeared in the rear with some light- armed archers and slingers, approaching at first as a friend, but discharging his missiles at the Greeks, and retiring, while these dared not leave their ranks to pur- sue the flying enemy. The loss thus sustained produced some anxiety; but the expedient suggested by Xenophon, of selecting the best Rhodian slingers, and forming a corps of light cavalry to drive off such assailants, restored confidence, and proved its wisdom by enabling them the very next 190 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY or day to inflict a severe chastisement on Mithridates, who, accordingly, left them for the remainder of the march unmolested. That night they reached Larissa, which the general describes as an uninhabited city, two para- sangs in circuit, with walls twenty-five feet thick, and 100 high, and built of bricks. Near it stood a pyramid of stone, 100 feet square, and 200 in height. This station, which, as their two harassed marches were short, could not have been very far from the Zab, must almost cer- tainly have been the same of which Mr Rich describes the ruins under the name of Nimrod, and which that gentleman supposes to have been the city mentioned by Xenophon. The pyramid observed by him, still 144 feet high, is doubtless the one that in the days of the Anabasis was probably revetted with stone mason-work, vestiges of which still remain at the western base. The name indeed is puzzling; and the only way to get rid of the difficulty is to suppose that this city occupied the site of the Nimrodian Resin, to which, as already sug- gested, the people of the country have prefixed the Arabic article Al. It is true that Ras ul Ain, formerly Ressaina, may, so far as analogy of sound can be admitted as proof, appear to have equal if not superior claims with Nimrod to identity with Resin, “ which is between Nineveh and Caleh,”--for some persons place Caleh at Hulwan, and others near Racca at Callinicum, at the confluence of the Euphrates and Khabour. If the conjecture of Mr Rich be well founded, there can be very little doubt that the ruins of Nineveh must stand for Mespila, in spite of dissimilarity of name. The march of six parasangs agrees exactly with the six cara- van hours or four of a horseman, given by him as its distance (or that of Mosul) from Nimrod; and there is neither city of ancient times nor any other relics at this day that can at all answer to the situation of Mespila. The plinth of polished stone, full of shells, fifty feet in breadth and height; and the brick-wall 100 feet high and six parasangs in circuit, can apply to no other re- mains than those of Nineveh, which, at the era of the masororamm AND ASSYRIA. 191 Anabasis must still have been great and imposing. The haste of a perilous retreat will account for some inac- curacy of description, and possibly of name. From Mespila they continued their way along the country on the left of the Tigris, occasionally harassed by the enemy, whom they always repulsed, until the sixth morning, when, passing over a hilly tract, they suffered from the slings and darts of the barbarians, who occupied the heights. They had already found it necessary to make a change in the order of march, more suitable to the nature of the country than the hollow square hitherto adopted ; and, perceiving that they fought with the light-armed Persians at disadvantage, they made a start in the night, by which they threw their enemies so far into the rear as to be allowed to proceed three days without interruption. But on the fourth, the enemy having, contrary to custom, pressed forward during the hours of darkness, occupied a hill that commanded the road. Encouraged by the indefatigable Xenophon, they gained after a desperate effort a still higher mountain, which enabled them to attack their pursuers with suc_ cess. The barbarians fled, and the brave Greeks passed on without interruption, Tissaphernes and Arizeus shun~ ning their encounter and turning from the road as they approached. ‘ These marches and manoeuvres brought them to the point where a range of mountains strikes down to the river-bank, leaving no room for troops to pass between them and the stream, which was so deep that their pikes, with which they sounded, did not reach the bottom. It is very doubtful what mountains can here be meant; for a late intelligent traveller, Colonel Shiel, a military man too, assures us that the Zaco range, which is by Rennell and Kinneir supposed to be that in question, does not come within six miles of the river; and that the intervening space is by no means so narrow. The Buhtan ridge, mentioned by the colonel as about six miles farther north than that of Zaco, agrees better with the description of Xenophon ; but then there is no SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF mention whatever made of passing the Khabour, a stream fifty yards wide, knee-deep, and very rapid in the month of August, which must have been crossed to reach those hills. Here, although a Rhodian proposed that the army should cross the Tigris on rafts of inflated skins, and pledged himself for success, the Grecian generals resolved to turn towards the north and cross the Carduchian mountains. In order to avoid interruption from the enemy, they commenced their march at night; and traversing the intervening plain, reached the foot of the hills by break of day. The natives, who inhabited the villages, fled to the high grounds, leaving abundance of provisions be- hind; but they afterwards attacked the strangers from the heights, and both parties sustained some 10$. Next day the supernumerary slaves and sumpter horses being abandoned, the Greeks prepared for the arduous march that was before them; and in spite of storms and every other obstacle, they steadily pursued their way, guided by certain prisoners; but their pro- gress being necessarily slow, they had the mortification of occasionally losing, by the missiles of the enemy, some brave men, whose bodies they could neither bury nor carry off. On the following morning, having sent a party of volunteers with a guide to occupy some cliffs that commanded a pass, over which lay their road, the rest of the army advanced, though exposed to great danger, on account of the immense stones which the barbarians continually rolled down upon them from the precipices. At night, they took advantage of a dense mist to press forward ; and, coming up with their rude assailants, they routed them; after which, they passed the first mountain. Two others were won in like manner, with immense toil ; and they were congratulating them- selves on their success, when their active enemy com- menced an attack in the rear, and cut off a detachment which had been left to guard a post. Attempts to treat with them were made in vain. They recovered some nasorornnm AND assrma. 193 of the dead, in exchange for the guides they had cap- tured ; found plenty of provisions in the villages as they passed along ; but every day was a succession of struggles, attended with great fatigue and loss, for the Carduchians, who were skilful archers, had very long bows, which they drew by pressing them with their left foot, and the arrows pierced through the shields and corselets of the Greeks. On the fifth day’s march it appears that they reached the plain of the river Centrites, which is by Kinneir supposed to be the Nicephorius of the Romans, and the Khabour of the present day. But it is clear that these two rivers are entirely different, and could not by any construction be represented as forming the boundary between Armenia the country of the Carduchians, which last is barely penetrated by the Khabour. From this, indeed, it might be inferred that the followers of Xenophon entered the mountains at a point north of the Buhtan range, in which case the Centrites might be the Betlis chai, which rises among the lofty peaks north-east of Lake Van, and may therefore be fairly held as the southern boundary of Armenia. But, in fact, the de- scription given by the author of the Anabasis, however graphic, is of too general a character, and contains too few recognisable points or names, to be traced with accuracy, even were we better acquainted than we are with the geography of that part of the country. It is impossible, we conceive, to pronounce where the Greeks made their ascent, or even to identify the river which they soon afterwards crossed with so much boldness and skill in the face of a very determined enemy. There, however, we must take leave of Xenophon and his brave soldiers, who had yet much toil and danger to encounter before they could attain a sight of their native land. We have accompanied them to the confines of Armenia; and such of our readers as desire to learn their further adventures, will find the narrative of their leader well illustrated by the labours of Rennell. Seventy years after this celebrated achievement, the battle of Arbela or Gaugamela transferred the empire M 194 SUBSEQUENT nrsroar or- of Asia from Darius to Alexander the Great. The events which led to this revolution belong so entirely to another subject already handled in this work, that we shall not describe them here. On the death of the renowned conqueror, Babylonia and Mesopotamia, to- gether with Syria, passed into the hands of the Seleucidte, from whom they were in turn wrested by the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacidaz, about the year B. c. 164. In the possession of these last they remained, until the Mithridatic war led Lucullus in pursuit of Tigranes into Mesopotamia, when he took possession of Nisibis B. c. 68. This was the first occasion on which a Roman army entered into that remote country. In the year 11. c. 64, Pompey reduced Syria to a Roman province, of which nine years afterwards Marcus Licinius Crassus was made proconsul. Being an avari- cious as well as an ambitious man, he regarded with an envious eye the power and supposed riches of the Par- thians ; and in spite of the remonstrances of certain tri- bunes of the people, who represented them as faithful allies of the Roman nation, resolved to invade their country. Accordingly, having arrived at the seat of his government, where one of his first acts was to plunder the temple of Jerusalem, he marched to the Euphrates, which he crossed by a bridge of boats ; and, taking the Parthians at unawares, speedily overran Mesopotamia, then a part of their empire. But, instead of pursuing his success, by making himself master of Babylonia, and penetrating to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, he repassed the river in the beginning of autumn, leaving but 7000 foot and 1000 horse to secure his conquests. This hasty retreat gave the natives time to recollect themselves ; and Orodes their king, a warlike prince, im- mediately assembled a numerous army, while he sent am- bassadors to Crassus to inquire the reason of his unexpected aggression. This general, who had spent the winter in extorting money from the Syrians and shamelessly plun- dering the temples, but who at the approach of spring assembled his army in order to recommence the war, MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA- 195 when the Parthian deputies, reminding himof the treaties which they had entered into with Sylla and Pompey, offered to forget the past, and to permit the garrison to retire unmolested out of Mesopotamia, upon the single condition of his ceasing from further hostilities, haugh- tily replied that they should have his answer at Seleucia. The chief of the ambassadors, by name Vageses or Va- hesis, smiling at this response, showed the Roman com~ mander the palm of his hand, and exclaimed, “ Sooner, Crassus, shall you see hair grow here, than be master of Seleucia ;” and without adding another word retired. Orodes immediately took the field, leading one half of his army in person to make a diversion on the side of Armenia, while the other half, under the celebrated Surenas, marched into Mesopotamia, and soon recovered most of the cities which the invader had captured in the preceding year. This Surenas,—an appellation which, we are told by St Martin, was that of a great Parthian family, and not a title,—was not only one of the most influential indi- viduals about the court of his sovereign, but also a con- summate general. The Romans who had the good for- tune to escape from Mesopotamia brought fearful accounts of the number, strength, and power of the enemy. They assured their fellow-soldiers, that not only were the Par- thians perfectly well disciplined, but that, while their defensive armour was so excellent as to resist the heaviest darts, their weapons were so sharp and strong that the huckler proved no defence against them. Crassus, con- sidering these reports as the exaggerations of fear, resisted all remonstrances, and being reinforced with 6000 troops by the King of Armenia, commenced his march, although that monarch, even while promising him further assist- ance, advised him by all means to avoid the sandy de- serts of the low country. Accordingly, with several legions, 4000 horse, and a great many auxiliaries, making in all about 40,000 men, he crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma, the present Kelaat e Roum. Pressed by the advice of his officers, he had consented to keep by the 196 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY or river-bmk all the way to Seleueia, when Abgarus king of Edessa, whom the Romans believed to be their friend, but who was in reality devoted to Surenas, unfortu- nately prevailed on him to alter his plan. The crafty barbarian represented the Parthians as already in utter dismay ; and assured him, that in the war he was going to wage, feet and wings would be required to catch a flying enemy, rather than arms to fight a resolute one, —and that he himself was prepared to lead them to cer- tain victory. Conducted by this treacherous monarch, the legions entered first a green plain, divided by many rivulets, which afforded them easy and pleasant march- ing. But as they advanced, the scene gradually changed ; the roads grew worse ; and they had to climb mountains and rocks, which brought them to a sandy waste where there was neither food nor water to be obtained. While beginning to suspect the honesty of their guides, a mes- senger from the sovereign of Armenia acquainted Crassus that the invasion of his own country by Orodes would prevent him from sending any further aid ; but he re- peated his advice to avoid the barren plains, where his troops must perish with hunger, and take the moun- tainous road to Armenia, where he might join forces with him against the common enemy. Yet the Roman commander, with a degree of blindness that appears incomprehensible, still put faith in Abgarus, who led them some days across a burning desert, without hill or tree, or even a blade of grass, and not a drop of water to quench their increasing thirst. To this condition were matters reduced when the scouts gave information that a numerous army of Par- thians were at hand to attack them. Crassus immedi- ately drew up his fainting and exhausted men,—-at first following the advice of the quiestor Cassius, who proposed an extended line, in order to occupy more ground, but instantly changed this arrangement, according to the suggestions of Abgarus, who, assuring them that the Parthians were but few in number, advised a compact disposition. So the troops were drawn up in a square, MEBOPOTAMIA as!) assrnm. 197 with a detachment of horse to support each cohort, twelve of which composed the front on every side. In this order they came to the banks of the Balissus, the present Belejick,* where most of the officers were for encamping, in order to refresh the soldiers; but their leader again permitting himSelf to be deceived, or yielding to the ardour of his own son, only suffered them to snatch a meal as they stood in their ranks, and then pushed on against the enemy. Surenas had concealed most of his men, and caused the rest to cover their armour, so that his force at first seemed very small ; but no sooner did he observe that the Romans had fallen into the snare, than he gave the signal, when the Parthians, starting up as it were out of the ground,appeared, horse and man, shiningfrom head to foot in complete steel. Nor had the former time to recover from their astonishment before they found themselves charged by young Surenas, who, pike in hand, strove to break through the hostile ranks. But habitual forti- tude and discipline counteracted the effect of surpriso. The assailants,being repulsed, retreated to a safe distance ; whence they darted on the foe a shower of sharp and heavy arrows. The light-armed foot and archers ad- vanced to drive them away, but were themselves soon compelled to seek shelter behind the heavy troops; while the enemy, approaching still nearer, directed a deadly flight of' missiles into the densely compacted legions, where not a shaft failed to inflict a wound. The wings, next deploying, advanced to the charge,—but all in vain. The Parthian horsemen shot with as much effect while retiring as advancing; so that, whether the Romans kept their ground or gave way, they were equally the butt of those dreadful shafts. ‘ This would lead to the belief that Crassus did not cross the Euphrates at the upper Zeugma or Roumkala-h, wlueh is scarcel fort miles from Orf'a, and quite out of' the way of the Belejic , an that he must either have crossed at Beles or the lower Zeugma (Tha. saeus), from whence, as a. matter of course, he must have crosse the Belejick in his way to the plains where he was defeated. MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA- safely to Isehines, provided he would leave his troops; and at length, frantic with grief at seeing the bravest of his friends thus uselessly sacrificed, and unable any longer to use his arm, which was transpierced by a barbed shaft, he desired one of his companions to put an end to his life, that he might not fall alive into the enemy’s hands. This example was followed by most of the surviving nobility who were with him; while of the remainder, five hundred were made prisoners, and the rest were cut to pieces. The unfortunate proconsul, who had retired to a height in the rear, to wait for his son’s return or to mark his progress, was roused from his dream of hope by a mes- senger, who told him that the youth would certainly be lost, unless immediate aid were sent to him. Prudence gave way to paternal solicitude and the desire of saving the brave combatants ; but, before he had advanced far, he was met by the victorious Parthians, whose shouts of triumph told a tale which was dismally confirmed to the unhappy father by the sight of the young leader’s head, fixed upon a spear. It was no time for the in- dulgence of sorrow. “ This misfortune is entirely mine,” said he to his dismayed troops ; “ the loss of one person cannot affect the victory. Let us charge—let us fight like Romans : if you feel for a father who has just lost a son whose valour you admired, let it appear in your rage and resentment against those insulting barbarians !” But it was too late. The faintness of their shout gave proof that their physical strength and courage were alike exhausted. Again was the air darkened with clouds of arrows, from an enemy whom they could not approach ; and many of the men, in desperation, threw themselves among the heavy-armed horse to seek a speedier death. And thus did the fierce attack continue unceasingly till nightfall, when the assailants retired. A melancholy night it was to the Romans. Stretched on the ground, at a distance from his soldiers and his tent, and shrouded only by his military cloak, their wretched commander lay writhing under the weight of 200 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY or his shame and sorrow, insensible to all consolation, and equally prostratcd in mind and body. One of his lieu- tenants, Octavius, after making vain efforts to rouse him to exertion, now summoned a council of war, in which it was resolved that the remains of the army should retire in silence, under the cover of darkness, to the city of Charrze, which was held by a Roman garrison,—a dread- ful alternative, as it left the wounded to the mercy of a savage foe. No sooner did the movement commence, than the ears of the retreating soldiers were assailed by the cries and reproaches of their wretched companions. Three hundred light horse deserted, and pursued their way to Zeugma, where they crossed the Euphrates with- out halting, except to tell at Charms that Crassus had fought a battle with the Parthians. The governor, suspecting from their manner that all was not right, ordered his men under arms, and march- ing out, met the proconsul, whom with his broken forces he conducted into the city ; the Wounded and fugitives meanwhile being put to the sword by the enemy, and several smaller detachments destroyed. Nor did the walls of Charrae long prove a protection to Crassus. Surenas, learning that he had taken refuge in it, sent to inform the garrison, that if they expected to obtain any terms from him, both the general and Cassius the quiestor must be delivered up to him in chains. A council of war, which assembled to hear this report, resolved that it was expedient to remove from the city that very night, and to seek some other asylum ; and secrecy was especially enjoined on all the commanders. Yet the infatuated Crassus himself betrayed the secret to Andro- machus, whom he had pitched upon as a guide, and who happened to be a creature of Surenas. Having given due information of the intended movement to the Par- thian chief, he led the devoted Romans by devious Ways into a. tract of marshy land, till Cassius, suspecting treachery, refused to proceed, and taking his own way, succeeded in reaching Syria with 500 horse. Octavius, having been more fortunate in his guides, pursued his MESOPOTAMIA AND assrara. 201 march to the mountains of Sinnaca with 5000 men, and there intrenched himself. The unfortunate proconsul remained entangled in the marshes into which he had been misled, till morning, when the rising sun saw him surrounded by the Par- thian cavalry. In spite of opposition, however, he gained a hill not far from his lieutenant, who, seeing his danger, flew to his assistance, and charging the enemy, rescued his forlorn commander, whom the troops bore safely off in a hollow square, covered by their bucklers. This check appears to have in some measure disconcerted the pursuers ; and Surenas, observing them reluctant to attack their antagonists in position, resolved to compass his ends by treachery. Feigning a desire to negotiate, and to put an end to a war which he said would be rendered more bitter and deadly should a Roman gene- ral be made its victim, he invited Crassus to an interview, advancing with unbended bow and open arms. This time it was not the rashness of the leader, but the turbulence and fears of the legionaries, rendered outrageous by their sufferings and situation, that led to a fatal result ; for they compelled him against his better judgment to hold a conference with Surenas. Accom» panied by Octavius and Petronius, with a few soldiers, he accordingly descended the hill, where he was met by the Parthian in person, mounted on a superb horse. “ What do I see I” he exclaimed, “a Roman general on foot and we on horseback !—Let a horse be brought for him immediately.”——“ Be not surprised,” said Crassus, “ each comes to the conference after the manner of his country.”—“ It is well,” said Surenas ; “ but the articles of peace must be signed on the bank of the Euphrates, for you Romans do not always remember your con- ventions.” A gallant steed, with rich caparison and bit of gold, was then brought and ofi'ered to the proconsul as on the part of King Orodes; upon which some of the Parthian ofiicers placed him upon the animal and be- gan to scourge it forward with great violence. Octavius resented the insult by seizing the bridle : His men 202 SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF flocked around him—a scufi'le commenced—when, draw- ing his sword, he killed one of Surenas’ grooms, and was instantly struck down himself by a blow from behind. The fight soon became general, and ended in the death of most of the Romans, and of Crassus himself, who thus fell a victim to an inordinate desire of power or of wealth, which appears to have utterly blinded his better judgment, and led him into acts more like those of a madman than of an experienced leader. The rest of his army either surrendered to the enemy, or, dispersing in the night, were pursued and cut to pieces. To Home the misfortune was not restricted to the loss of 30,000 brave soldiers and valuable officers, but involved a severe shock to her military reputation, which that haughty nation felt so deeply, that the greatest efforts were subsequently made to efface the stain, and revenge the insult offered to her name and arms. In pondering over this catastrophe and the fate of Crassus, the mind, unavoidably reverting to the very different fortunes of Xenophon and his Ten Thousand Greeks, is led to contrast the prudence, the intrepid per- Severance, and admirable conduct of the one commander, with the blind infatuation and obstinate presumption of the other. Both alike environed with fierce enemies, in a hostile country, far from aid, had to depend entirely on their own resources. In fact, the situation of the Greeks was worse than that of the Romans, inasmuch as their numbers were smaller, their foes infinitely more numerous, theirdistance from home incomparably greater, and the moral efi‘ect of course correspondingly more de- pressing. It is true that the Persians of Artaxerxes were inferior to the Parthians of Orodes in military skill and courage ; but had Xenophon sufi'ered himself to be cajoled by the treacherous advice of Tissaphernes and Mithridates, or been induced to cross the Tigris into the arid plains of Mesopotamia, we may be certain that none of his followers would ever again have seen their native country. On the other hand, had Crassus but paid at- tention to the sound counsel of the King of Armenia, MESOPOTAMIA AND ASSYRIA. 203 and taken the mountainous road to that country, neither he nor his troops would have fallen unavenged by the arrows of the Parthian horsemen. But, as the balance of difiiculty and danger was all against Xenophon, so was that of conduct and moral intrepidity in his favour; and we may be sure that under no circumstances would Crassus ever have evinced that admirable presence of mind which, while it preserved the little band of Greeks in the plains of Assyria, enabled their commander to make head against the attacks of the bold Carduchian mountaineers, in his arduous march across their almost impervious country. 204 CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN CHAPTER X. Continued Contests between the Romans and Persians. The Parthians overrun the Country to Antioch, which is twice saved with Difliculty~Antony, having obtained the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire, overtaxes Syria—That Province, &c. overrun by Labicnus—Pacoras defeated by Ventidius and slain-Antony resolves to invade the Parthian Empire-His Success at first—Takes the Route of Armenia —Invests Praaspa. the Capital of Media—ls forced to raise the Siege and retreat-Hardships during his Retreat—Suc- ceeds in reaching and crossing the Araxes—His impatient Obstinacy_ Further Losses in Armenia—Augustus Caesar forces Phraates to make Peace—Successes of Trajan-War continued with various Success—Exploits of Shapoor—Con- stantius succeeded by J ulian-J ulian’s Defiance of Shapoor —His Expedition—Successful Career—Change of Fortune at Ctesiphon—He is betrayed—Attacked, and killed by a J ave- lin-Disastrous Retreat of the Roman Army under Jovian —Mesopotamia continues the Theatre of War till the Invasion of the Hans-The Roman Provinces invaded by Nooshirwan —He is checked by Belisarius—Victorious Career of Khoosroo Purveez~Arrested by Heraclius, who outmanoeuvres and defeats the Persians—Triumphant Expeditions of Heraclius --Further Efforts of Khoosroo—He is defeated at all Points — Destagerd taken - Khoosroo put to Death by his Son Siroes, who concludes a Treaty with Heraclius—Capture of Ctesiphon by the Moslems, and Incorporation of the two - Provinces with the Dominions of the Caliphs. AFTER the defeat of Crassus, the Parthians, elated by success, crossed the Euphrates, and overran the country as far as Antioch, which they twice besieged. The first time it was saved by the valour of Cassius and Cicero, THE nonrans AND ransmns. 205 and the second by the intrigues of Bibulus, the Roman governor, who created a diversion by promoting a rebel- lion amongst them. But their power and their inso- lence had arrived at such a pitch, that the great Julius himself, after having become master of the republic, considered them as enemies worthy of his sword, and proposed an expedition against them, which was only frustrated by his murder. In the partition of empire that followed, Antony having obtained the Eastern provinces, and overtaxed that of Syria, the inhabitants invited the Parthians to invade the country; and accordingly, led by Labienus, one of Pompey’s generals, they overran it, as well as Palestine and Phoenicia, even to the gates of Tyre, making great advances also in Asia Minor. But the bravery and skill of Ventidius, who served under Mark Antony, put a stop to their progress, and restored the Roman affairs. He surprised the invader, who fled to Tauris, and sent to Pacoras the son of Orodes for assist- ance. But Ventidius entirely defeated the Parthians, put Labienus to death, and forced the barbarians to re- cross the Euphrates. In a second attempt they were still more unsuccessful ; for, being deceived by a strata- gem, they were utterly routed, Paeoras himself slain, and most of their army put to the sword. Unfortu- nately, perhaps, for the Roman name, the conqueror, fearing to excite too far the jealous disposition of his master, did not push his conquests across the river, nor, as he might have done, annex Mesopotamia and Baby- lonia to the Asiatic provinces, but contented himself with reducing the revolted places in Asia Minor. Antony had in fact already taken umbrage at the great success of his general, whom, on his arrival in Syria, he sent to Rome, on pretence that he deserved a triumph, and he himself immediately assumed the com- mand. The army, as we learn, amounted to 100,000 men, in a high state of discipline, and amply provided with military stores ; while owing to disturbances which had recently occurred in Parthia, where the tyrannical 206 CONTINUED‘CONTESTS BETWEEN Phraates, having put his father Orodes to death, had disgusted many of his nobles, there appeared every reason to hope for success. And success did at first attend his steps, for he subdued all the neighbouring states, includ- ing Armenia; but having, while he attempted to cross the Euphrates, endeavoured to throw Phraates off his guard by negotiation, he found himself baflled by the vigilance of his antagonist, who had guarded the passes. He therefore proceeded to attack Media. But, in carrying this measure into efl‘ect, he suffered himself, like Crassus, to be deceived and betrayed. Ar- tabazus king of Armenia, who had his own ends in view, led the army by such circuitous routes that, fatigued and impatient, Antony left his military engines under his lieutenant Stratianus, with ten thousand men, while he pushed forward to invest Praaspa the capital.* To take this place, however, without his battering machines, he found to be impossible ; and the Parthians, resolving to frustrate his enterprise, pushed past the beleaguered city, and cut off the whole of the detach- ment to whose care they had been intrusted. The con- sequence was, that he was forced to raise the siege ; and after a vain attempt to conclude a peace, on condition of receiving from the Parthian monarch the standards and prisoners taken in the expedition of Crassus, he trusted to an equivocal promise of safety, and commenced a re- treat towards the Araxes, which, in point of hardship and painful anxiety, yielded not, perhaps, to that of the Ten Thousand Greeks, whose sufferings were often in his mind. It is true, he had but 300 miles to traverse through a hostile country, but his wily foe was most powerful and active; while the troops under his com- mand were depressed by ill success, and so much in want of the necessaries of life, that, before the march was over, a quart of wheat was sold for fifty drachmas, and barley loaves for their weight in silver. Thus situated, in the * The site of this Median capital is not known. It has been placed at Casbin and at Sultameh ; but D’Anville rejects both these positions. THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS. 207 course of twenty-seven days he was eighteen times at- tacked by the whole Parthian forces, besides incidental skirmishes, in which he lost many men ; and thrice he nearly fell into an ambuscade, from which he was only saved by the fidelity of his guide, a native of the country. But so harassingand painful were the circumstances of the retreat, that his constancy utterly gave way; and rushing into his tent, he called on one of his freedmen to put an end to his life, and conceal his head, that it might not fall into the hands of the enemy. Nor would he have altered his intention but for the opportune entrance of the guide, who assured him that the worst was over. “0 the Ten Thousand!” he frequently exclaimed, as he saw his men dropping from fatigue, or transfixed by the Parthian arrows: And when at length, diminished in numbers, wounded, and exhausted, they actually re- crossed the Araxes, the soldiers fell down and kissed the soil, embracing each other like persons reprieved from death. But though Antony in this desperate enterprise dis- played many of the qualities of a good general, and suc- ceeded in rescuing the remains of his legions, the impa- tient obstinacy which led him into his embarrassments was more disastrous to Rome than even the total failure of Crassus. Nor did his infatuated imprudence end here ; for, eager to rejoin his mistress, the celebrated Cleopatra, instead of halting in Armenia to refresh his troops, he led them without stopping over its snow-covered moun- tains, and thus added to their previous misfortunes the loss of 8000 men. In short, scarcely one-third of his army returned to Syria. Some time afterwards, Augustus Caesar, too powerful for even the Parthians to contend with, compelled Phraates to conclude a peace, one condition of which was the surrender of all the standards and prisoners taken from the Romans in their several expeditions. -After the death of that emperor, the treaty was fre- quently violated, particularly by the first Vologeses, who ascended the throne about A. D. 50, and made war upon 208 common conrasrs BETWEEN the Europeans with variOus success. But Trajan com- pletely turned the tide of conquest against them, by first overrunning Mesopotamia and Assyria; and, secondly, by placing in the hands of Parthanaspates the sceptre of Parthia, thus rendering the whole country tributary to Rome. It is true that matters did not continue long on this footing, and even Mesopotamia was frequently abandoned and recovered, till at length the power of the Arsacidre was utterly broken by Ardeshir Babegan, called Artaxerxes in the West, who founded the new dynasty of the Sassanides. In the frequent wars which raged between the Romans and Sassanians, Mesopotamia still continued to be the great field on which the prize of victory was contended for; and the city of Orfa (Edessa) witnessed the utter defeat of the Emperor Valerian by Shapoor. Odena- thus, the chief of Palmyrene, husband of the celebrated Zenobia, revived the drooping fortunes of Rome; and though the imprudent rashness of Galerius subjected him to the mortification of a defeat near the banks of the Euphrates, he soon retrieved his error by utterly destroying the army of Narses, and depressing that monarch to the condition of a vassal. The result of these victories was a treaty of peace, by which Mesopotamia and five provinces of Assyria became united to the Roman empire. The second Shapoor, dis- tinguished in Persian history by the name of Zoolactaf, a brave and successful warrior, disputed this arrange- ment; and his efforts to reconquer the fine country lost by Narses rendered the Mesopotamian plain once more a scene of devastation. But he lost in the protracted siege of Nisibis the advantages he had gained in the battle of Singara; and a Scythian invasion forced him to an unwilling truce with Rome. A successful expedition to the banks of the Oxus, however, enabled the warlike monarch to return with his ranks reinforced by a large body of veterans ; and, had he not wasted the flower of his troops and the best of the season in a tedious invest- ment of Amida, he might have wrested the whole region. THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS. 209 from the Roman arms, as he did the important strong- holds of Sinjar and Bezabde. The efforts of the aged and weak Constantius were unable to retrieve the losses in those provinces; but when Shapoor was informed that the purple had de- scended on a younger and more resolute monarch, the celebrated Julian, he condescended to make overtures of peace. The pride of the eastern prince was astonished by the firmness of the new emperor, who sternly de- clared, that he would never consent to hold a peaceful conference among the flames and ruins of the cities of Mesopotamia ; and who added, with a smile of contempt, that it was needless to treat by ambassadors, as he him- self had determined to visit speedily the court of Persia. In the spring of A. D. 363 accordingly, passing through Beraea (now Aleppo) to Hierapolis, the appointed ren- dezvous of the Roman troops, he wowed the Euphrates bya bridge of boats, and advanced immediately to Chm. From hence he despatched 30,000 men, under his kins- man Procopius and Sebastian duke of Egypt, towards Nisibis, to secure that frontier, afterwards, with the as- sistance of the King of Armenia, to ravage Media and Adiabene, and then to meet him under the walls of Ctesiphon, whither, by advancing along the bank of the Euphrates, he hoped himself to arrive. But the Armenian proved as faithless to Julian as his prede- cessor had been to Antony, and when the day of need arrived he appeared not. The emperor, a month after his departure from Antioch, arrived at Circesium, the extreme limit of the Roman dominions; for the Kha- bour had for some time been regarded as their bound- ary in this direction. Sixty-five thousand effective and well-disciplined soldiers crossed this stream, accom- panied by all the requisite engines and muniments of war, laden upon 1100 vessels of various descriptions and burden, which floated simultaneously down the Euphrates. Following nearly the tract of Cyrus the Younger, he spared Anatho ; denounced a heavy doom upon Thilutha, should he return victorious ; and, com- N 210 CONTINUED comasrs BETWEEN mitting great havoc, in spite of the presence of a hostile army which hovered round his legions, in fifteen days arrived at Macepracta, where, after a hot assault, he took and rased the ill-fated town of Perisabor. The fortress of Maogamalcha, reputed impregnable, was his next object of attack ; and while the inhabitants were deriding the assailants, and singing the praises of Shapoor, a mine, which was silently pushed into the body of the place, admitted 1500 chosen men. It was forth- with takcn ; and the revenge of the soldier was satiated by a bloody massacre. Controlling by a manly address the insolent com- plaints of his army, he next led them against Ctesiphon itself, bringing his fleet across the narrow isthmus of Babylonia, by means of a cut between the Nahr Malikah and a channel opened for the same purpose by the Em- peror Trajan. By a bold manceuvre, he passed the Tigris itself in the night, making good his footing on the further bank, in spite of the enemy’s opposition. Here, however, the fortunes of Julian changed. His anxious looks towards the northern plains of Assyria failed to discover the advance of his troops under Procopius; he was therefore forced to relinquish the intention of besieg- ing Ctesiphon; and rejecting with a foolish obstinacy the pacific overtures of Shapoor, he resolved like Alex- ander to carry the war into the heart of his enemy’s country, and force him in the open field to contend for the dominion of Asia. But the emperor, however vigilant, appears to have been open to imposition. A Persian noble, who placed himself in the dangerous position of a spy, by pretending friendship, gained an influence over him ; and through his advice, as it appears, he was induced to burn his fleet, and the greater part of his magazines. The former might have been useless for remounting the Tigris; but he speedily had to deplore the loss of his provisions. N 0 sooner did he leave his camp before Ctesiphon, and turn his face towards Media, than flames arose in every quarter,-the crops were burned with fire,—-the cattle 212 courmum) conras'rs BETWEEN impending ruin. As they exclaimed, a. cloud of darts and arrows was discharged from the flying squadrons, and a javelin, after razing the skin of his arm, transpierced the ribs, and fixed in the inferior part of the liver. Julian attempted to draw the deadly weapon from his side, but his fingers were cut by the sharpness of the steel, and he fell senseless from his horse. His guards flew to his relief, and the wounded emperor was gently raised from the ground, and conveyed out of the tumult of the battle into an adjacent tent. The report of the melancholy event passed from rank to rank; but the grief of the Romans inspired them with invincible valour, and the desire of revenge. The bloody and obstinate conflict was maintained bythe two armies till theywere separated by the total darkness of the night.—'l‘he first words that Julian uttered, after his recovery from the fainting- fit into which he had been thrown by loss of blood, were expressive of his martial spirit. He called for his horse and arms, and was impatient to rush into the battle. His remaining strength was exhausted by the painful effort ; and the surgeons who examined his wound dis- covered the symptoms of approaching death. He em- ployed the awful moments with the firm temper of a hero and a sage ; the philosophers who had accompanied him in this fatal expedition compared the tent of Julian with the prison of Socrates; and the spectators, whom duty or friendship or curiosity had assembled round his couch, listened with respectful grief to the funeral ora- tion of their dying emperor.”* Such was the end of the Emperor Julian—a man whOSe gallantry and virtues render still more dark the stain of apostasy which has obscured his character. The army, perplexed and confounded at an event so disastrous, eagerly adopted the first suggestions offered ; and Jovian, who possessed not a single title to the choice, was elected his successor. The death of his able opponent renewed " Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by the Rev. H. H. Milman, 8vo, Lond. 1838, vol. iv. p. 186-188. THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS. 213 the hopes of Shapoor, who attacked the Romans re- peatedly, always inflicting a heavy loss, until, after encamping at Samarra and Carche, they pitched their tents at Dura, on the fourth night after the fall of their leader. An attempt to cross the Tigris at this place spent in vain two precious days ; but the fainting spirits of the fugitives were here revived by the unexpected sound of peace. The Persian, who felt that his very success was ruinous, and that though he might annihilate the Roman army, it must be at the expense of his own, condescended to offer terms ; and after craftin tantalizing the invaders during four days,—a delay that exhausted the constancy of the irresolute Jovian as well as the scanty provisions of his troops,—he vouchsafed to specify, as the terms, the cession of the five provinces which his grandfather had givcn up to Rome, with the impregnable city of Nisibis, and some other of the strongest places in Mesopotamia. With these humiliating conditions the emperor complied. He crossed the river unassisted but unassailed by the haughty conqueror ; and the loss which his followers sustained in this passage was not inferior to the carnage of a day of battle. He had next to traverse two hundred miles of desert, enduring all the pangs of thirst and hunger; and the pathless waste was strewed with the bodies, the arms, and the baggage of his sol- diery. A small supply of food was forwarded to the fainting squadrons on their march ; at Thilsphata, their imperial master received the generals of Mesopotamia; and the poor remains of a splendid army at length found repose beneath the walls of Nisibis. For nearly two centuries after this time, the same region continued to be the theatre of battle, passing partially from hand to hand, according as the throne of either empire was ably or weakly filled. The invasion of the Huns had perplexed both powers, and forced them alternately to withdraw their forces from this quarter, in order to repel another and more dangerous foe. But the first Khoosroo, known in the East by the name of Nooshirwan, and who mounted 214 CONTINUED conrasrs BETWEEN the throne of the Sassanides in the reign of Justinian, A. n. 531, resolving to extend his dominion towards the west, took the field, and with a large army overran Syria and Cilicia. Antioch was burned to quicken the negotiations for a peace, in which he dared to demand an annual tribute and subsidy from Rome. But, while taking city after city with frightful rapidity, his career was checked by the genius of Belisarius; and, after various fortunes, a treaty was once more concluded,—to be broken soon after, when Khoosroo found he could recommence the war with a prospect of success. His last pitched battle with the Romans was fought at Ma- latia, with a result that would have remained doubtful, had he not retired in the night, conscious of a loss, the greatness of which his opponents had not the means to estimate. The last successful inroad upon the imperial provinces was made by the no less celebrated Khoosroo Purveez, a prince whose subsequent fate belied the promise of his earlier career. Syria was rapidly reduced ; Antioch was taken ; and the capital of Cappadocia, with the holy city of Jerusalem, fell before the arms of this victorious monarch. Egypt again owned a Persian master. “His western trophy was erected, not on the walls of Car- thage, but in the neighbourhood of Tripoli. The Greek colonies of Cyrene were finally extirpated ; and the con- queror, treading in the footsteps of Alexander, returned in triumph through the sands of the Libyan desert. In the same campaign, another army advanced from the Euphrates to the Thracian Bosphorus; Chalcedon sur- rendered after a long siege; and a Persian camp was maintained above ten years in the presence of Constan- tinople.”* But the day of reverse at length arrived. Heraclius, aroused from sloth or despair, made gigantic efforts, and evinced a knowledge and conduct in warlike affairs which he had never been suspected to possess. Concluding a ' Milman’s Gibbon, vol. viii. pp. 227, 228. r THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS. 215 peace with the Avars, who had advanced to the gates of Constantinople, he mustered his troops at Issus, adroitly drew the Persians, who occupied Cilicia, into a general action,—defeated them, marched through Cappadocia, and wintered his army on the fertile banks of the Halys. The spring saw him again in movement. Sailing from Constantinople to Trebizond, he gathered together his soldiers ; and, while the enemy was fruitlessly insulting the capital, he suddenly made his appearance at Tauris, in the heart of the Persian territories. At the head of 40,000 men, Khoosroo himself retreated before the em- peror, who pursued his victorious career till the approach of the cold months, when he retired to the plains of Mo- gam. The succeeding campaign carried his army to Casbin and Ispahan, where never yet had Romans been seen. The rest of the season was marked by a series of triumphs; and another winter of repose only prepared his troops for new successes. Traversing the mountains of Kurdistan, and passing the Tigris, the emperor de- posited his spoils and captives at Diarbekir, and informed the senate of Constantinople of his safety and success. Crossing the Euphrates by a ford, he next advanced against a multitude of barbarians, who defended the passage of the Sarus,—-overthrew and dispersed them; and marching through Sebaste in Cappadocia, the present Sivas, reached the coast of the Euxine, just three years from the time he left it on his long and glorious expe- dition. But the ambition of Khoosroo was not yet humbled, nor his resources exhausted. Hate and a thirst of re- venge exasperated the one—a wide realm and a host of tributaries supplied the other; and a treaty formed with the Chagan of the Avars gave him additional ground of hope. Three armies were simultaneously raised: the first, of 50,000 “ Golden Spears,” was destined to oppose Heraclius ; the second was stationed to prevent his junc- tion with the troops of his brother Theodorus ; the third was directed to act with the Avars, who advanced with 100,000 men to besiege Constantinople. The prepara- 216 CONTINUED CONTESTS BETWEEN tions and arrangements of the emperor were not less active and earnest; but we must refer our readers to, the pages of the Roman historian for an account of the deliverance of his capital. Himself, with 70,000 men, flew to the recovery of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia ; while his intrigues, or the insane jealousy of the king, produced the defection of Sarbar, the general of his third army, and neutralized the opposition he would have made to the Roman arms. Traversing the country from the Araxes to the Tigris, Heraclius met and overthrew the army of Khoosroo on the plain of Nineveh, in a battle that raged from day- break till late at night. Those of the Persians who were not killed in the action dispersed, and the victo- rious Romans continued their march unopposed through Assyria to Destagcrd. Their way was marked with fire and blood: they spoiled and destroyed the country in the very wantonness of vengeance. But “ the recovery of 300 Roman standards, and the deliverance of the numerous captives of Edessa and Alexandria, reflect a purer glory on the imperial arms.” The passage of the Arba or Diala could scarcely have formed an obstacle to arrest the career of Heraclius. The rigour of the season—for it was winter—and the fame of an impregnable capital, may have had their influence. Be that as it may, the Roman emperor stopped short of Ctesiphon ; and passing through Seazu- rus, the present Shahrasour, he crossed Mount Zara of Zagros—probahly Avroman, and reached Gandzaca now Tabreez, most fortunately before a fall of snow, which lasted thirty-four days. But the pride of the Persian had not yet sunk to the level of his fortune. In spite of his disgraceful flight from Destagerd, he commanded a new army to be raised, and a new camp to be formed behind the Arba; and rejecting all pacific overtures and even solicitations from a conqueror whose retreat had inspired the vanquished with some confidence, he thought only of continuing the struggle. But his will was no longer the law in THE ROMANS AND PERSIANS- 217 Persia,-—a conspiracy of his nobles, headed by his son Siroes, raised the latter to the throne, and sent the aged monarch to a bloody tomb. A treaty was formed between the new sovereign and Heraclius, who returned to enjoy his well-merited triumph in Constantinople. The death of Khoosroo occurred A. 1). 628. Nine years afterwards, Ctesiphon, his capital, which had been spared by the Romans, was sacked and destroyed by the victorious followers of Mohammed. In another year the whole of Syria was wrested from Heraclius, 7 now aged and feeble, by the grasp of the invincible Moslems. The walls of Edessa and Amida, of Dara and Nisibis, which had resisted the arms and engines of Shapoor or Nooshirwan, were levelled in the dust; and Mesopotamia and Assyria, with the rest of Western and Central Asia, became thenceforth integral parts of the vast dominions of the caliphs and their successors. 218 PRESENT STATE or MESOPOTAMIA. CHAPTER XI. Present State of Mesopotamia. Buckingham’s Account of Bir—Orfa—Mosque and Pool of “ Abraham the Beloved”_Mosques-Gardens-Population —Manufactures _ Castle - History — Haran - Division of Opinions in regard to its Identity with the Haran of Gene- sis—March to Mardin -— Plundering Arabs — Mardin de- scribed-Ceremonial of the Syrian Church—March to Diar- bekir—Wadi Zenaar-Approach to Diarbekir—The City described—Walls_Mosques and Churches—History—Popu- lation—Sinjar Mountains—Dara_Nisibin_Sheik Farsee -~ Extortion—Account of Nisibin_More Extortion—Journey to Mosul — Appearance of Mosul - Description - Houses— Bazaars— Coffeehouses - Churches —Population — Govern- ment-Trade—Climate—Extent according to Mr Southgate -Sinjar District visited by Mr Forbes—Yezidee Robbers subdued by Hafiz Pasha—Til Afar— Bukrah --Mirka—- Kirsi—Kolgha—Samukhah—Sakiniyah—Description of the Country—Geographical Observations. WE shall now proceed to give some idea of the present state of Mesopotamia and Assyria, as described by modern travellers. Beginning with the former of these pro- vinces, and taking Mr Buckingham, one of the most recent, as our guide, we cross the Euphrates at Bir. This city, known as the Birtha of antiquity, stands on the eastern side of the Euphrates, just below a bend of that river, which is there about the width of the Thames at Blackfriars Bridge, and flows to the southward. It contains about 400 houses, five mosques, and from three to four thousand inhabitants. The hill on which it is situated, and from which it is built, is of a hard chalky substance, so that the whole presents a glaring white mass. A number of caves and grottos are found among the rocks, which do not however appear to have been PRESENT STATE or MESOPOTAMIA. 219 sepulchral, and are now used by the inhabitants as dwell- ings, being closed up with masonry in front. In the centre, on a height, appears an old fortification ; and the walls and towers of a large castle still crown the per- pendicular clifl" that faces the water. Mr Buckingham also observed here many architectural relics in the Roman style. The streets are narrow, though, from their steep- ness and the nature of its materials, the town is unusually clean. The caravan crossed the river on large flat boats, each carrying four camels, a few horses and asses, with eight or ten passengers, besides about two tons of mer- chandise. He saw 'none of those rafts, buoyed upon in- flated hides, formerly used on the Euphrates between Armenia and Babylon ; but men and boys often passed the stream upon a sheep or goat skin filled with air,— embracing it with their hands and propelling it with their feet, and carrying their clothes on their heads. From Bir the traveller departed on the 1st June for Orfa, under the protection of a caravan. The way lay over an uninteresting country of swelling ridges, scantil y covered with grass, interspersed in the hollows with a few patches of corn, but without a tree or bush to relieve the monotony of the scene. He compares its appearance to that of the undulating waves of the ocean when sub- siding after a tempest. The thermometer at sunrise was 78° ; at noon in the sun 102° ; 96° in the tent ; at sunset 88°; and at midnight 76°; but the air was dry, fresh, and pleasant. This plain was sprinkled with tents of Turkoman hordes. On the fourth day of June he reached Orfa, which was approached by a broad paved road, and through an extensive cemetery. This town, which is the capital of Diar Rabiaa, is seated on the eastern side of a hill where it slopes to the plain, so that its western side rises slightly above the opposite quarter. The wall is between three and four miles in circuit, forming an irregular triangle, though Niebuhr thinks it bears a greater resemblance to a square. It is well filled with houses, having few open spaces ; but the streets are narrow, and constructed with a paved causeway on each side of a central channel for PRESENT STATE or MESOPOTAMIA. 221 is not prohibited, for many men and boys were seen swimming about in it. Another fountain in the vicinity appears to be used in the same way by the females. It is called the Ain el Zilgah, and is a delicious place, bor- dered with gardens and shady walks. There are four or five public baths at Orfa, some of them very coinmodious, with numerous well-supplied cofl'eehouses and cook-shops. Ice from the summits of Mount Taurus was plentiful, and sold for a farthing a-pound. The fruits of the season were the white mul- berry, quinces, and apricots: grapes, pomegranates, and pistachio-nuts had not yet come in ; nor were there either lemons, oranges, or melons to be seen. The environs are embellished by many pleasant gardens; and from Mr Buckingham’s account the inhabitants appear to have great enjoyment in them, passing much of their time in giving entertainments, or sitting under the shade of the trees, smoking, playing on the guitar, and not un- frequently drinking. The population is stated to be about 50,000, among whom are 2000 Christians, chiefly Armenians and Sy~ rians, who have separate quarters, and 500 Jews ; both of these classes are merchants and traders. The cos- tume of the Moslems resembled that of Damascus, being very gay and lively, exhibiting a profusion of bright shawls, fringes, tassels, and embroidery. The women wore white outer robes, with veils of black gauze or horse-hair projecting several inches from the face. The manufactures are limited to a few coarse ar- ticles of apparel, such as woollen and cotton cloths. The former resembles the stuff used for sailors’ jackets, and is generally of the native brown of the wool, though sometimes dyed with indigo. The latter are of the ha- ture of English dowlas ; and are worn either undyed or coloured. When printed, which is done with blocks like those of the Chinese—a tedious and imperfect pro- cess—they are used for women’s gowns or robes, for shawls to veil the head, bed and sofa covers, and the fronts of the large cushions that form a Turkish divan ; 222 runsanr STATE or MESOPOTAMIA- but the slowness of the operation renders the article very expensive. They also make a few substantial carpets, haircloth, silk bands, and tapes, with some very good saddlery and smith-work. ' All classes are subject to that boil or eruption com- monly known as the “ bouton d’Aleppe,” and which in many cases greatly disfigures the countenance. It is attributed by some to the quality of the water, by others to the excessive use of raw vegetables and the large quantities of ice consumed by all classes ; but the true cause still remains unknown. Strangers residing for any considerable time in the place are equally liable to it with the natives. The castle is situated on the summit of a rock, on the south-western side of the two springs. The ascent to it is by a steep winding path ; and the enclosure is nearly a quarter of a mile long by 100 yards broad; but it contains only ruins, amongst which some fragments of Corinthian columns and other remains indicate the site of ancient fabrics. Two of the pillars are still erect. The government is conducted by a mussellim, who is deputy of the Pasha of Diarbekir. Mr Buckingham enters at great length into the history of this ancient and important city, which, in various ages, has been known as “ Ur ” of the Chaldees, Edessa and Callirrhoe of the Greeks, and sometimes as Roha, from Or-rhoa, of the Arabs, which is abbreviated into Orha and Orfa. This last appellation is used by all the Turks, and most of the Kurds and Arabs in the neigh- bourhood. It appears at one time also to have been named Antiochia, from Antiochus Nicator, which Ben- jamin of Tudela has corrupted into Dakia. Among the places of note in the neighbourhood, the traveller mentions Haran, about eight hours’ distance from Orfa; and agrees with most geographers in con- sidering it as identical with the Charm: or Carrhse of the Romans, and the Haran or Charran of the Old and New Testaments. Mr Beke, in his Origines Bibliesef“ ’ Page 124. PRESENT STATE or MEBOPOTAMIA. 223 inclines to dispute the last point, and to transfer the Hal-an, to which Abraham removed from Ur of the Chal- dees, to the neighbourhood of Damascus. For ten days our countryman was detained in Orfa owing to reports that the road to Mardin was beset by predatory tribes of Arabs—the Wahabees, and afterwards the Aneizas—who were plundering all travellers and merchants. But he appears to have passed the time not unpleasantly, being feasted both by Turks and Christians. On the 15th June, the caravan, upon hearing that the Arabs had removed, took their departure. After passing through some rich corn-grounds, they entered a dreary waste. called Burreah or “the open land,” observing in their way the towers of Haran, dis- tant about fifteen miles in the south-west, and being frequently alarmed by parties of horsemen. The second day saw them ascending a path among bare hills, pierced with caves and grottos here and there, from the top of which they enjoyed, both towards the east and west, an extensive view of plains intersected by ridges of rocks. From the stony soil rose a luxuriant growth of wild poppies, with many a useful as well as poisonous herb ; venomous reptiles and insects being very abundant. A few trees were once or twice observed; but the land though bare was fertile. On the third day, the caravan was stopped by a. party of Beni Melan Arabs, who had taken post upon a plain between the roads to Mardin and Diarbekir, and who laid them under contribution, or rather plundered them of a considerable sum by way of tribute. Mr Buckingham, in his turn, was forced to surrender 1000 piastres, besides 250 more to redeem a favourite sword. The Arabs then gave the party a plentiful feast, though somewhat rudely served; after which, when retiring to their caravan, they found it had been visited in their absence by a party of Turkoman horse. This being an interference with their prey, the Arabs attacked the interlopers, and a battle ensued, which terminated in the recovery of the plundered goods and in the entire defeat of the intrusive marauders. The PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMXA- victors, it appeared, had shifted their ground from the southward, having been driVen from their own haunts by the more powerful tribe of Aneiza. The remainder of the march to Mardin lay over a wide plain. covered with long grass resembling wheat in ear, and thickly sprinkled with black porous stones. On the north and north-east were Karahjah Dag and an elevated ridge, on which was the city whither they Were bound. Passing through the town of Koach Has_ sar, containing 5000 dwellings, chiefly occupied by Chris- tians, they reached Mardin by a very steep ascent, which is seldom attempted by those who, merely passing along the road, stop at the village of 8001' in the plain below, where they pay the usual transit-duty. From this village an hour carried the travellers to the foot of the hill, and another hour to the town upon its summit by a very precipitous and neglected road. Mardin, or Kelaat el Mardin, which is translated by some the “ Madman’s Castle,” stands on the top of a limestone cliff, the per- pendicular sides of which assist in forming the defences. Here resides the mussellim, with his family, servants, and a. guard of fifty soldiers. Below, on the eastern and southern face of the hill, the town is surrounded by a. wall leading down from the two sides of the castle, and with it embracing an irregular ascent of about two miles. The houses are placed in ranges above each other, like the seats of a Roman theatre; and the streets, which run along the slope of the hill, are for the same reason so many successive causewayed terraces with lateral in- tersections, these last being in fact flights of steps. The houses, which are built of stone, are of indifi'erent ma- sonry ; the terrace-roofs are all flat; and in the paved courts of the upper stories are large wooden stages railed around for evening parties, and for sleeping on during the summer months. There are eight mosques, but only one of them large, which has a fine minaret and a ribbed dome, and is said to have been once a Christian church. The population is about 20,000, of which two-thirds are Mohammedans, the remainder Jews and Christians. rnnsss'r sure or masoronnu. 225 There are also some families of another religious sect called Shemseeah, who, as their name implies, are under.- stood to be worshippers of the sun ; although, from having been protected by the Syrian patriarch against Sultan Murad, who purposed to put them to death, they are erroneously regarded as forming part of his flock. This benevolent priest, however, has never been able even to obtain the smallest disclosure on the subject of their religion, as they say such a breach of their rules would be visited with the severest punishment by their fellows. They amount to about 1000 families. The governor of this place is a mussellim, and dependent on the Pasha of Bagdad. Mr Buckingham visited a convent named Deer Zaf- ferany, near Mardin, where the patriarch resided. His holiness received the traveller with much hospitality; and he had thus an opportunity of witnessing the service of the Syrian church, which, in many respects, resembled the Catholic ceremonial. The worship was celebrated with great pomp in the Syriac language by the bishop himself, most superbly dressed in robes of gold-em- broidered satin, and assisted by inferior priests in gar- ments of corresponding splendour. But while, thus sumptuously clad, he officiated in a glare of lights before an altar loaded with gold and silver, there stood behind him a young man, meanly clad in Turkish breeches, a coarse patched jacket and tarboosh hanging over his shoulders, who leaned with one hand on the patriarch’s crosier, while with the other he held an incense-pot and perfumed his holiness from time to time, uttering the responses alone in a loud voice and very harsh manner. All the offices of the priesthood were performed in a deep recess, across which a curtain was drawn when any change was going on, in order to produce the proper mysterious efi'ect upon the audience. During the eleva- tion of the Host, all the people uttered loud groans, the boys within screamed vociferously, so as quite to drown the voices of the priests ; and this confusion of tongues was still further increased by the clash of brazen cymbals 0 PRESENT 51'er 0F masororsms. 227 the east added to the grandeur of the scene, which was further embellished by gardens, bridges, and summer- houses ; and the river, flowing at the foot of the hill on which the town is built, completed the picture of beauty, wealth, and civilized comfort which the whole country displays. The rock on which Diarbekir stands is basaltic, and rises from the western bank of the Tigris. The form of the town is nearly a circle of about three miles in circum- ference. It has four gates, and a citadel at the north-east angle, overlooking the river, and affording a noble pano- ramic view on all sides, from the lofty hills of Armenia towards the north to the waving country that intervenes between itself and Mardin on the south-east. The walls, which are high and strongly built, are defended by towers at irregular intervals, all constructed of basaltic roek, which gives them so gloomy an appearance as to have suggested the Turkish appellation of Kara Amid or the Black Amid. These ramparts are in tolerable repair, and there is a formidable battery of guns to the north ; but the citadel itself is now in ruins, while the dis- mounted cannon are half buried in earth and grass. There are fifteen mosques with minarets, and several others either with or without domes ; five Christian churches of the various sects, and a Jewish synagogue ; more than twenty baths, fifteen caravansaries, some of them very fine; and numerous bazaars, well supplied, but rather mean in their appearance. The population, according to the latest estimate, amounts to about 50,000, chiefly Osmanlis, of all pro- fessions: Armenians, Catholics, Syrians, Greeks, and a very few Jews, make up the rest. The city is the capital of a pasha of three tails, who derives his appoint- ment from Constantinople ; and he has at all times had under his command a considerable military force. Since the Kurdish war, and as long as the Turkish territories were threatened by Ibrahim Pasha from Syria, Diar- bekir was the headquarters of a large army. This celebrated place, the Amide. of antiquity, was, 228 PRESENT STATE'OF masororanm. as we have seen, demolished by Sapor (or Shapoor) in the fourth century ; was again destroyed by the Persians in A. D. 505 ; and afterwards sacked by Tamerlane and several succeeding Mohammedan conquerors. Hence it is not surprising that few vestiges of its former greatness remain ; still, however, there are fragments of Ionic columns and other relics, which obviously pertain to the period of its ancient glory and prosperity. Diarbekir appears to have at all times been a place of considerable trade and skilled industry. Buckingham mentions not less than 1500 looms at work, 500 printers of cotton, 300 manufacturers of leather, 100 smiths, and 150 makers of ornamented pipe stems alone, besides those employed in forming clay balls and amber mouth- pieces. Mr Brant, the British consul, who visited it in 1835, speaks of its having formerly contained not fewer than 40,000 families, employed numerous artisans, and en- joyed an extensive trade with Bagdad in Indian, and with Aleppo in European produce. But he adds that, within twenty-five years, in consequence of the depreda- tions of the wild Kurdish tribes in the vicinity, who almost held the place in siege, commerce had declined, and manufactures dwindled to a very low condition. Hence the number of houses was reduced to about 8000, of which 6300 were occupied by Turks, 1500 by Ar- menians, eighty-five by Catholics, seventy by Greeks, and fifty by Jews. Since the establishment of Reshid’s authority in the pashalic, matters had begun to mend a little; and nothing but the removal of the depressing causes now mentioned is wanting to render Diarbekir a great commercial city. Returning to Mardin, Mr Buckingham pursued his travels to Nisibin, intending to overtake a caravan which he found had left that place the previous day. The track lay to the southward of east, along the plain which stretches by the foot of the J ibel Mardin. On the right were the distant mountains of Sinjar, rising to a great height in the centre, and tapering down at either end PRESENT sum 01" MESOPOTAMIA. 229 till they sink into the plain. On the left hand, they ob- served a large ruined town called Benaweel, near which -—in the same direction, but not in sight—lay Dara or Kara Dara, a very important fortress during. the wars between the Romans and Persians. The ruins of this celebrated place consist, it is said, of military fortifica- tions, walls, cisterns, and excavated sepulchres ; but no traveller* has visited it very recently. Its name seems to vouch for its antiquity, as it appears to have been derived from Darab, an appellation of some of the ancient kings of Persia. After a brisk ride of forty miles, the party reached the town of Nisibin, where they found the caravan under- going a heavy extortion, under the name of custom, at the hands of Sheik Farsee, chief of the whole country from hence to Mardin, in which the Englishman and certain Tartars who had joined him were included. This city, not less celebrated than Mardin or Amida, and even, on the ground of tradition, claiming Nimrod for its founder, appears to have been esteemed in former times as of the first importance. Its name has been held equivalent to the Hebrew or Chaldaic word which signifies “ a military post ;” but some derive it from a Syriac term which denotes “a place of columns.” It is situated in a level plain on the western bank of the Mygdonius, now the river of Nisibin, and still exhibits a considerable extent of ruins, among which a small temple of ordinary fabric, having five columns standing,—a long level bridge of Roman architecture, on twelve arches,—-and a European building, now called the Church of St J ames,-—with the citadel, a heavy square structure, are the chief. The present town contains not more than 100 houses, built among the ruins, and which are chiefly inhabited by Mohammedans, Arabs, and Kurds, under the government of Sheik Farsee. From this station the traveller pursued his course, in ' Mr Rich did visit Dara; but his account of it has not been given to the public. 230 PRESENT sure or MESOPOTAMIA- company with the Tartars and caravan, across the plain of Sinjar, level like a sea—with rocks and islets scattered over its surface. As they pitched their tents near the hills, they were again alarmed by the appearance of fifty well-appointed horsemen, followers of Khalif Aga, the most powerful chief between Orfa and Mosul. The re- sult was a further levy of black mail, to the amount of 2500 piastres or £125 sterling, besides presents and a considerable extent of secret pillage. In proceeding over the Berreah or open land, the dark basaltic rock, sometimes porous and sometimes solid, again made its appearance, and continued till hid by a sheet of cultivation which was then under the sickle. The whole tract was called Belled Chitteea, and there were several small Kurdish villages scattered over it. From their night’s resting-place at Chehel Aga the lofty mountains of Al J eudi were in sight ; but the remainder of the road to Mosul was reported so dan- gerous that the caravan came to the resolution of hiring eighty Yezidee horsemen to convoy them in safety. The weather was burning hot, the thermometer at two P. 11., under the shade of a double cloak, being 118 ; the glare of the desert-plain was overwhelming ; while the snow-covered mountains of Kurdistan seemed to mock their distress. The consequence was, that on reaching a stream, the banks of which were so high that the cattle could not get to the water, they broke from all restraint, and camels, horses, and men plunged pell-mell into the ravine, where some were drowned, and much luggage was lost. From this point, the caravan, making its way over a succession of small calcareous hills, reached the ruins of Eski or old Mosul by noon of the 4th July. There they rested onlytill night, after which our country- man continued his progress along with the Tartars to Mosul, which he reached on the morning of the 6th. The first appearance of this place disappointed his ex- pectations ; there being little of the magnificence he had pictured to himself from the descriptions he had heard. He approached it through a succession of barren plains PRESENT srsra or MESOPOTAMIA. 231 and miserable villages; and on entering its gates, it struck him as the worst built and altogether the least interesting city he had yet seen in the East.* Nor does this im- pression appear to have been improved by the two days’ examination which he devoted to its edifices. The gene- ral aspect is mean ; the streets being narrow, irregular, and unpaved. Nor, with one exception, did he see either the fine bazaars, mosques, or palaces, which might be looked for in such a town. The houses are chiefly con- structed of small unhewn stones, cemented with mortar and plastered with mud ; and the walls are generally sloped, like the Egyptian temples, having the angles towards the streets rounded ofl“. Timber being scarce, they have for the most part vaulted roofs on which the terraces are formed. The door and window plates are usually made of marble taken from the neighbouring hills. The style of the arch is the pointed Gothic ; some- times the flatter N orman—seldom the Saracenic. The bazaars, though, with one exception, not so fine as those of Cairo, are numerous and well supplied, but dirty and deficient in symmetry. In one are sold the produce and manufactures of India and Europe. The coffeehouses are large, some having an avenue a hundred yards long, shaded with matting, and furnished with benches on either side for the accommodation of company. There are about thirty baths, but none com- parable to those of Cairo, Damascus, or Aleppo. Of mosques there are not fewer than fifty, of which twenty are large, but the most extensive, which is remarkable for a very lofty minaret, is in ruins. Of Christian churches there are fourteen; five belong- ing to one set of Chaldeans and four to another ; three of Syrians ; one of J acobites; and one of Roman Catholics. The most conspicuous have already been described. The population is estimated at nearly 50,000, of whom the greater number are Mohammedans, in equal proportions of Arabs, Turks, and Kurds. Of Chaldeaus ' Vol. p. 20. 932 PRESENT STATE or MESOPOTAMIA. there are said to be about 1000 families ; 500 of Syrians, 300 of Jacobites, and 300 of Jews. Mosul is the seat of a pasha of two tails, who, though his government is small, receives his investiture from Constantinople. His military force when the traveller was there did not exceed 1000 men, chiefly cavalry ; but the amount fluctuates according to circumstances. The city is surrounded by a wall, though without cannon. It has a castle towards the river, small and ruinous, on an island formed by the waters of the Tigris, which are let into a wet ditch on the outside. The trade, once very considerable, has, like that of the whole country, sunk to small dimensions. Gall-nuts from Kurdistan, and Indian goods from Bussora, form the chief staple; and the only manufacture carried on is that of coarse cotton cloths, which, being dyed blue, are used by the lower classes. Mr Niebuhr observes that the climate is reputed to be very healthy—the air and water excellent—but that the winter is sometimes very cold. As a proof of this, he states that the Tigris about ten years before his visit had been actually frozen over, and continued so several days. Close to the city there are a number of mineral springs, so strong as sometimes even to taint the waters of the river with a sulphureous flavour. In most respects the account of Buckingham agrees entirely with that of the German traveller. The Rev. Mr Southgate,* in 1838, was struck with the extent of this city, but still more with the numerous ruins that met his eye while walking through the streets ; the effect, he says, of a famine which was followed by the plague. One hundred thousand persons, he was informed, were cut ofl‘,—a number which certainly ex- ceeded its population at any one time. According to his estimate at that period it contained 40,000 souls. In other respects, his account coincides with those already given. ‘(Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia, 2 vols 8vo, London, 1840, vol. ii. pp. 237, 238. 234 PRESENT STATE OF MESOPOTAMIA such as blacksmiths, carpenters, dyers, and tobacconists. The gardens supply a few vegetables, with figs, pome- granates, and mulberries; and there is a good deal of land cultivated every cold season in the plain, which, however, is very stony and barren in appearance. This place was formerly the resort of all the robbers in the country ; but, since its subjugation by Hafiz Pasha, their occupation is at an end, and it is now governed by a Turkish zabit. Having with some difficulty procured mules here, Mr Forbes proceeded across the plain in the same direc- tion to Bukrah, the nearest Yezidee station on the hills, passing through the ruined village of Inbarah, on the banks of a small stream. Bukrah, which is pleasantly situated on the north-eastern shoulder of the mountain, among large plantations of fig-trees, consists of sixty-five houses containing about 500 inhabitants. The dwellings rise in rows one above another; and the whole side of the hill, to the very summit, and to the extent of several miles on either side, is covered with vineyards and fig-gardens. The cultivated ground is laid out in flat terraces supported by low stone walls; and water is procured at the base of the acclivity and near the border of the plain, where there is a considerable tract of wheat and barley. Between these fields and the village was the thrashing-floor, formed of stiff hard clay. The house to which the travellers were taken was particularly neat and clean ; and the inhabitants, though inquisitive, were civil and attentive. From this place Mr Forbes ascended to the summit of the hill, 1600 feet above the plain, by a steep path winding among huge fragments of rock and scattered plantations of figs and vines. The view was extensive and grand, comprehending the magnificent vale of Meso- potamia, with Mount Masius in the horizon. On the 16th he and his attendants left Bukrah on asses—neither mule nor horse being procurable—and proceeded by a very bad road through the valley formed by the outer and inner hills, lined on either hand by fig- PRESENT sure or MESOPOTAMIA- 237 Hassawi, a reedy stream which, rising in Mount Masius, flows into the Khabour. Mr Forbes sums up his account of this hitherto un- known tract by observing, that the eastern extremity of the Sinjar Hills is eighty-three miles distant from Mosul, and their western point seventy from Nisibin. The desert around them is covered with grass and thorny shrubs, and includes extensive tracts of barren salt marsh. South- ward of Mosul it is dry and sandy, but improves towards Mardin, and near Koach Hassar the soil is very fertile. The mountainous district of Sinjar, fifty miles long, and from seven to nine in breadth, has been variously subdivided by Arabs and Yezidees. The northern sec- tion, called Shamali, though smallest, is by far the most populous, well-cultivated and fertile. It contains sixteen villages; while that named Kibh‘, or the southern, can boast but of nine. Figs and grapes, which are the prin- cipal fruits, are good of their kinds, especially the former, as they are small and of the white variety. Mr Forbes denounces the general inaccuracy of our maps, and particularly as regards Sinjar, the lake of Khatuniyah, and the course of the Hawali. No stream whatever runs from the northern or eastern sides of the Sinjar hills more than a few miles into the desert ; while towards the north-west, on the way to Nisibin, the first rivulet is the Hassawi, from Aznowar in Mount Masius, which, flowing south-west, joins the Jakhjakhah 01' Mygdonius. The lake of Khatuniyah—said to be two hours and a half in length, and one and a half bread—- with its village, is situated about thirteen miles west- north-west of Samukhah. The Khabour, rising at Ras ul Ain, directs its course to the neighbourhood of Kha- tuniyah, where it is joined by the united waters of the Mygdonius and Kokab, and soon after by the Hawali. It then runs southward, passing close to the Sinjar Hills on its way to the Euphrates. The source of the Hawali is two hours north-west of Khatuniyah ; and after pro- ceeding two hours in the direction of west-south-west, it falls into the Khabour. ' 238 PRESENT CONDITION or assvnu. CHAPTER XII. Present Condition of Assyria. Portion of Kurdistan included in Assyria-Nestorian Christians of J ewar—Sert—Colonel Sheil’s Journey to J ezirah ibn Omar —P1ain of Mediyadfilezirah ibn Omar described—Its Chief —Swimming the Tigris—Skirt the Mountains to Accra and the Zeb—Change of Scenery—Cross the Zab—Erbile (Ar- bela)-Altun Kupri — Kirkook -- Kufri —Antiquities - Tooz Khoormattee—Kara. Tepp6_Aspeet of Lower Assyria- Sug'ramah Pass, and View from it-Pashalic and Pasha. of Solymaneah—Present State of the Town~The Bebeh Tribe of Kurds—Climate-Shahrasour—State and Chief of Re- wandooz—His Rise and Character—Pashalic and Pasha of Amadieh-Dr Rose’s Description of the Meer, his Camp, Government, Army—Scheme of executive J ustice—Fate_ Town of Rewandooz-Nestorians of Jewar—Their Origin- Numbers-Government—Face of their Country—Antiquities at Shahraban—The Zendan-Kasr Shireen—Haeosh Kerek -General Meanness of Sassanian Ruins— Kelwatha. -Pa- shalie of Zohab—Sir e Pool e Zohab-The ancient Calah or Hulwan-Antiquities there—Royal Sepulohre. THAT part of Kurdistan which properly belongs to Assyria comprises only the small state of Sert, J ezirah ul Omar, part of the pashalie of Amadieh, the govern- ment of Rewandooz, and the pashalic of Solymaneah. The very remarkable community of Nestorian Christians, who inhabit the vicinity of Mount J ewar, may also be considered as more properly appertaining to this province than to Persian Kurdistan, as the waters from that ele- vation certainly flow into the Tigris. Sert, Isert, or Sered, supposed by D’Anville and others PRESENT CONDITION OF assvam. 239 to represent the ancient Tigranocerta, was, when visited by Kinneir, governed by a chief subject to the Prince of Zok—a place between Betlis and Diarbekir—-so powerful, that it was said he could bring no fewer than 20,000 men into the field. In 1836, when Colonel Sheil passed through it, Reshid Pasha had succeeded in esta- blishing the sultan’s authority over the ruler of Sert, whose territory he had attached to the government of Diarbekir. The town is described as being situated in a large undulating plain without a single tree, and sur- rounded at a considerable distance by high mountains. It is two miles and a half in circuit, encompassed by a wall with various bastions, but ruinous in many places, and having no ditch. A large portion of the enclosed space is void of buildings ; and the houses were under- stood not to exceed 1000, occupied by Kurds, Armenians, and N estorians. There were three large and several small mosques, two churches, five baths, and one caravansary. The governor’s residence is an extensive edifice, sunk in a deep moat which can be filled with water, and has fortifications in abundance. The houses are arched, having very thick walls built with stone and lime. In the midst of each field may be seen a small building, intended for the protection of the property. Colonel Sheil’s object was to get from Sert to Jezirsh ibn Omar; but the shortest road through Buhtan, a wild and very mountainous district, being impracticable owing to the rebellion of its prince who still held out against Reshid Pasha, he was advised to accompany a party of troops belonging to the latter, who were to go round by the Tigris. They, however, departed with- out him; and he was under the necessity of hiring a number of mules to relieve his fatigued horses and cattle. A laborious ride brought them to the village of Til, where a chief belonging to the district of Sert gave him and his attendants a good breakfast. While sitting at this meal, they heard several shots, which he afterwards learned proceeded from skirmishing parties firing at each other across the river. Near this point they passed the 240 PRESENT CONDITION or ASSYRIA. Tigris, 150 yards in breadth, very rapid, and waist-deep; High mountains rose on each hand; but there were ' several villages, which were surrounded with cultivation, and abundance of vineyards, rice, cotton, melon, and cucumber grounds. Near one called Chelek, they left the river, which they did not see again till they reached Jezirah ibn Omar. The road was stony, and often very bad ; the hills were covered with wood, chiefly stunted oak, fir, holly, and a few elms,with raspberries, barberries, and a profusion of small plants. The plain of Mediyad, of immense extent, though cumbered with rocks, is crowded with villages, and covered with unirrigated cultivation, although the stones were in some places piled in heaps fifteen feet high. Its inhabitants are Kurds and Yezidees. After rising to the summit of a ridge, a descent of 1500 feet conducted the travellers to the vast plain that stretches almost unin- terruptedly to Bagdad and the Gulf. On this were many mounds scattered, with forts on their top and villages below; others were entirely bare and solitary. Many of the hamlets had been destroyed by the military opera- tions of Reshid Pasha. Jezirah ibn Omar, that is, the Island of the Sons of Omar, is surrounded by the Tigris, and presents a town of the same name, the ancient Bezabde. It occupies nearly the whole surface, which is about two miles and a half in circumference, and is encompassed by a low ruinous wall of an oval shape without a ditch. The arm of the river which forms the island was at that time (August 3) not more than a few yards broad and only ankle deep. It was formerly spanned by a bridge, of which five arches still remain; both it and the walls being built of square black stones. The main stream, more than 100 yards broad, flows on the other side, and was formerly crossed by a bridge of boats. Shut in between high banks, the heat is extreme; not a tree enlivens the vicinity ; and the town, ruined by plague, cholera, and the army of Reshid Pasha, presents a scene of utter desolation. It had been the seat of a Kurdish PRESENT CONDITION OF assvnm. 241 chief, who used to plunder or levy contributions on all caravans. Macdonald Kinneir was imprisoned and heavily fined by this savage, who thought fit to set Reshid at defiance ; upon which the pasha seized his capital, and, for this reason, he was now in rebellion in the opposite district of Buhtan. Not a soul was to be found in the town, nor a hovel to shelter the travellers; wherefore, swimming their horses across the Tigris five miles below, they continued their descent upon the left or Assyrian shore. Colonel Sheil, being desirous to join the army of Reshid Pasha, left the road to Mosul on the right, and keeping close to the foot of the hills, pursued his way by Al Kosh, Akereh, and Zebari to the Zab, which he crossed at a small village on its western bank. A1 Kosh has been already described. The party passed through many Yezidee villages, and found the people uniformly civil and hospitable. The road, though hilly and bad, is practicable even for canon ; the heat and glare were excessive, but there was no want either of cultivation or inhabitants. Akereh is a. town of 500 houses, surrounded by fine gardens, and defended by a very strong castle on a rock which projects from the El Khair range of mountains; but the garrison surrendered to Reshid on finding themselves within range of a couple of guns brought to bear on them from the plain. The country here presented a delightful contrast to that which the travellers had just left. Villages were ensconced in clefts of the rock, surrounded by trees and gardens, and torrents gushing from the hills crossed the path; the El Khair mountains became lower and more verdant ; while grapes, figs, and walnuts grew wild in the valleys. On the 14th August, they passed the Zab 100 yards broad, rapid and deep, upon a raft com- posed of inflated skins and branches of trees, guided by two men, each with large calabashes under his arms, to assist him in swimming. Erbile, the celebrated Arbela, is a large artificial mount, sixty or seventy feet high, 300 yards in length 1) PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRXA. by 200 in breadth, crowned by a brick wall with bastions and a few small guns. Beneath there is an- other town ; but both are very ruinous, and there are no remarkable remains, except those of an immense brick pillar, which is probably Mohammedan, standing alone in the plain. When the place belonged to the Meer of Rewandooz,—who took it from the Pasha of Bagdad,—and was visited by Dr Ross on his way to Accra, it was prosperous and flourishing; but resist- ance having been made to the sultan’s troops who at- tacked it, a siege took place, a mine was sprung, the garrison surrendered, and the town suffered severely for its imprudence, although it is still said to contain about 6000 people. The plain, which extends to Altun Kupri, though much covered with small stones, is capable of producing fair crops, and is in some parts Well cultivated. In May, when Ross passed it, the surface was adorned with flowers and rich verdure, which, however, soon fade under the parching heat. Altun Kupri,.“ the Golden Bridge,” is situated on an island in the Lesser Zab, which is crossed by the bridge that gives its name to the place; and the town, which was taken by the Meer of Rewandooz, reverted to the pasha. on the fall of that chief. It once contained 8000 inhabitants, but has been greatly thinned by plague and famine. The road from hence to Kirkook, the Corcura of Ptolemy, lies over a stony plain, intersected with nu- merous ridges, but also interspersed with patches of cul- tivated land, like most of Lower Assyria. The town is by Buckingham divided into three portions. The first, in which there is a castellated mount resembling that at Arbela, contains about 5000 inhabitants, all Moslems. There the governor resides; and the minarets of three mosques are seen from below. The second portion, which is spread out under this castle, affords dwellings, it was said, to 10,000 souls, a mixture of all descrip- tions of people,—Armenians, N estorians, Syrians, Chris- tians, and Moslems. It possesses all the caravansaries, 244 PRESENT conm'rros or assvnu. river. Eski Kufri, an old site two hours south-west of the present town, exhibits a great extent of mounds, fragments of urns, and vestiges of buildings like those of the Kasr Shireen. One of the mounds resembled the Mu jelibé, with sides almost perpendicular, except where furrowed by the rains. It was fifty-seven feet high, about 960 feet long from north to south, and nearly as much from east to west. In it was found a vault, with fragments of urns, human bones, and fine pottery; but the time did not admit of a strict examination. On the road from Kirkook to Kufri, and in the same gypseous hills, is situated Tooz Khoormattee, just where the Ak-su pierces them. Here, too, are naphtha pits, which are productive and valuable, and generally found at the edge of the gypsum debris on the side of the streams. At this place, the date-tree, which is uncertain in point of produce at Kufri, bears particularly well; though Buckingham states that the heat at three 1am. was 125°, and the wind suffocating. After passing Kara Teppé, where there is a succession of low bills, the country becomes rich as far as the foot of the Hamrine range. These consist of several ridges of sandstone rocks, and, as we have seen, extend far on either side to the north-west and south-east. From the southern side, the country to Bagdad is entirely alluvial and very fertile, comprising the districts of Khalis and Khorasan, the richest perhaps in the pashalic. The following description* of the appearance of Lower Assyria, and of the pass which leads to it from Soly- maneah, may convey to the reader a tolerable idea of the aspect of this country. The pass't is very striking. The mountains of which I have spoken as forming the boundary between the highlands of Kurdistan and the plain of Assyria, which extends to the Tigris, here form a line running about ' From Travels in Kurdistan and Mesopotamia, by the author of this work. + That of the Sugramah. PRESENT CONDITION or ASSYRIA. 245 south-east and north-west, and are composed of many strata of limestone and calcareous conglomerate, with intervening beds of gravel and indurated sandstone. One of these strata, of enormous size and great height, rises on their north-east face, and running straight as a line for forty or fifty miles, perhaps, separates them .from the irregular valley in which we had been travelling. Its crest rises thin and sharp ; and the angle of its dip is so near a right angle, and its face is so free from soil, that at a little distance you would take it for an un- broken precipice of sheer hard rock. Yet, continuous as it appears, the ledge is not un- broken. There are gaps in several places, made by the streams which rise in the range, and which have forced outlets for their waters. Before one of these we now stood, collecting our forces, watering our horses, and tightening the bands of our loads, preparatory to grap- pling with the ascent which awaited us. The ledge or stratum I have mentioned narrowed to an apparent thickness of not many yards, and shooting up at once, like a gigantic flagstone on end, from the broken ground at its foot, had been shattered and severed to an extent which abOVe might be 100 yards, but beneath was only sufficient for the passage of the stream. A bridge, under which the waters find their way, and which affords to travellers the means of crossing the boundary, unites the dissevered stratum, the wounded sides of which rise in the most grotesque and ragged forms to the height of several hundred feet. Just beyond, other strata, divided in the same manner, but with less prominent edges, rise in forms to the full as picturesque ; and the whole was spotted with oak bushes, rich in their autumnal tints. It formed on the whole a wild and grotesque, rather than a magnificent landscape ; for it lacked that moisture and consequent verdure which is so essential to beauty in mountain scenery. Still it was striking—The ascent occupied an hour and a half; and at length we stood on the top, looking back on one hand to the wild moun- tainous country we had passed,-—on the other, over the 246 PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA. lower lands we had yet to traverse before we could reach the celebrated capital of the caliphs. Lower, I say, not level; for the country over which our eyes roved was any thing but level, although in relative altitude far inferior to that which we had left. Low ridges of dark craggy hills rose in succession, the termination of which we could not discover from the thickness of the atmosphere ; and the space between the ridges appeared in like manner to be intersected by small hillocks and ravines. It was a black and dreary prospect; yet this was the land of Assyria Proper, the cradle of mighty empires, and the birthplace of the greatest monarchs of the olden time. Certainly no one, regarding it as we now did, would have imagined this scorched and rocky desert to be the country of the great Semiramis or the luxurious Sardanapalus, however fit he might esteem it for the abode and domain of “ Nimrod the mighty hunter.” Yet such, as we saw, is I believe the greater part of the country on the left bank of the Tigris near the hills, from Mosul or Nineveh down to Khane- kin and Mendali, the southern boundary of the ancient province of Assyria. Around Mosul, Erbile, Kirkook, and some other places, there is, no doubt, a circuit of richer country; but a large proportion of the whole is desert, and scarcely fitted by nature to be otherwise. From Zallah, a march of twenty-two to twenty-four miles led us to Ibrahim Khanchee. The first six miles were over one of the most singularly stony tracts I ever saw; but the quantity of herbage that had, neverthe- less, sprung up in spring and summer was astonishing. A portion of this still remained, while the greater part, having been set fire to, had left a wide black surface, thickly speckled with the gray stones, and not a tree or bush in view,—-a most unlovely prospect.——We were now fairly in the country of ancient Assyria, and verily there was little in its aspect to suggest ideas of a vast and powerful empire. One’s reason refused to be persuaded that the wide tracts of gravel and black earthy hillocks that lay stretched around us, with the PRESENT CONDITION on assvnm. 247 rock protruding from their sides and summits, intersected with dry ravines, all obviously unproductiVe, save of a scanty pasturage, could ever have been the theatre of those mighty events which history relates,——where hosts of innumerable warriors struggled for victory and empire. Such are the impressions made upon a tra- veller’s mind by the first sight of Assyria in the end of autumn; nor does the prospect brighten on a more lengthened acquaintance. The pashalic of Solymaneah, which we are supposed to have just quitted, consists principally of one large irregular plain or valley, extending from the district of Khoee on the Zab, to the extremity of Shahrasour, which includes the south-west side of the Kurdish hills, with their subordinate glens; while towards the plain it stretches as far as the governor could enforce his autho-v rity. The Pasha of Solymaneah is the head of the Bebeh Kurds, an ancient family or clan descended from a chief called Solyman Baba or Bebeh, who lived as feudal lord at Pizhdur, a district in the mountains on the frontiers of Persia. They were cadets of the Soran tribe, and survived the fall of their chief. Before the time of the great Solyman, pasha of Bagdad, all the low country from Altun Kupri and Erbile, on the one hand, to Zengabad, Mendali, and Bedraee Jessan, was in possession of the Bebehs ; but, being worsted in their disputes with that great warrior, they were driven farther into the hills. The Bebeh ascendency increased again in the time of Abdulrahman, whose rule commenced A. D. 18, but who had to maintain himself against the attacks of the Persian prince of Kermanshah, as well as against the Pasha of Bagdad, but who, after various fortunes, succeeded in establishing his independence. Unfortunately, his two sons, Mahmoud and Solyman, entered into a contest with one another for the chief- tainship, which terminated in the destruction of their country; for at length the aid of Persia was called in, and the prince royal, too happy to grasp at the obvious means which such an appeal presented to him of obtain- 248 PRESENT CONDITION or assrma. ing virtual possession of the disputed territory, sent his troops to assist Solyman, who has lately been recognised as the sovereign under Persian protection; a whole regiment, with a party of artillery, being quartered at the town of Solymaneah. Even during Mr Rich’s visit at that place, the family troubles had begun, and the pasha’s perplexity was Often a subject of concern to that gentleman, who speaks Of the rebel chief as a very amiable person. His distress, however, though aggravated by the death of his second son, a delightful child, by no means occasioned any re- laxation in his efforts to amuse and entertain his English guest, who bears high testimony to his kindness and hospitality. At that time the country was tolerany well peopled and prosperous. The town, which is only of recent ori- gin (the capital having formerly been at Karacholan), contained 2000 houses, chiefly belonging to Mohamme- dans; six caravausaries, five mosques, and as many baths. Since that period, war, extortion, cholera, and plague, have wrought a miserable change. The following is a later sketch of the condition of this once prosperous pashalic. A couple of marches had brought the travellers from Sardasht, a town upon the Ak-su (which rises near Lahijan), to the neighbourhood of Solymaneah. Only a single inhabited village had been seen in all that way, though the ruins Of many which had been lately abandoned met the eye on all sides. The approach to the capital is thus described: If the depopulatiou on the road was depressing, there was little to cheer us on approaching or entering the town. I never beheld a more miserable collection Of hovels and ruins. We rode through a mass of rubbish up to what had been the pasha’s house, or palace if you will. It was as in utter ruin; uninhabitable except in one small corner, where his harem was bestowed. He himself occupied a tent outside the town. I had sent a man forward to secure for us a lodging. After a while he found us PRESENT CONDITION OF assvam. 249 picking our way among the rubbish and broken walls, seeking for some one who might tell us where any body might be found. He led us to the place appointed for us—a perfect wreck—through a labyrinth of mud heaps which had once been houses. It had been the residence of some great man, a relative of the pasha, who at this time was absent at Tabriz. It was well for him. Such as it was we had it all to ourselves. It was one great mass of mud; a dozen open spaces that had once been chambers, surrounding a large rambling hall, with a great square hole in the middle, intended as a water-cistern. On the following morning I strolled out to seethe town. Certainly my first impressions of its wretched- ness were in no degree weakened by further observa- tions,—all was misery and filth and abomination. Not one decent habitation was to be seen. None of the people, high or low, have had the heart, or means per- haps, to repair their ruined houses; so that the huts that have arisen upon the ruins of the old ones are of a meaner description than usual. I was told that there were still from 1000 to 1500 families residing in Soly- maneah ; but, to judge from appearances, I should think even the first number overrated. The dominant tribe of this pashalic, the Bebehs, may amount it is said to 4000 families; but their subject tribes are larger and more numerous. The J ast are stated to exceed 10,000 houses, and to be able to send forth 2000 horsemen and 4000 musketeers; while the Hama- dawnuds, the Tohtiawnuds, the J elalawnuds, the Daloos, and many others, all claim the protection of the Pasha of Solymaneah. Besides these, which are nomades, there are the fixed inhabitants of the villages, who, before being thinned by plague and misery, formed a considerable body ; so that the state, though not very extensive, yet possessing a very large proportion of rich soil, might, if under good government, be not only prosperous but powerful. The climate of Solymaneah is by Mr Rich said to be intensely coldgin winter, especially when the easterly 250 PRESENT coxmrron or assynm. wind prevails. Snow sometimes lies on the ground for six weeks or two months. The weather in summer is pleasant, except when the same wind blows, which it does with violence, sometimes eight or ten days succes- sively. This unwelcome breeze is called the sherki, and coming from the mountains by which the valley is sur- rounded, and which in winter are covered with snow, and in summer baked in the sun’s rays, is either very cold or very hot, according to the season, and is much dreaded. Singular enough to say, its range extends but twelve or fourteen miles in any direction. The district of Shahrasour, where a great deal of rice is grown, is said to be extremely unhealthy; and Mr Rich’s party found Beestan, situated in the hills, equally so. Towards the south-eastern extremity of Solymaneah, where it opens out into a wider plain, are seen mounds marking the sites of ancient buildings, which give their name of Shahrasour to the district and that part of the valley. These, or some of them, certainly represent the Seazurus, which was visited by Heraclius in his march after the defeat of Khoosroo Purveez and capture of Des- tagerd ; and Mr Rich intended to go thither and examine them. This, however, he was prevented from doing; and the task remains still for some future traveller to complete. From natives it is seldom possible to gather any certain information on such subjects; but the pre- sent-writer did hear thus far, that on the plain, which is bounded by very rugged mountains, there are five or six positions presenting ancient ruins,—one called the Khallah or fortress, a large and lofty mound ;—Yasseen Tepeh, Goolumber, Arbut, and Kharabeh were also men- tioned ; and it was said that stones of great size and bearing inscriptions had been occasionally dug up. A Boot Khaneh or image-temple was also spoken of as ex- isting in the same plain, in which was a slab covered with unknown characters. Mr Rich, who heard nearly the same account, entertained no doubt that Arbut, where the most considerable mounds are met with, is the ancient Shahrasour, though he admits that all the Kurds deny PRESENT coxnrrron or ASSYRIA. 251 there ever was a city of that name, which they maintain applies to the district only. The state of Rewandooz, the ruler of which rose lately into much importance, was formerly very small, consist- ing of not more than a. dozen villages, governed by a petty chieftain, who acknowledged allegiance to the Pasha of Solymaneah, his neighbour. This personage, Meer Mus- tapha, resigned the care of his little province to his son Mohammed, because, as some say, he discerned in the young man the symptoms of a superior greatness and good fortune, which he, rather inclined to quiet and contemplation, did not desire to pursue. Others pretend that this self-denial on the part of the father was brought about by the son, from motives of ambition. They also insist that the total blindness which soon after fell upon the old man was produced by the meel or redhot pencil held to the eyeballs,—a common operation in the East. But the last assertion, at all events, is false, because the abdicated ruler himself told Dr Ross, who had been sent for by the prince to cure his parent, that the calamity had been occasioned by his own imprudence, in placing a cap of snow upon his head when overheated by ascend- ing a mountain. Mohammed, who at the time of that gentleman’s visit in 1833, was about forty-five, began his career by taking a small fortress called Seetuc, near Ooshnoo, from Persia. He would soon have been forced to abandon his conq'uest, but immediately after broke out the war with Russia, which, obliging the prince-royal to withdrawall his troops to oppose the more powerful foe, enabled the Meer of Rewandooz to extend his territories at the expense of his neighbours. Solymaneah, torn by civil broils, could oppose no efl‘ectual resistance to this warlike chieftain, who accordingly wrested place after place from the pa~ shalic until he had taken Kirkook and Erbile, and made himself master of the whole country as far as the vicinity of Mosul. He then attacked the pashalic of Amadieh, a fertile and populous district, lying in the mountains that overhang the Assyrian plains ; a region proverbial 252 PRESENT CONDITION OF assrnm. for its fertility and beauty. The pasha, who, according to Mr Rich, is of the family of Bahdinan, the noblest among the Kurds, and who, as having some connexion with the caliphs, assumes a peculiar sanctity as well as dignity, lived in greater state than all other chiefs, and arrogated the most profound obsequience. No one dared to use the same pipe, cup, or bath; he always sat alone ; and dined so strictly in private that none of his servants were allowed to see him eat. Sometimes he even rode out with a veil over his head, to prevent profane eyes from looking on his august countenance. But, when in want of money, he sunk these high honours, and begged from the chiefs under his authority, in the form of a stranger soliciting hospitality. This ruler, of a high line and ancient family, was unable, however, to resist the arms of the Meer of Re- wandooz, who could now, as was asserted, muster from 30,000 to 50,000 hardy musketeers, kept by him in con- stant pay. By means of these, as well as by sowing dissen- sion in the pashalic, he first overran the country, and then by a similar process, having seduced a nephew of the reigning pasha, he got possession of the capital, Amadieh. At the time of Ross’s visit, however, he was encamped with about 10,000 men before Accra, a very strong fortress which he had just taken by assault, not having as yet proceeded against the metropolis. The doctor describes his camp as having few preten- sions to military order. Each ashayer or clan was pitched around its chief in separate groups at will, so that the whole were spread to an extent which, according to the rules of European tactics, would have accommodated 50,000 men. The only approach to regularity was in the disposition of his personal guards, at body of 3000 warriors, well armed, who were encamped close to his tent. Yet was there no want of a certain species of discipline: not a sound was heard ; and every man could, at the appointed signal, be at his post in five minutes. The men of their own accord were continually exercising at marks ; and from 100 to 200 of the soldiers, invited PRESENT CONDITION OF ASBYRIA. 253 from different tribes, dined every evening in their sove- reign’s pavilion. The pasha is described as a benevolent and pleasing- looking man, fair, marked with the small-pox, and blind of an eye, which was opaque and depressed. His beard was about twelve inches long, of a light-brown colour, the lower half being uncombed, and quite felted together, though, in other respects, he was rather tidy in his dress. He was lame of one leg, from the kick of a horse, and spoke with a weak voice. But the most singular circumstance respecting this chief is the great moral change which he effected in the provinces which he had subjected to his sway. Instead of being, as formerly, a community of robbers, who could not see a traveller pass without attempting to plunder and strip him,and who, as they said of themselves, would “ cut a man’s throat for an egg in his hand,” there is not a theft committed in the country. The practice of robbery was cut short by a summary process : Whoever was caught possessing himself of the goods of others, was punished on the spot, or put to death with- out mercy. For the first offence, according to circum- stances, an eye, a hand, or the nose was the forfeit ; for the second, some severe mutilation ; but the third offence was always punished with death. This decree, fearlessly and unsparingly enforced, has had so powerful an effect, that were a man to see a purse of gold upon the road, he would not touch it, but give notice to the head of the next village, who would take care of the property, and report to the chief in person. A striking instance of the meer’s inflexible adherence to stern justice, is giVen in his behaviour to his own favourite brother, who, in riding by a poor man’s garden, had plucked a pome. granate without asking its owner’s permission. Upon hearing of this, he charged his relative with the theft, which was not denied. The chief sternly rebuked him, as if it had been a heinous crime, and demanded which hand he had made use of to perpetrate the act. The young man held forth the hand. “ And with which PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA. finger did you first touch the fruit Z”—“ With this,” said the culprit.—-“ Then, let that finger be cut off immedi- ately,” said the meer; and the sentence was carried into execution on the spot. Nor was he less unrelenting on such occasions to strangers. A tribe of the Taee Arabs had settled in his territory, having been driven across the Tigris by the Jerbah; and he had granted them permission to reside there, on condition of observing the rules of his government. For some time, the sheik did so ; but getting tired of inaction and an honest life, and being tempted by the appearance of a small caravan, his habitual propensities proved too strong, and he plun— dered it. But ere the evening of the next day,—before he had well counted his gains,—half a dozen Kurds rode up to his tent, and without either explanation or cere- mony, struck off his head at his own door, and then quietly withdrew. The career of Mohammad was rapid and fortunate, so long as his enterprises were carried on against conter- minous states and pashas ; but the condition of Kurdis- tan, and the disorders of its inhabitants, in a country so nearly bordering upon Syria,—then occupied by Ibrahim Pasha’s troops, who threatened further encroachments on the sultan’s territory,—had forced the Porte to send an army into these parts under Reshid Pasha. Though the meer, had he been faithfully served, might, secure in his mountainous regions, have defied the whole troops of the empire, yet, when the inhabitants found them- selves actually opposed to the arms of the sultan, to the Sanjak She1'eef,—the holy banner, which all true Sonnees regard as the palladium of their faith,—the hereditary reverence for this venerated symbol overcame their fear or regard for their military chief, and they fled, or refused to fight against the sacred ensign. Their leader, now powerless and despairing, gave himself up to the Ottoman general, by whom he was sent in chains to Constantin- ople. After a few months’ detention, the Ports, acting, or pretending to act on the suggestion of certain Eu- ropean advisers, sent back the meer, as was understood, PREsaN'r CONDITION or ASSYRIA. 255 complimented with a khelut of investiture to the govern- ment of his own territories, as being more likely from this act of leniency to prove faithful to his sovereign. But he was not destined to reach his home ; for on the way he was put to death,—no doubt, by secret orders,— and his brother succeeded to his dominion, and to his hatred of the Osmanlis. Dr Ross, who travelled through his territory in May and June 1833, speaks in high terms of its beauty and improved condition, which offered a strong contrast to the desolate state of the country still under the Turkish rule. The villages were often hid in perfect forests of gardens; and the hills, where not under corn, were covered with low oak, wild almond, and other shrubs. Rewandooz itself is a poor town of 2000 houses, sur- rounded by a fortified wall, in a hollow of the moun- tains on the southern bank of the greater Zab. It commands a rude bridge formed over that river, restingr on two stone piers, and covered with branches of trees and earth. The stream not being fordable, caravans cross at this point, which enables the meer to levy a considerable income by way of irnpost on the transit of merchandise. Not more than three days’ journey westward from Ooroomia of Persia, and little more than one from Re- wandooz, lie the mountains of Jewar, and the country* inhabited by a race of Christians, of the Nestoriau creed. They are said to have retreated from Mesopotamia into those wild regions late in the sixteenth century, in con- Sequence of a schism or feud between two rival patri- archs. The most probable accounts fix their numbers at about 14,000 families, who, though divided into three or more separate tribes, form a sort of commonwealth under certain patriarchal chiefs or bishops, by them termed khaleqfizhs. Of these, the principal, named Mar Shemaoon, resides at Kojannis, a monastery among the " This is b some called the Teearee countr ;_but the name properly app ies to one of the tribes of these hnstia-ns, not to the country. 256 PRESENT CONDITION or assvma. mountains, where he maintains great state, and exercises over his subjects a perfect authority in temporal as well as spiritual affairs. But every village has its khaleefeh or priest, who acts also as magistrate; besides which, mention is made of intermediate prelates, who are said to reside at other places, and command high respect. These tribes are represented as being rich, and living in great comfort, their country abounding in all sorts of produce, both vegetable and mineral. They pay a. nominal respect or obedience to the Hakkari Kurds, the chief of whom resides at J ulamerik. But in point of fact, they are quite independent, very jealous of their freedom, and well able to defend it, for they can muster 12,000 capital musketeers, while their territory, a cluster of lofty mountains intersected by deep ravines, is singu- larly defensible. These chasms, the beds of rapid torrents, are spanned by a single tree, which, either being re- moved or let down at one side, the approach of an enemy is absolutely debarred. Nor is it alone the singular character of its people and the wildness of its scenery that render this country so interesting ; for here probably are to be found the most ancient manuscripts of the Syrian church, particularly on biblical subjects. It is satisfactory to be able to add, that these treasures are now in a fair way of being brought to light, as an expedition, lately sent out by the Royal Geographical Society of London, for the purpose of dis- coveries in those regions, have been instructed to direct their especial attention to ecclesiastical records. There is yet one district of Ass yria undescribed, which possesses no mean claim upon the attention of the anti- quary; that, namely, which is embraced between a line drawn from the pass of Kerrend to Kufri, 0n the one hand, and by Mendali to the site of Ctesiphon, on the other. It is rich in vestiges of antiquity, though most of the remains hitherto traced are only of the Sassanian era. It was first explored by Mr Rich, and subsequently, to a certain extent at least, by Major Rawlinson. The former gentleman, leaving Bagdad, crossed the Diala at PRESENT connrrrou or assvam. 257 Bakouba, a large village, on his way to Shahraban, in the vicinity of which many of the antiquities are found. Five miles towards the south lie the ruins called the Zendan or prison; but at a point about half-way, the guide conducted him to a place called Eski Bagdad. Here are the remains of a town as large as Ctesiphon, the walls in the same style, the south-Western parts being the most perfect, and the interior filled with rubbish. Between these ruins and the Zendan were seen two parallel Sassanian walls, running north-east and south- west, 600 feet long, and about as much apart, of the same composition as the structures at Seleucia, having between each tier of bricks a layer of reeds. Mr Rich pronounces these ruins to be certainly much older than Islamism, and has little hesitation in considering them to have belonged to the Destagerd of Khoosroo Purveez, which was taken .by Heraclius. The Zendan is described as a. very interesting ruin, built with great solidity of burned brick and mortar. In form it is an oblong square, 1600 feet long by about forty-seven feet broad,* and not less than sixteen feet ten inches high. On the eastern side there are twelve round towers or buttresses, in the curtain between each of which are three pair of loopholes. The western side presents only a dead wall, with a niche ten feet six inches high, with pointed arches opposite each tower on the other side. The last niche, being the only perfect one, was forty-one feet and a half deep, and terminated in a narrow passage faced with a dead wall. On the northern side are four towers, but quite in ruins. Towards the south are the remains of some other buildings ; and on the west, the whole country is covered with broken bricks. Not one of these have inscriptions ; nor are there any unburned bricks or reeds to be seen. Mr Rich con- cludes that this singular ruin must have been a royal sepulchre. It is remarkable that a Chinese copper coin was found here. * Rich’s Koordistan, vol. ii. p. 254. rasssnr cosm'rxox or assrnu. 259 point of superficial extent. It appears to have been a large platform, supported by arches forming cells, and very narrow passages. On the western end of the south side are the ruins of what seems a portico, with a gate at each extremity. The north side is open, displaying various cells and compartments. On the east and north the platform is entire, and has on each side a double staircaSe, underneath which the vaulted support on which it rests may be clearly seen. The longest side does not exceed 200 feet and from eight to ten feet in height. Another enclosure within the town, with an arched gateway built of large pieces of sandstone, and fifteen feet broad, may, it is thought, have been a tank or reservoir in front of the palace. Besides these principal ruins, there are the remains of walls and courts, extending, as the people of the country say, to an immense distance, as well as traces of aqueducts. But the mountainous cha- racter of the whole region shows that this can only have been, what tradition calls it, a hunting-Seat of the great monarch ; and Mr Rich is undoubtedly right, when he concludes that it is not at Kasr Shireen, that is, the Palace of Shireen (mistress or wife of Khoosroo) that we are to look for Destagerd. Turning westward from this place, the traveller next pursued his way ten or twelve miles “ over wild hills and among Kurdish tribes” to Haoosh Kerek, a ruin much like Kasr Shireen, but less decayed, so that the plan was more comprehensible. The building which bears that name consists of a platform supported on vaults or cells, which are a great resort of robbers, and are blackened internally by the smoke from the fires of those who frequent them. It is an oblong square, of which the northern side, including the remains of what is called the Kasr, measured 340 feet, the length from east to west being about double that from north to south. It is a multitude of small rooms in ruins, all built of round pieces of sandstone, with which the country is covered. There are some other edifices, similar in fabric and character, but meriting no minute description. 260 PRESENT CONDITION or ASSYRIA. Mr Rich considers this as Well as the Kasr Shireen to have been one of the monarch’s many hunting seats and parks, but observes that neither these nor any thing else that he had seen of Sassanian erection are calculated to give any high idea of their taste or magnificence. “ When richly painted, gilded, and ornamented, they might have been worth seeing: in their present state of ruins they are certainly not imposing.” Assuredly except the arch and hall at Ctesiphon there are no Sassanian remains that convey to the beholder any idea of much magnificence and taste and though doubtless the sculptures on the rocks at Shapoor, Naksh e Roos- tum, Tank e Bostam, and Bessittoon, are curious, they dwindle into insignificance when compared with the stu- pendous structures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, or even with the venerable remains of Persepolis. These are the principal vestiges of antiquity in this district ; others are mentioned, but of less importance, and therefore need not be more particularly noticed. Kel- watha, a heap of extensive mounds at the confluence of the Diala and Tigris, has been already alluded to. Among these eminences was picked up a small thin brick of nearly four inches long, on which was impressed a figure, tolerany well executed, of a female arrayed in the Babylonish dress, with a flower in one hand and an animal of some sort in the other. The dress is flounced up to the waist, and the hair falls back in long curls. In describing the river Diala, mention has already been made of the pashalic or district of Zohab, which occupies a triangle at the foot of the ancient Zagros, bounded on the north-west by the course of the current, there called the Shirwan, on the east by the mountains, and on the south by the stream of Hulwan. Although forming one of the ten pashalics dependent on Bagdad, it was wrested from that government about thirty years ago by the Persian Prince of Kermanshah, and has never since been restored. It presents an irregular surface of hills and plains, much of it being capable of culture, but is at present for the most part overrun by the Eeliaut PRESENT CONDITION or assvara. 261 tribes of Gouran and Sinjabee, and some other Kurdish and Arabian clans. In the plain of Hurin in this pashalic, at the foot of a lofty summit called the Sartak, Major Rawlinson found the remains of a city, apparently of the most re- mote antiquity. The foundations, composed of huge masses of stone unhewn, and walls of most extraordinary thickness, are now all that can be seen ; and that gentle- man inclincs to refer them to the Babylonian ages. Two fursucks south of Hurin in a mountain-gorge, the seat of a village named Sheikhan, there is a small tablet sculptured on the rock, exhibiting the same sort of de- vice as is seen in the Babylonish cylinders; an armed figure stands upon a prostrate foe, whilst another kneels with hands fastened behind, as if praying for mercy ; an upright quiver of arrows is placed by the victor king; and the tablet is closed by a cuneiform inscription, written in that complicated character which is nowhere seen except on bricks and cylinders. The tablet is only five feet long by two broad, and rather rudely executed. A remarkable mountain, projecting from the lofty range of Dalahu, rises to the height of 2000 feet, so closr: behind the town of Zohab as quite to overhang it. This in ancient times was converted into a fortress which might be deemed impregnable. On three sides the hill ascends with a very abrupt slope from the plain to within 500 feet of the summit, the rest being a perpendicular scarp, which has been further strengthened by building. On the fourth side, where it is united to the larger moun_ tain, a wall, which, to judge by the part now remaining, must have been fifty feet high by twenty thick, and flanked at regular intervals by bastions, together with a ditch of most formidable dimensions, has been drawn across from scarp to scarp, a distance of above two miles, thus enclosing a space of ten square miles. At the north- east angle the scarp rises in a rocky ridge to join the Dalahu range ; and the pass here, which conducts to the fort, is further strengthened by a wall and two formidable castles. This is the stronghold of Holwan or Hulwan, 262 PRESENT CONDITION or sssvau. where Yezdegerd, the last of the Sassanians, retreated after the capture of Ctesiphon by the Arabs, and it is called Banyardeh or Kalah Yezdegerd. Near the little village of Zardeh there are the remains of two palaces, the Harem and Diwan Khaneh of the same sovereign, both resembling in material and architecture the Sea sanian buildings at Kasr Shireen and Haoosh Kerek. Zohab has by some been regarded as the representa- tive of Hulwan, the ancient Calah and the Halah of the Israelitish captivity. But Major Rawlinson denies the correctness of this conjecture, and attributes that honour to the town of Sir e Pool e Zohab, which is eight miles south of the present Zohab, and situated at a point where the river bursts through the rocks which bound on the south-west the valley 'of Bishiwah. This, he asserts, is the Chala of Isidore of Charax, which gave its name to the district Chalonitis. On the authority of Assemani* it was called indifferently Calah, Halah, and Hulwan by the Syrians, who established a metro- politan see at this place, in the third century ; while, to the Arabs and Persians, it was known by the last of those titles. But we must refer to Major Rawlinson'i' himself for the proofs on which he founds his conclusions, and pass on to a short notice of the antiquities found there. In the gorge through which the Hulwan forces its cur- rent there are several sculptured tablets of Sassanian origin; but over one of these, on the rocks to the left, there is a bold and well executed baa-relief of the Kaya- nian times—that is, of the age of Persepolis and Bessit- tom. A mile and a half from the gorge is seen a line of broken mounds, resembling those at Nineveh and Baby- lon, and therefore probably belonging to the Chaldean ages, as well as a vast assemblage of such eminences, which appear to mark the sites of the principal edifices of the ancient city. One of these is upwards of fifty feet ' Bibliotheca Orientalis, vol. iii. . 346 ; vol. iv. . 753. + Journal of the Royal Geograp 'cal Society, vo . ix. part i. p. 35. London 1839. PRESENT CONDITION OF ASSYRIA. 263 in height; and in several places brick-work, of the pe- culiar Babylonian character, is exposed to view. But the most remarkable monument is a royal Sepulchre at the corner of the upper gorge, two miles distant from the sculptures, and precisely resembling in character the tombs at Persepolis. At the top of an artificial scarp, seventy feet in height, has been excavated a quadrangular recess, six feet deep, eight high, and thirty wide. In the centre of it is the opening into the tomb, the interior of which is rude, containing on the left hand the place for depositing the dead, with niches for lights as usual, but no carving nor ornament of any sort. At the en- trance are two broken pillars, which have been formed out of the solid rock, one on either side ; the base and a small piece of either shaft appear below ; and the capitals still adhere to the roof. On the smooth face of the scarped rock is an unfinished tablet, representing the figure of a Mobid or high priest of the Magi, clothed in his pontifical robes, wearing the square-pointed cap, and lappets over his mouth, which is the most ancient dress of the period of Zoroaster. This tomb is called Dookani Daood or David’s Shop,-~thc Jewish monarch being supposed by the Ali Ullahis, and indeed by other orientals, to have followed the calling of a smith or ar- mourer. There are several other Sassanian ruins and spots consecrated by local tradition near this place, and many objects in the neighbourhood interesting to the comparative geographer and antiquary. At Deira, Gilan, and Zarna, along the foot of the Zagros range, Major Rawlinson discovered vestiges either of Babylonian or Sassanian cities; but to describe these would prove in- consistent with our limits. Of the rest of the country at the base of the hills, all the way to the borders of Khuzistan, little can be said in addition to what we have already observed, namely, that it is swampy and uncultivated, and occupied either by the Lour tribes of Pushtikoh, or by the Beni Lam Arabs. 264 MODERN BABYLONIA. CHAPTER XIII. Modern Babylonia. Bagdad—Its Origin, Position, and History—Walls—Gates— Mosques and Shrines—Impressions on entering the City from Persia—Banks of the Tigris—Boats—Bazaars—Market- places-Sketch by Buckingham—Private Houses—Domes- tic Habits—Women—Georgians and Arabs—Population— Establishment of Daood Pasha —-Plague in Bagdad - Its rapid Progress—Exposure of Infants— Inundation—Con- dition of the Pasha—Instances of sweeping Mortality—Fate of Caravans and Fugitives—Subsequent Calamities_Present Population—Costume ——White Asses and black Slaves—A Battle within the Walls—Insubordination at Kerbelah and Nejefi' Ali—Sketch of a March in Babylonia—Camp of the Zobeid Sheik—His Tent—And Entertainment—Expenditure of an Arab Chief—~March towards Sook el Shiook-Arab Bravado—Hospitality—Madan Arabs—Their Houses—And Flocks of Bufl'aloes—The Montefic Arabs—Their Reed Huts —Sook el Shiook—Interview with the Sheik of the Montefic. WE must now take a glance at modern Babylonia ; and the first object in it which attracts attention is Bagdad, the City of the Caliphs, and the present capital of the pashalic. The Persians, as we learn from D’Herbelot,* claim for their Mahabadian kings the honour of founding this city, and attribute it to Zohauk—an obvious con- fusion of their own traditions with the scriptural account, which assigns Babylon to Nimrod. They add that it was enlarged by Afrasiab, who called it Bagdad, or the Garden of Dad—the idol whom be worshipped. But there is little doubt that in point of fact the true founder ‘* Bibliotheque Orientals. See the word Bagdad. ‘ ‘ \ -l 'I‘-'l_. I.\ I: 1\-. . ' n l- h-n. | , la] ‘- I\‘Il‘]<-- .I‘|:\' In“ ‘ 3-1 my '10“ m1- l)r._i n: "' Pl“! \,‘ .5--:" "ll'ar‘wu"- U n ' i . ...|. " .41.. " I'm -- l‘" I I u" ' ‘z' ~'- :' "' "'61. "(‘UH- l‘ ‘l 7.: 'I:Vl\" I . "“V‘ f“'2g' “H -'b‘|-: - ' . ' I: p: ti“ ~ ‘ 1 h '11 t 1'?“ 'i' ~ “‘i'Sx‘Jf l'l'QA ' th'I'i ‘. 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That prince, disgusted with his former abode at Hashemiah, near Cufa, began, A. D. 760, to build the metropolis in question; but it was not finished until four years afterwards, when he bestowed on it the name of Dar ul Salam, the Dwelling of Peace. It appears to have been erected on the left bank of the river,* of a circular shape, enclosed by two walls, which were flanked by towers ; and in the centre there was a castle which commanded the neighbouring country. It would further appear that the same Almansor, de- sirous to avoid as much as possible all contact with the rabble of his new capital, built on the western side of v the Tigris a suburb named Karkh, joined to the eastern part by a bridge, and in which were the bazaars and public markets. This city rose to its highest pitch of grandeur during the reigns of the celebrated Haroun al Raschid and his immediate successors ; but, in the fourth century of the Hejira, the power of the caliphs having declined, we find Bagdad taken from them, first by Ali Buiyah, the second of the Dilemee dynasty, in A. D. 945, and afterwards by Togrul Beg, the first of the Seljuk sovereigns. But these were comparatively slight ca- lamities, for, though the glory of the house of Abbas had departed, their capital remained rich and populous until the Mogul invasion, under Zingis Khan, swept like. a deluge over Asia, and overwhelmed the prosperity of every town on its fair plains in a torrent of human blood. In A. D. 1256, the stern Hoolaku, grandson of Zingis, marched against the devoted city, which was defended by Mostasem, when, not only was it taken, and the caliph and his two sons put to death, but the inhabitants also were subjected to a general massacre, which by some historians has been swelled to an incredible amount.'l' * Kinneir sa 5 the western side, in which he differs from D’Herbelot. ographical Memoir of the Persian Empire, London, 1813, . 246. + Some say l)7,000,000 ; others are contented with 800,000— either amount implies exaggeration. 268 MODERN BABYLONIA. The mined city remained in the hands of the Moguls until A. n. 1392, when it was taken from Sultan Ahmed Ben Avis of the race of Hoolaku, by the great Tamer- lane. The former prince, however, having succeeded in repossessing himself of the capital, it was again attacked and reduced by the enraged Timur, who punished the in- habitants by putting the most of them to the sword. In the contest between the Turkomans of the White and Black Sheep, which distracted the Persian empire during the ninth century of the Hejira, it passed more than once from hand to hand until A. D. 1508, when Shah Ismael of the Sufl'aveans made himself master of it. During upwards of a hundred years it continued to be an object of contention between the Turks and Persians, _ till at length, in A. D. 1637, it was finally taken by Amurath IV., who annexed it to the Ottoman empire ; and in the possession of that power it has ever since remained. In the course of these revolutions the position, shape, and extent of Bagdad were so greatly changed, that it is scarcely possible to point out the original site. The palace of the celebrated Haroun is supposed to have stood on the western side of the Tigris; but from the fact that the Turks under Tamerlane swam the river from its eastern shore to reach the city, we are led to presume that the chief portion of it was then to be found on the opposite bank. Such, however, has not been the case in more recent times. The present city is still intersected by the Tigris, though by far the larger and most important part is that which occupies its left or north-eastern side ; the shape being nearly that of an oblong square, and the circuit about five miles. It is surrounded by a high wall built of bricks and mud, and flanked with towers of different ages, some of which owe their origin to the successivs caliphs. There are six gates and entrances, three on each side of the river; seventeen large and 100 small towers on the eastern bank, and thirteen on the other. On several of these are cannon mounted, but chiefly MODERN BABYLONIA. 269 unserviceable ; and besides several large breaches in the wall occasioned by the cfi'ects of the inundation of 1831, it is altogether in bad repair. Outside there is a dry ditch, but which cannot be considered available as a defence.* Besides the six gates of entrance towards the land, there is one on each side opening to the river, and one also which is called the Gate of the Talisman, the handsomest of all, originally built by Caliph Al Naser. It was by this approach that Amurath entered when he took the city, but it was built up and has re- mained closed ever since. Within the walls there are said to be 200 mosques, six colleges, and twenty-four baths. Of the first, many of which are attached to the shrines of saints, those of Sheik Abdul Kader, Sheik Shehab-u-deen, Sheik aboo Yacoob Mohammed, Sheik Maroof Kerkhee Habeebi-ajamme, Biskir e Haafee, Hooksam ibn Mansoor, Sheik J unaeed e Bagdadee, are the most important. The cathedral mosque of the ca- liphs, J amah el Sook el Gazel, has been destroyed, with the exception of a curious but rather clumsy minaret. The J amah e1 Merjameeah, though chiefly modern, has some remains of rich old arabesque work, and its gate is fine. The J amah e1Vizier, on the bank of the Tigris near the bridge, has a grand dome and lofty tower, and the great mosque in the square of El Maidan is still an imposing building. But on the whole there are few structures deserving of notice; and it may be re- marked as singular in so celebrated a capital, that not above twenty-four minarets and about a dozen domes, none of them remarkable for beauty or great size, are to be counted within the precincts of the western division. The college of Caliph Mostanser is now the custom- house. The palace of the pasha on the river-bank, at the north-west end of the western division, never magnificent, is now in utter ruins; and his highness lives in the citadel, which, though containing the arsenal, * Kinneir’s Memoir, pp. 248, 249. 270 MODERN BABYLONIA. the mint, and public offices, is hardly in better order. Beyond the walls and near the Hillah gate, is seen a singular hexagonal edifice, with a still more strangely formed tower, which covers the tomb of the beautiful Zobeide; and there is another ancient structure, said to have been erected by the celebrated Alp Alslan, one of the bravest of the Seljuk monarchs. It is con- structed like a kibleh, and is supported on four pillars ; on one side is fixed a black stone, around which are Cufic inscriptions nearly illegible. Such are nearly all the buildings or objects that arrest the attention of a stranger in modern Bagdad ; but the following sketch of first impressions as made upon the author when entering the town, may possibly be useful in conveying to his readers some idea of the place. To those who come from Persia, especially when they have been sickened with a succession of ruins and other tokens of desolation such as had met our eyes, the first sight of Bagdad is certainly calculated to make a favour- able impression, which does not immediately wear off. The walls in the first place present a more imposing aspect, constructed as they are of furnace-baked bricks,. strengthened with round towers, and pierced for guns at each angle, instead of the mean-looking crumbling enclosures which surround the cities of Iran. Upon entering the town, the traveller is moreover gratified by the appearance of the houses, which like the walls are all built of good bricks, and rise to the height of several stories; and though the number of windows they present to the street is far from great, yet the eye is not constantly offended by the succession of irregular mud-built structures, divided by dirty openings, un- deserving even of the name of alleys, that make up the aggregate of a Persian city. In riding along them, particularly in dry weather, one is impressed with the idea that the substantial walls to right and left must contain comfortable dwellings, while the iron-clenched doors with which the entrances are defended, add to this notion of security. MODERN BABYLONIA. 271 Nor are the streets of Bagdad by any means totally unenlivened by apertures for admitting light and air. On the contrary, not only are windows to the street frequent, but there is a sort of projecting one, much in use, which overhangs the path, and generally be- longs to some chamber in which may be seen seated a few grave Turks smoking away the time; or if you be in luck, you may chance to find yourself illumined by a beam from some bright pair of eyes, shining through the half-closed lattice. These sitting-rooms are sometimes thrown across the street, connecting the houses on either side, and afi'ording a pleasing variety to the architecture, particularly when seen as they often are, half concealed by the leaves of a date-tree that overshadows them from the court within. There was something in the general air, the style of building, the foreign costume, the mingling of foliage, particu- larly the palm leaves, with architectural ornaments, when seen through the vista of some of the straighter streets, which excited in the mind of the author a confused remembrance of other and better-known lands. Such were the impressions received from what he saw in passing through the town ; and the banks of the river exhibited a still more striking and attractive scene. The flow of a noble stream is at all times an interesting object ; but when its margin is occupied by a long range of imposing if not absolutely handsome buildings, shaded by palm groves, and enlivened by hundreds of boats and the hum of thousands of busy labourers, and its current spanned by a bridge of boats, across which there is a constant transit of men, horses, camels, and caravans, the combination forms a picture that can hardly fail to produce a very agreeable emotion. And such undoubtedly is the view of the Tigris from many points on its banks, which command the whole reach occupied by the present city. The first sight ‘of the river did not certainly fulfil the author’s expectations, for he had imagined a broader channel. With the appearance of the town from thence 272 MODERN BABYLONIA. he was agreeably surprised ; few blank walls are seen, as most houses have numerous lattices and projecting windows, overlooking the stream ; and there is a hand- some mosque, with its domes and minarets close to the bridge-—itself a pleasing object—with a certain irregu- larity and loftiness in the line of buildings on the left bank, which impart a pleasing variety to the view. The right or western bank is by no means so picturesque in point of architecture, but its large groves of date- trees, mingled with houses, render it also a pleasing object from the more populous side. Among the objects that add interest to the water scenery of Bagdad are the various sorts of boats, which are seen swarming on the Tigris. Those which trade between that city and Bussora are vessels of many tons burden, with high square sterns, the afterpart being covered with a deck so as to form a cabin for the ac- commodation of passengers. The bow is low, but rises above the water somewhat in the form of those Arab dows which are observed in the Persian Gulf. They have but one mast, which rakes forward, and on which is hoisted a long yard bearing a large square sail. They also have a bowsprit on which a jib is set. The dawk, which is used chiefly for carrying firewood, is built in the form of acrescent,—the horn forming the bow being the most curved. The breadth exceeds a third of the length; and the sides, which are flat, fall at an acute angle to join a keel or floor of two feet broad. The frame is made of various sorts of light timber and narrow plank, rudely joined together with slight iron fastenings, and the whole is thickly coated with bitu- men. The rudder is made of spars formed like a large X, the tiller, a crooked spar, being fixed along the top, while the end is applied obliquely to the horn of the stern. A tall thin mast, bending forwards and secured by a single shroud, aft and amidships, supports a light yard and a. triangular sail. The farmdeh is a long flat-bottomed Wherry, made of planks, sewed or nailed together like the one just men- momma BABYLONIA. 273 tioned, coated also with bitumen, and moved by poles or paddles. Some are so large as to hold thirty armed men. The goofah is a round basket-shaped vessel from six to ten feet in diameter, formed of branches of the date, pomegranate, or osier tree, steeped in water, closely wattled, or bound together with leaves, and thickly coated with bitumen. It is moved by a paddle, and with greater speed than could be expected. The other Assyrian raft, called the kelleck, is formed of a collection of spars tied together, and placed upon a layer of inflated skins. It is steered with a large oar, but can only float down stream. Most of these speci- mens of naval architecture are precisely the same as they are described to have been by the writers of anti- quity. There are, besides, a variety of canoes and small boats used in the rivers and canals all over the country. In the bazaars of Bagdad there is just cause for disap- pointment. It is not, however, want of extent, for they are large enough ; nor is there a deficiency of traffic, for they are often very crowded ; but there is in their construction a poverty of design and meanness of exe- cution, with an appearance of dilapidation which, though doubtless attributable in part to recent misfortune, arise chiefly from original defect. Some, and amongst these a very extensive range, the work of the late Daood Pasha, are well built of fire-brick and mortar, with lofty arcaded roofs, but others are very ruinous, and have coverings rudely formed with beams of wood, on which are spread thatch of date-tree branches or reeds. The shops them- selves are poor, 'and frequently in disrepair; many are unoccupied, and in most places there may be traced that air of neglect and of reckless squalidity which so strongly indicates the advance of complete decay. In various parts of the town there are open spaces, which, from particular descriptions of goods being sold, have thence received their names, as the “ thread mar- ket,” the “ muslin market,” or “ the corn-market.” Of these the largest and the gayest is one close to the north- west, or Mosul gate; but none of them has any pre- 3 274 MODERN BABYLONIA. tensions to splendour or even to cleanliness. The last mentioned is in fact the great place of the city. Horses are here exposed for sale ; it is surrounded by coffee- houses, which are constantly filled with an assemblage of all sorts of people, smoking, and drinking. It is also the general place for exhibition—and even of execution-— for here criminals are punished with decapitation, hang- ing, or mutilation ; and sometimes passengers are greeted with the sight of a headless trunk, exposed for the day as a warning to evildoers. The grave Turk, how- ever, insensible to the horror of the sight, smokes his pipe quietly, or passes by with indifference, simply mut- tering “ Allah-il-ullah.” This place of many uSes con- tains little more than an acre of ground. The following sketch, given by Buckingham, is so true and lively, as far as it goes, that we are tempted to insert it.* “ The interior of the town offers fewer ob- jects of interest than one would expect from its celebrity as an oriental emporium of wealth and magnificence. A large portion of the ground included within the walls is unoccupied by buildings, particularly on the north- eastern side ; and even where edifices abound,particularly in the more populous quarter of the city, near the river, a profusion of trees are seen ; so that, on viewing the whole from the terrace of any of the houses within the walls, it appears like a city arising from amid a grove of palms ; or like what Babylon is supposed to have been, a walled province rather than a single town. “ All the buildings, both public and private, are con- structed of furnace-burnt bricks of a yellowish-red colour, a small size, and with such rounded angles as prove most of them to have been used repeatedly before ; being taken perhaps from the ruins of one edifice to construct a second, and again from the fallen fragments of that to compose a third. In the few instances where the bricks are new, they have an appearance of cleanliness and neatness never presented by the old. The streets of Bagdad, as ' Travels in Mesopotamia, vol. ii. p. 179-181, 191-193, 494-499. MODERN BABYLONIA. 275 in all other eastern towns, are narrow and unpaved ; and their sides present generally two blank walls, windows being rarely seen opening on the public thoroughfare; while the doors of entrance leading to the dwellings from thence are small and mean. These streets are more intricate and winding than in many of the great towns of Turkey; and, with the exception of some tolerably regular lines of bazaars and a few open squares, the interior of Bagdad is a labyrinth of alleys and passages.* “ Of the private houses of Bang I saw but little, excepting only their exterior walls and terraces. It struck me as singular, that throughout the whole of this large city I had not seen even one pointed arch in the door of entrance to any private dwelling. They were all either round or flat, having a fancy-work of small bricks above them ; and even in those parts of the old bazaars and mined mosques in which the pointed arch is seen, its form is nearer to the Gothic than to the common Saracenic shape, which I had also observed to be the case at Mosul; so that Bagdad could not have been the original seat of Saracenie architecture, which probably took its rise much farther in the west. “ The houses consist of ranges of apartments opening into a square interior court; and while subterranean rooms called serdaubs are occupied during the day for the sake of shelter from the intense heat, the open terraces are used for the evening meal and for sleeping on at night. From the terrace of Mr Rich’s residence, which was divided into many compartments, each having its separate passage of ascent and descent, and forming indeed so many unroofed chambers, we could command at the first opening of the morning just such a view of Bagdad as is giVen in the ‘ Diable Boiteux,’ of Madrid—showing ' It is to be remembered that this traveller came from Egypt and Turkey, while our author had travelled from Persia ; their impressions were therefore difl'erent, which will account for apparent discrepancies in their respective accounts. MODERN BABYLON“. 27 7 wife served him with her own hands, retiring at a proper distance to wait for the cup, and always standing before him, sometimes indeed with the hands crossed in an at- titude of great humility, and even kissing his hand on receiving the cup from it, as is done by the lowest at- tendants of the household. “ While the husband lounged on his cushions, or sat on his carpet in an attitude of ease and indolence to enjoy his morning pipe, the women of the family generally prayed. In the greater number of instances they did so separately, and exactly after the manner of the men ; but on one or two occasions, the mistress and some other females, perhaps a sister or a relative, prayed together, following each other’s motions side by side, as is done when a party of men are headed in their devotions by an imam. None of the females, whether wife, servant, or slave, omitted this morning duty; but among the children under twelve or fourteen years of age, I did not observe any instance of their joining in it. “ Notwithstanding the apparent seclusion in which women live here, as they do indeed throughout all the Turkish empire, there is no want of real liberty, which ' sometimes, as in other places, is sufficiently abused. Nor can it be denied that the facility of clandestine meetings between persons of the country is much greater in Turkish cities than in any European metropolis. The disguise of a Turkish or Arab female in her walking dress is so complete that her husband himself could not recognise her beneath it; and consequently, let a lady go where she will, no suspicion of the truth can attach to an individual. “Among the women of Bagdad, the Georgians and Circassians are decidedly the handsomest by nature and the least disfigured by art. The high-born natives of the place are of less beautiful forms and features, and of less fresh and clear complexions; while the middling and inferior orders, having brown skins and nothing agreeable in their countenances except a dark and ex- pressive eye, are sometimes so barbaroust tattooed as MODERN BABYLONIA- 279 fied, so that the disease had not only full scope, but was even aggravated by a dense crowd of every sort and con- dition. On the 10th of April, the deaths had already amounted to 7000; and from 1000 to 1200 were every day added to the number. In no long time this daily mortality increased to 4000 and 5000. Many houses were emptied; profound silence prevailed; no one was to be met in the streets, except water-carriers employed to wash the dead, or those who bore them to the tomb. But soon the victims became too numerous for the at- tention of the living. Water could not be had for the use of the survivors; nor cloth to wrap the bodies of the dead; nor persons to inter them. Hence, some of the most considerable people were carried on asses, and thrown into the river or into some hole ; while the poor were buried imperfectly in the houses where they died, or were left to taint the air on the spots where they happened to expire. The most distressing thing, perhaps, was the abandon- ment of young children, who were exposed in the streets by the dying parents, in the hope of attracting the re- gard of charitable persons, at a period, alas! when the dreadful circumstances of the time had deadened all feel- ings of sympathy. Yet the sight did occasionally move the pity of women—mothers, perhaps, themselves—who most commonly to their humane assistance added the sacrifice of their lives. Mr Groves, the missionary who relates these facts, saw often, in the walks which he took to the British residency, as many as eight or ten of those helpless little creatures thus exposed, some of them not ten days old, which, though heartsick at the sight, he had no means of saving. When the mortality was at the highest, the misery of the wretched inhabitants was increased by another tor-- rible agent. The waters of the river, which had risen beyond all precedent, surrounded the tow as with a sea. The wall at length gave way; and the flood poured in, sapping the mud-built foundations of the houses, of which 7000 fell in the night, burying in their ruins the 280 MODERN BABYLONIA. sick, the dying, and the dead. Fifteen thousand indivi— duals are estimated to haVe thus perished 0n the eastern side alone ; yet so absorbed was every one with his own grief, that this event, which in common times would have caused the greatest excitement, was scarcely noticed by any. The ground towards the river being higher, a number of houses remained untouched. To these all who had escaped the effects of the inundation repaired, filling up the blanks that had been made by death, and bringing fresh food for the pestilence which lurked in the empty dwellings, whose late tenants still lay unburied within their walls. Nor was the condition of the pasha better than that of his subjects. His palace was in ruins; his guards were dead or had fled; out of 100 Georgians who con- stituted his personal attendants, four only were left ; of his women, two alone remained ; and he at length was indebted to the benevolence of a poor fisherman for a little food to preserve him from starvation. He sought to flee the city, and desired the use of the residency boat ; but of her crew only one man was aliVe, and he could not find others to work her. “ Fear of him,” says Mr Groves, “is passed, and love for him there is none.” Such havock could endure but for a season. The pes- tilence at length mitigated its severity ; and by the 26th of May, the disease was at an end. Lamentable and fearful was the wreck on which the survivors had to gaze. Of the gross population of Bagdad, there is every reason to believe that two-thirds were carried off, and that the number of dead did not fall short of 100,000. The instances of mortality in families and among cer- tain classes of men were yet more striking. Of eighteen servants and sepoys left in the British residency, two only escaped ; and one of them was the sole survivor of a family of fourteen. An Armenian of rank assured Mr Groves, that out of 130 houses in his quarter, only twenty-seven of the inhabitants were left. One of the moollahs declared, that in the section of the city where he had lived, he knew not one remaining ; and as a single MODERN BABYLONIA. 281 instance of its effects in other parts, it may be men- tioned, that the town of Hillah, which contained 10,000 inhabitants, was entirely depopulated. Some, no doubt, had fled ; but the greater number fell victims-to the disease. Nor was it confined to cities and villages. A large caravan, which had left Bagdad for Damascus at the commencement of the mortality, was at once seized with the epidemic, and surpriSed by the inundation. Having reached a comparatively elevated spot, they remained confined to it during three weeks, the water constantly gaining on them, and the plague thinning their ranks. Few had the good fortune to leave the place. But there were thousands who fled too late, and were caught without any sufficient vantage-ground within reach ; so that they were forced to remain in the water, which rose half a yard high in their tents. Without food or the means of making a fire, neither sick nor whole could lie down; and, what was still more de- plorable, they were not able to bury their fast-accumu- lating dead. Some, frantic with despair, sought to flee, and were drowned in attempting to return, though it Were only that they might expire at home; and the few who did escape, fell into the hands of the predatory Arabs, who treated them with their wonted harbarity. Next came famine, which carried off a portion of those whom pestilence had spared. But the ruin of the sur- rounding villages, and the effects of rapacity and war, driving the inhabitants of the country to the town, it thereby acquired a certain measure of population, which, however, in the course of the three succeeding years, was again thinned by the same frightful disease. Under these calamities the power of Daood Pasha was crushed ; and Ali Pasha, the present ruler, who had been ap- pointed by the Porte to supersede him, was enabled to obtain possession of the city, together with the person of his rival. Still, though peace has nominally been restored, and plague has ceased, the population of Bagdad is far from 282 MODERN BABYLONIA. having reached its former extent. A few years ago, its amount was estimated at about 60,000, of whom the greater number were Turks and Arabs; but many were also true Bagdadees, a somewhat peculiar race, deriving a mixture of blood from all the neighbouring countries. Most of the merchants are of Arab descent, though mingled with Armenians, Christians of the Catholic and Syrian churches, and Jews ; the bazaars being crowded also with Kurds, Persians, and Bedouins. But the last- mentioned race do not like to pass the night in the town ; and the greater number of Persians, being pilgrims to the shrines of Kerbelah and Nejeff Ali, generally take up their quarters at the village of Kazemeen, or outside of the walls towards the north-west. The costume of Bagdad is described by Mr Bucking- ham as being in his day less splendid than that of Con- stantinople or of Egypt. In the time of Assad Pasha this may have been the case, but in that of Daood, it was certainly very rich; and the court of the latter, with his magnificently mounted Georgians, his officers and their trains, made a very gallant show. It is other- wise now ; for the plainness of the modern Turkish dress has extended to this city ; and the establishment of Ali is somewhat mean and insignificant. Still in the bazaars there is a good deal of glitter and attraction; and a stranger is particularly struck with the singularly wild attire of the Arabs and the brilliant costume of the Kurds. The former bind a silk kerchief, in large bars of yellow and red, round the head with a rope of camel’s hair, and wear the national abba floating loosely from the shoulders, often with very little under it. The latter appear in rich turbans of red, white, and blue striped silk, with long fringes hanging down their shoulders; gay vests and robes, over which is thrown the abba of white, brown, or striped eamlet. Among other striking objects in the streets of Bagdad are the multitude of milk-white asses and jet-black negroes. The former are used by all but the warrior class in pre- ference to horses, and particularly by the ladies, who MODERN BABYLONIA. 283 may be seen in large parties trotting on their donkeys to pay visits ; and such animals, particularly if possessed of fine paces, sell for a large sum. The African slaves are quite as much the fashion, both for male and female attendants, and, it appears, are especially prized for their deformity. They are all thick lipped, have broad faces, high cheek-bones, exceedingly depressed noses, staring white eyes, and are brought chiefly from Zanguebar by the Imam of Muscat, who is a great dealer in those unhappy beings. Another thing that arrests a stranger’s attention is the excessive noisiness of all creatures in this large town. From the dawn of day, when the flocks and herds that rest at night within the walls are with great clamour driven forth to feed, till evening, when the Bedouins are heard shouting out to each other in stentorian voices as they leave the streets and bazaars, all is uproar, noise, and confusion. The Jew and Armenian merchants,— the camel and mule drivers,—the boys,—-the women,— nay, the very ladies upon their donkeys,-—-all Seem to vie with each other in loud vociferation. At the time when the writer of these pages was in the city, this clamour was if possible augmented by the additional number of men and cattle which, from par- ticular circumstances, had been driven under shelter of its walls. The Arab tribes in the neighbourhood, when they have any dispute with the pasha, are in the habit of marching in full force to Bagdad, sometimes investing it, and always consuming the corn and forage in the vicinity, in the hope of extorting whatever they may require ; while he, generally too weak to oppose them, is wont to remain ensconced within till want of food com- pels them to retreat. At the time just alluded to, the Aneiza, a clan from the Syrian frontier, in consequence of a misunderstanding with the pasha, held the city in siege, as the Jerbah had done the previous year, and occasional skirmishes took place at some distance from it. During the same period there was a battle, attended by more than usual bloodshed, within the town' itself, be- MODERN BABYLONIA. 285 J ezirah. The morning showed the ground covered with hoarfrost, and as hard as iron ; every wrapping that could be mustered was insufficient to keep out the cold, though in summer the heat is insupportable. The march was a long and tedious one, across a bare joyless desert. The only break in the monotony of the scene was pre- sented by the site of some ancient town or city, of which not less than four large ones, together with several canals, occurred within thirty-two miles. In fact, scarcely had we passed one, when another appeared; and it might safely be said, that we did not ride over a square rood during the whole day without seeing traces of former habitations, in fragments of brick, glass, or pottery. A great part of the land was perfectly barren ; while much of the surface was so cracked as to make riding very un- safe. Where vegetation did exist, it consisted only of a few bushes of capers, of the mimosa agrestis, and some salsuginous plants, or grass: of this last we occasionally saw large tracts, which, from being periodically over- flowed, had shot up into a fine growth. About three in the afternoon, we were greeted with the sight of a few camels on the verge of the horizon,— generally a sure sign of approach to an Arab encamp- ment ; but this time it deceived us. These animals belonged to the J erbah tribe, some of which had wane dered thus far. We had seen smoke, too, which we believed to arise from the Zobeid camp ; but hour after hour passed on, and it appeared no nearer. Towards evening we fell in with more camels, and next saw a flock of sheep; but still no habitation was perceived; and after wandering till dark, we came to a small party of the natives just described, who had neither bread nor water, and scarcely a mouthful of corn for the horses.— We all spent the night in anxiety and unrefreshed ; the servants, besides enduring the pangs of hunger and thirst, being obliged to watch in turn against the thievish pro- pensities of their hosts. Next morning, though cold and comfortless, the visiters resumed their progress; and the river Tigris soon enabled MODERN BABYLONIA. 287 where the chief received visiters in form. Near the lower end was a fireplace, marked only by the ashes of successive fires. At this time flared from it a bright blaze in the faces of as wild a set of savages as ever sur- rounded a cannibal’s feast, and who, to the number of twenty or thirty, were seated on their heels, most of them with shirts and abbas tucked up to permit their long limbs to rejoice in the genial heat. The chief and our friend the Kurd received us stand- ing; but so soon as a mg of carpet had been thrown down for our convenience at one point of the circle, we all took our seats. Never saw we any thing so perfectly savage on so large a scale, for the Kurds are accomplished gentlemen in appearance compared to the Arabs. Even the Turkomans stood out in advantageous contrast with these wild children of the desert. A shirt and an abba was the general full dress, with a headkerchief that could boast of no particular colour. The sharp eye, too, gleamed with scintillating fierceness from among their long black elf-locks and beneath their contracted brows, so that a stranger, judging from the loud tones of voice in which they spoke, would have imagined they were just about to use the sword or large clubbed stick, which every one held in his hand, or had laid beside him on the floor. But we had not long to dwell on the ever-varying features of this group ; for the cawachee or coffee-preparer of the great man now stepped forward, and, first sitting down in the circle, and warm- ing his hands, began to pour out, from two ample brazen vessels, a sort of liquor composed of hot water and sugar, flavoured with ginger and spice, with which it appears these Ramazan ascetics break their fast, and which is presented also to their guests in little cups not bigger than a dram-glass. Then came the signal for dinner, and we all went to the other end of the tent, where it was laid out. In the centre of the space in front of the cushions, which was covered for the occasion with coarse canvass bags—by way of tablecloth it is presumed—there was MODERN BABYLONIA. 289 pots, from which we were soon served with small cups of that beverage; the dose being repeated every ten minutes as long as we remained. This cook or butler was a miserable scarecrow, with a face like a reaping book, a ragged shirt and gown, and headgear of unspeak- able squalidity; his coffee, which was excellent and well flavoured with cardamoms, was handed about by barelegged Ganymedes, in canvass shirts of pretty much the same colour as the beverage. Being the chief guests, we were served first, and afterwards the whole party indiscriminately,—the cawachee helping himself and his cupbearers as regularly as the rest. Entertainments like these, and the practice of a pro- fuse hospitality, constitute the principal claim on the revenue of an Arab chief. His personal expenses, or those of his family, are trifling, compared with the outlay of a Persian or a Turkish noble; but an almost in- credible amount of viands and provender is expended on numerous occasions. The daily consumption of the Zobeid patriarch, when alone, was not more than four sheep, and 250 or 300 lbs. of rice; but, when he had company, it varied from ten to twenty sheep, with rice in proportion. At the entertainments of Sufi'ook of the Jerbah tribe, it was not uncommon to see the carcasses of twenty sheep lying boiled or roasted upon huge masses of rice, and this repeated three or four times a-day. The party having sojourned two days with the sheik, took a direction down to chirah towards the country of the Montefic. The way for some time stretched over a flat desert, sprinkled with the small mimosa agrestis, caper bush, camel’s thorn, and some salsuginous plants. These were seen in smaller numbers towards the marshy land near the river Hye, which is annually overflowed, and where a few tamarisks are almost the only vegetation that appears. In approaching the Lemlum marshes and the borders of the Euphrates near Grayim, the party had to make their way through reeds or sedgy grass, which serves as pasture to nume- rous herds of buffaloes kept by the Madan Arabs who 8 290 MODERN nannonu. frequent these tracts. The whole country, whether dry or boggy, presents a monotonous and forbidding aspect, void of all the cheerful tokens of man’s presence, unless when the eye is greeted by the occasional sight of the black Bedouin tent, the reed hut of the Madan Arab, or of the animals which, from constituting the chief pro- perty of the children of the wilderness, usually indicate their neighbourhood. On the first day of this march the travellers witnessed an amusing specimen of bullying. In the morning, they were alarmed by observing a party of twelve or fourteen men on camels make their appearance in an opposite direction,—for as every one met with in these deserts is held to be an enemy until the contrary is proved, there was some reason for apprehending an un- pleasant rencounter. As it was important to learn who the strangers were, a horseman was instantly despatched towards them, but as this demonstration appeared rather to produce an acceleration of their pace from us than any hostile movement towards our front, certain individuals who had accompanied us on foot, and who had given evident symptoms of alarm,beganto recover theirvalour; swearing that the persons in question were no better than sand under their feet, and that they would drive them like dust before the wind. When our messenger rejoined us, and all this un- necessary courage had apparently been expended in a flash of heroism, we were surprised by observing the guide who had remained with us fall into a desperate state of agitation. He flung his abba and headkerchief upon the ground, stamped about with wild grimaces, and tucked up the long sleeves of his shirt to his shoulders, uttering all the time strange inarticulate sounds. Some- thing was obviously wrong; but so great was the fer- ment of his spirit that it was not without some difficulty we could come at the truth. It appeared at length, that the people in sight were of the Shummur, or rather of the J erbah tribe, and were his enemies. They had robbed him, and murdered his people; so he swore he MODERN BABYLONIA- 291 would go after them and put every one of them to death. Thus he went on, girding up his loins—examining his matchlock and pouches of ammunition, from which he selected a parcel of bullets, and tossed them into his mouth, to be ready for prompt service ; and all the while he uttered most awful threats, to which his comrade responded, though with somewhat less vehemence. On putting the question to Seyed Hindee, what all this folly could mean, that worthy only shrugged up his shoulders and treated the bravado with the contempt it deserved ; but, as it was occasioning very inconvenient delay, we made the interpreter signify to the guides that if this was to be their mode of performing their duty to us, we should return to the sheik and inform him. This, with a small show of displeasure, brought the man to his senses,—he untucked his sleeves, resumed his abba, and began, looking very much like a fool, to excuse his antics by a detail of the causes of his enmity to those wicked Shummurs. The fact was, he never had the slightest notion of meddling with them at all: it was merely a flourish got up to impress us with an idea of his courage. Had the strangers indicated the smallest disposition to attack us, he would have been the first to betake himself to flight. This incident places the character of Arab courage in those parts in its true light. A day or two later the party had a specimen of Arabian hospitality and kindness to strangers. Having bivouacked in the open plain without food or drink either for their horses or themselves, they proceeded next morning, hungry, thirsty, and weary, till the appearance of camels at a distance gave token of an encampment. The men ran away on the approach of our party, but a horseman was sent out to satisfy them of our pacific intentions. In the mean time three or four more cavaliers armed with spears manoeuvred on our right, who, after flour- ishing about for a. while, came off at full gallop. An- other of our Arabs dashed forth to meet them,—down went the butt-ends of their spears to the ground ; and, 292 MODERN BABYLONIA- after a short converse, we had the satisfaction of seeing the leader and our hero lean forward and embrace each other from their saddles. All fear of assault was thus terminated, and our hopes of a kind reception were confiMed by the welcome which they gave us as they came forward to join our party. These expectations, however, proved fallacious. The horsemen indeed rode along with us towards some tents, which now appeared at a distance; but finding between them and us a natural canal, partly filled with mud and water, they discouraged us from attempting to cross it by asserting that the occupiers of those tents were unable to enter- tain us, and offering to take us to a richer tribe a little farther on. This, we discovered afterwards, was but a stratagem to inveigle us away from their own homes —the very encampment we had seen—for one after another slunk oil" as we advanced, until we were left alone. In the mean time we observed the country beyond the creek studded with tents, while on our side not one was to be seen; so perceiving that we had been cheated by those who first met us, we halted op_ posite the largest group, and resolved to send our guide across to negotiate for our reception. He had directions to assure them not only of our good intentions, but of an equal ability to remunerate our entertainers. To sell food, indeed, to the traveller is quite against the laws of Arabian hospitality, but an interchange of presents is admissible ; so after a considerable negotiation, arising more from mistrust than delicacy, the scruple of etiquette was got over. We passed the canal, and at length got barley for our horses, and a supply of hot bread and dates stewed in melted butter for ourselves. The marsh which we had now reached was one ap- propriated entirely to pasture for bufi'aloes,—animals that delight in mud and water, and immense herds of which are kept by a peculiar race of Arabs, well known along the banks of the rivers by the name of Madan. They are fixed, not migratory ; they live upon the pro- duce of their cattle, which, with a few sheep and cows, MODERN BABYLONIA- 293 constitute their whole property ; occupying huts, formed of split reeds, in society with their animals, which they are said scarcely to exceed in intellectual endowments. It is from the notorious uncouthness and brutality of their habits that the other Arabs give them the name of Madan, a term compounded of two words signifying not wise. They also have the reputation of being the most inveterate thieves in the whole country; and probably they are not a whit behind their neighbours in the arts of petty larceny. But, wild and brutal as they are, we did not discover a great difference between them and the other tribes. Though they received us sullenly at first, yet after a few words of explanation all went on smoothly enough. They did not profess to entertain us, and we did not consider ourselves their guests ; but they gave us what we required at tolerably fair prices, and assisted us in getting water, wood, and other necessaries. Moreover, they pledged themselves for the safety of our cattle, keeping watch over them ; upon the understanding, no doubt, that this service should not be forgotten in the present they were to receive at our departure. As for themselves, they and their domiciles were cer- tainly curiosities. The latter were a sort of cage, made of reeds, like split rattans ; and the largest of them did not exceed ten feet long by eight broad. As for any division of chambers for men and women, nothing of the kind appeared to have entered their thoughts. Each shed was surrounded by a little space enclosed by walls of brushwood, which served for defence as well as for fuel. It was curious to see the great droves of buffaloes returning home in the evening, each going straightway to its master’s hut, without driving or constraint of any kind. The human animals that issued from these dens at our approach, bore certainly as much the appearance of the dregs of the human species as can well be ima- gined. The travellers at length reached the country of the Montefie, of which tribe mention has already been more MODERN BABYLONIA. 297 shah’s death, he_desired to be informed, “ who was the shah!” On being satisfied in this particular, and, moreover, being told that the said ruler had expired at Ispahan, the chief of all the Montefics repeated the word, “Ispahanl Ispahan! what is it? where is it 3— a country! a city? or what 2” On this head, also, due intelligence was afforded him; and he then continued, in the most amiable and condescending manner possible, to gather knowledge and show forth his own ignorance, without betraying the smallest symptom of that affec- tation under which some are apt to cloak their defi- ciencies. In the mean time, ginger tea and bitter coffee were handed round by a slave. The first was sweet, hotly spiced, and excellent ; the latter, like all of Arab manu- facture, was strong as brandy, and bitter as gall, but warm and refreshing. Midnight being close at hand, we thought proper to withdraw. With regard to the mode of proceeding on our journey, guides, and other ' matters, the sheik vouchsafed us scarcely one word. It , was intimated to us, indeed, that he meant to remain 'there the next day, and would then make all the neces- sary arrangements for our comfort; but we learned in the morning that he had risen at an earlier hour than we, and carried off his nobility to Koote, a place further up the river, leaving us to follow at our leisure. on THE INHABITANTS. 299 already noticed; but it will be proper to particularize them somewhat more distinctly. The great bulk of the inhabitants, besides the domi- nant race of Turks, is made up of Arabs, Kurds, Turko- mans, Christians, and Jews. The first, as a matter of course, compose a considerable proportion of the popu- lation of the towns and large villages, filling nearly all civil and military offices; and they differ in no respect from the ordinary Osmanlis of the Turkish empire. With regard to the second, we have already remarked that Mesopotamia, from the line of the Hermas and Khabour southwards, including Babylonia and Chaldea, is now, as it has always been, principally peopled by Arabs, who, however, are not confined to those limits, but form no minute part of the population of Assyria, and are found in greater or smaller numbers even in more northern parts. Of the religion of these Arabs nothing more need be said than that they are Mohammedans of the Sonnce sect. In character, habits, and customs, they resemble in general their brethren of the adjacent peninsula— from whence, at one period or other, they all originally came—although modified greatly by circumstances. They all lay claim to the qualities of hospitality, gene- rosity, justice, incorruptible integrity, and fidelity to their promise, courage, love of independence, as much as they did in the days of Hatim Taee; yet they acknowledge themselves to be robbers and plunderers, attaching obviously no discredit to the act of seizing the property of strangers who may not have bargained with them for immunity as to person and goods. But whatever may have been the case in former times, the .Arabs of the present day, in the countries which we are describing, appear to have retained only the vices, while they have lost the virtues, of their forefathers; for, so little regard do they now pay to their oaths or to the true rights of a guest, that though a traveller may be safe while in the tent of a Bedouin, the latter thinks it no breach of honour or humanity to send some 300 MANNERS AND cns'rons one to attack him after he has quitted his roof, or even to stain his own hands with violence. Fortunately the Arab is not prone to bloodshed, nor fond of exposing his life to great hazard; so that, in cases of attack where the odds are not very great, a little firmness will bring him to reason. But, on the other hand, a useless opposition to a force who know their power, if pushed to extremities, is apt to lead to fatal consequences; for, when their blood has been rashly shed, they give no quarter. Their battles among themselves are seldom attended with serious casualties ; victories being not unfrequently gained without the loss of a man. But this results as much from a reluctance to incur the consequences of a blood-feud as to expose their own persons. These blood-feuds, as among all other semi-barbarous nations, are pregnant with horrible atrocities. Among those which are recorded of more remote times, there is none more disastrous and melancholy than that which once distracted the great tribe of Montefic, consisting chiefly of two principal clans, the Malik and the Aj wad. The quarrel arose out of a question as to right of pas- turage on certain tracts ; and the former at length pre- vailed by exterminating their rival brethren. Excited to desperation by the songs and remonstrances of the women, every male of the Ajwad armed himself for battle, and fell in defence of the spot where his fathers had fed their flocks. But even this sanguinary triumph was insufficient to satisfy the jealous temper of Soly- man, the leader of the victorious clan. Dreading future retribution, should even a single individual of the con- quered tribe survive, he adopted the atrocious expedient of putting every female to death, and securing the de- struction of progeny by the most appalling means. One alone, who had thrown herself at the feet of a Malik :hief, was saved by his compassion at the imminent risk of his own life; for he was wounded and nearly cut in pieces while defending her. Of this young woman, who was pregnant at the time, was born Ab- 1 = (M 1"?- l ‘- uh. 2!" ~., u .1 ‘, . x ,_ .. ‘1. “Hr . e ""“f 7" or THE INHABITANTS. 303 doollah, afterwards the founder of a family, which, from the peculiar origin of its chief, received the appellation of the “ Orphan’s Tribe.” The place of slaughter was one of those pleasant glens which, even in the steril and rocky soil of Arabia, are found among the mountains, where water may be every where obtained near the sur- face, and which in spring and early summer are covered with a rich verdure. That which was the scene of this disaster is to be seen about fifteen miles to the south of modern Bussora, and is still known as the Wadi ul Nisaa, or the “ Vale of Women,” the name which it received upon that fatal occasion. A catastrophe of a like nature, though confined to the fate of an individual, was witnessed not many years ago by an English traveller who had chanced to become a guest in the tent of a sheik of the Beni Lam Arabs, as he was journeying through Kuzistan. In the absence of the chief, the honours were done to him by his daughter, a young woman, the only resident in the tent. Towards morning the stranger was roused from his sleep by shrieks, and soon distinguished the voice of his young hostess exclaiming that she was murdered. All rushed to the spot, where they found the unfortunate girl in the agonies of death, her breast pierced in three places with a dagger. While gazing on the sight, and offering vain assistance, a voice was heard from a height close by, exclaiming, “ Yes! it is I. I have done it. Praise be to God, I have murdered her.” All eyes turned to the spot, where there was perceived an old woman gesticu- lating with the utmost vehemence. A rush was made towards her; and she either ran or was home back to the brink of the river, on which the tents were pitched, and falling from the high bank, was seen no more. On inquiry, it appeared that this stern female was mother of a pehlewan or prize-fighter of another tribe, who, not long before, had killed a son of this sheik, an event which had excited the half-dormant feud in all its bitterness. A stranger soon afterwards entering the camp was received with the usual frankness, and 304 MANNERS AND cnsrons hospitably entertained. Unfortunately, he was recog- nised by some one as the very pehlewan who had slain their patriarch’s son; but he was now their guest, and by the inviolable custom of the Arabs, could not be touched. The chief himself was absent; and the feel- ings of good faith and humanity were preponderating, when this young woman, sister of the deceased, entered the assembly, and upbraided the men with cowardice. “ Shall the murderer of your sheik’s son be here, and escape ‘2” said she vehemently. “Never let it be told ; put him instantly to death.” But still a reluctance to infringe the sacred principle in so glaring a manner re- strained their hands, when the young girl herself, mad- dened with rage, seized a sword and smote the un- fortunate man. The sight of blood was irresistible. In a moment, every weapon was sheathed in his body ; and he was literally cut in pieces. The head of the tribe returning, was horrified at the event, which he would fain have recalled or repaired. But the mother of the dead would accept no atonement ; she followed the camp for years, thirsting for revenge, and she found her oppor- tunity that night when the English traveller happened to be the guest of her victim. Another English traveller,* now dead, gives the follow- ing sketches of his intercourse with some of the Arab clans on the banks of the Euphrates. Two natives ac- companied him, travelling as dervishes skilled in the art of medicine ; and having passed through certain Kurdish and Turkoman districts, they at length reached the pre- cincts of the Beni Saeed. As they approached the tents, one of the leaders, Hamet el Jassin, threw himself on the ground before them, and remained prostrate, while the pretended priests passed over his body. “ May the * Mr Elliot, to whose manuscri t apers the author was kindly permitted access by Colonel ay 01', the British resident at Bagdad. The gentleman here mentioned was a. person of great enterprise and high acquirements ' and as he possessed means of obtaining information which fall to the lot of few, the Notes which he left are of uncommon value more especially as they respect the manners and domestic habits of the people. or THE INIXABITANTS. 305 feet of all sheiks (holy men) be on my neck l” was his humble expression as they stepped over him ; and one of the traveller’s companions did actually respond to this aspiration by standing on the poor man’s loins some time, while repeating a portion of the Koran. “ Who are ye, fathers t” was the question put by the chief, after undergoing this operation. “Dervishes going to Racca—to the tomb of Wasil Karanee ; may God be satisfied with the act!” was the reply ;—“ and one of us is a doctor and surgeon.” No sooner was this fact an- nounced, than forward pressed a crowd of invalids, real or feigned, to whom remedies were given gratis. The sheik had meantime invited them into the cata- comb in which he lodged ; but he was not the chief of the tribe. This distinction was enjoyed by Dervish ibn Fakh ul Saeed, a man held in universal esteem, even by the powerful tribe of Aneiza, who pay respect to few. There were others, however, of the horde whom the traveller honours with especial regard ; and among them, Hamet ul Khaleel (or Hamet the Beloved), an old man, . whom he describes as of striking appearance, “ whose long white beard, waving in all directions, and bald head, half covered with the black silk handkerchief that bound it, gave a venerable air to his aspect ; while his tall gaunt figure, but gallant deportment, proclaimed that in his youth he had been that common character among Arabs, a martial fop. The hearty welcome, and frequent rounds of right good coffee, declared him to be what in truth he was, a generous noble-hearted old fellow; and the term ‘ a father to the poor,’ applied to him by the guide, described his character exactly.” The tribe of Beni Saeed, indeed, so far as the men are concerned, are favourably represented by our traveller; but the ladies, both of this and other nations, do not appear in his pages to equal advantage. He describes the women from Shireen to Anah as in general tall and very plain, having an awkward and even masculine ap- pearance ; the old ones being absolutely hideous. “ Un- like their pretty lively neighbours the Kurds, they are r 306 MANNERS AND cusrons grumbling and discontented in the duties of the tent, and have nothing of that natural elegance which at first sight so much recommends the Bedouin and Arab females below Anah. Their unbecoming habits, and the screech- ing manner in which they converse, render them very repulsive to strangers. Not one decent-looking woman did I see among the hundreds who go uncovered during the Bairam. “ The ladies of the Beni Saeed go loaded with gold and silvcr coins and trinkets, of which a silver ring, a foot in diameter, having small ones fixed to it by chains, and a gold and silver belt of five inches broad, were the most conspicuous.” The men, he remarks, were parti- cular about their accoutrements, insomuch that from the multitude of round brass bosses with which the numerous straps are covered, they appear as if they were in armour. Their dress is a shirt and a cloak ; but if cold, they wear two. Furs are seldom seen ; and shoes are used by very few. The rest, both horsemen and footmen, go with the feet naked. On an expedition of sudden emergency, all orders rush out in their shirts, . tucking the skirts into their belts; and baring their arms by tying the ends of their sleeves OVer their shoulders, they stream away to the point of attack. The following scene, witnessed on arriving at the camp of the Al Fadhlee Arabs at Racca, is characteristic :— “ When we entered, the fat Kurd (a person sent from a powerful chief in the neighbourhood with a dress of honour for the sheik) had occupied the place of honour where the master himself should have been seated. After the first salutation, I said, ‘ Is this the sheik 2’ and taking from my pocket the letter directed to the chief of the Al Fadhlee, the Kurd put forth his hand ; and as no one remonstrated, I gave it to him. He opened and read it ; and then addressing me in Turkish, asked the news from Bir. At this moment, in came Sheik Mustapha Hadjee Mohammed, attired in his robe of state, made of the worst kind of French cloth. He brought an enormous crowd with him, all of whom spoke at once; but his or THE INHABITANTS. 307 own stentorian voice was heard far above the rest. To my astonishment, he even at times addressed persons in another tent. “ Here the rule appears to be different from that which prevails among other tribes, where every thing is determined by the number of votes any man obtains. Every one spoke together; and it seemed to me that the loudest voice carried the argument. Whoever first entered the tent, came to the place or fixed his eye where he intended to sit. The signal is ‘ Salaam Alei coum !’ on which room must be made in that particular spot; the man who had saluted then wedges himself down into his seat. Each fresh visiter is thus accom- modated ; even though he had been sitting in the same tent, and at a distance from the fire, he may come with his ‘ Salaam Alei coum !’ and thus obtain a position near it. There is no respect shown to age or person, except perhaps to those who have the most impudence. “ The Kurd Ali Sinjar gave the letter to the sheik, who, being unable to read, sent for the moolah, who after much difficulty made it out. The chief then turning to me, bawled out in a tone far above the voices of the rest, each individual at the same time roaring out his opinion, and favouring me with directions about my future route. I never before witnessed such a scene of uproar; but it was one I had to witness every day and hour from hence to Anah. Five or six persons insisted upon asking me questions all at the same moment ; and while I was replying to one, the rest would, on conjec- ture, answer their own inquiries, for the sheer love of speaking. ‘ Talk,’ said my companion Dervish Hoossein, ‘ is their fire, their clothing, and pillow.’ The sheik, however, gained the day. “ I was much fatigued by the incessant noise and crushing of people before the fire ; a circle three or four deep having been formed, which completely filled up the tent. The sheik lay near the blaze at full length ; his son, a spoilt boy of fourteen, sat on our toes, turning round and nudging us with the points of his fingers (a or THE INHABITANTS- 309 of the sheik and of his lieutenant stripped stark naked before the travellers, and passed the stream upon inflated skins. Their whole conduct was equally indecorous and disgusting. As happens among all wandering tribes, the women here were the principal labourers, striking and packing the tents and household stuff; the men only assisting in loading the oxen that carried them—for they had neither camels nor horses. The process of decamp- ing scarcely occupied an hour, though there were above three hundred tents to remove. On arriving at the new ground, the men clear the place, cutting away the wood, and making a fence of loose branches five feet high. In this two openings are left, called Bab ul Gunnum,—that is, gates for the sheep,—to shut up which at night spare branches are left, as a pro- tection at once against thieves and wild beasts. Lions abound; and a loud shouting was kept up almost the whole night to scare them away. But the dogs are the best guards, giving the alarm, in which the men join. It often happened that while sitting at meals or in con- versation such a warning was heard, on which every one began to shout where he sat until the alarm ceased. The ground being cleared, each individual takes his station exactly as in the last encampment, in order that the cattle may find their way to their respective homes with ease ; yet they say the animals would find out their masters’ huts, even if the order were changed. The tents are opened out and beaten ; the men knock in the pegs and raise the poles; the women set up the screens and arrange the tent, which is then brushed to take off the soot. Stakes are driven into the ground, and a rope passed across at the further end, to which halters are fastened for the oxen. Itheree stalks are collected and thrown in for the cattle by the women; while the men, the laziest people on earth, do scarcely any thing. On the whole, he gives a most deplorable account of these tribes, as being despicable cowards as well as thieves ; but of the Aneiza, who plunder them, he talks in the highest terms. He dwells particularly on the difference inmannerand appear- or run INHABITANTS- 311' Swiss ; and, like the former, they are divided into clans or septs, acknowledging the supremacy of chiefs, who are regarded with the same devotion, and followed with the same blind zeal which used to distinguish the Highlanders in former days. They are proud, haughty, and over- bearing exactly in proportion to their ignorance; and, like our own clans of old, despise, more or less, all arts but those of war and plunder, and all professions but that of arms. “ In a community so closely resembling that of the Highland families, it was interesting to notice the de- meanour observed towards relatives and friends, and ' to trace the respective degrees of estimation assigned to the various grades of kindred or conuexions. The mode of reception to each was varied and accurately defined ; but the manner was kind and polite to every one. The master of the house yielded place to all visiters of equal or superior rank; but the arrangement of giving and taking this honour appeared to me to be conducted upon a kinder principle than reigns in the same ceremonial in Persia. It was obvious that precedence was not yielded to riches alone ; for I observed several persons of mean appearance and shabby apparel admitted to a high place in the assembly. “ When a friend or a relative arrived from the country, the heads of the sept went to the door, or beyond it, to embrace him. The sons or nephews had probably given the first welcome when he dismounted; if not, they came in and saluted him each in turn ; and there was in this reception a sort of pleasing eagerness, which put me quite in mind of old times at home ; and really the more I saw of the Kurds, the more did their re- semblance to the ancient Highlanders strike me. The respect of the young for the aged was particularly re- markable. The son never sat down in the father’s pre- sence, nor the nephew in that of the uncle, except by especial desire, and then in a distant part of the room ; yet there appeared no want of tenderness on the part of the elders, nor of willing and ready obedience or filial 312 MANNERS AND cosrons afl'ection on that of the rising generation. At meals, though the victuals were brought in by servants who performed the more menial offices, the sons of the host waited on the guests and attended to their wants,— handed water to drink, assisted them to such things as were out of reach, trimmed the lights, and exerted themselves to increase the comfort of all. The domestics, too, were treated with great consideration and even fa- miliarity, insomuch that it was some time before I could distinguish the relatives of the family from the hired assistants. “ The great, it is true—that is, the higher chiefs— afl‘ect more state. The khans have their nazirs or stewards, their head peishkhidnuits (body-Servants), fu- roshes, and the like, in the same manner as the Persian noblesse ; but I am now speaking of domestic manners, and these were marked by kindness and good feeling. There was an openhearted simplicity about many of these Kurds that was Very refreshing, and which often shewed itself in a manner that amused while it pleased me. Among these, Azeez Beg was remarkable; not that his simplicity at all indicated weakness—it was rather the overflow of a guileless heart, which neither suspected others of deceit nor desired to conceal a thought of its own. “ They were amused by my telling them that I was myself a native of a country not unlike Kurdistan ;— mountainous, and divided into tribes, often, in times of old, at war and feud with one another, and as fond as Kurds could be of a chuppou or will upon their low- land neighbours. They listened also with interest and pleasure to my descriptions of the attachment of clans- men to their chief, and the habits of Highlanders in former days; and the comparisons I drew between them and the Kurds elicited more from them than could otherwise have been gathered without offensive inquisi- tiveness.” The sketches now given apply to the general body rather than to individuals; the following represent the or run INHABITANTS. 313 characters of two chiefs of the more predatory and smaller clans which are met with in the Assyrian plains. “ A few miles beyond the rocky descent of this hill, we stopped to breakfast at the miserable village of Janreze, the dwelling of Selim Aga, chief of the Daloo Kurds, a branch of the Bebehs of Solymaneah. On approaching it we observed spears and saddled horses; and, on our arrival there, found the beg preparing to go forth on a hunting party, for he was surrounded by attendants equipped for the saddle, holding grey- hounds in the leash and hooded hawks on the fist. A word from our guide, who preceded us by a few yards, procured a courteous reception from this chief, who was a person of pleasing appearance, just past the middle age, with a grizzled beard, and mild though firm features. He disclaimed the apology I tendered for our intrusion, which had obviously interrupted his projected expedition, and swore by the head of the pasha and his own eyes (to which he declared we had brought both light and delight) that we were welcome a thousand times. He only regretted that his accommo- dation was so poor andhis fare so bad that he was ashamed of receiving us in such amanner. ‘ But we Kurds,’ said he, ‘ are rough fellows at best—we live in the plains or in the hills, and never had much to boast of at any time ; ---now the little we had is gone-what between prince and pasha, we are in a fair way to want bread. See,’ continued be, taking up one of the black cakes they had set before us, with a little sour milk, ‘ see what we eat, our horses and we fare just alike. Once we were soldiers, and we thought of nothing but riding and hunting and hawking and exercising with the spear and sword, for we had enough to live on, and our ryots cultivated our grounds; but now every man is forced to lay down his arms, and take to the joofl (the team that drags the plough), and what is a soldier good for when once he has done that! But the pasha and the Persians will both have what they demand— so what is left to the ryot but flight Z ’-—‘ Now this very or run INHABITANTS- 317 practices—‘ Ah,’ replied he, ‘ that is nothing—only a few “ looties ” here and there, no dashing bands of homes men now to be met with—but be content—I Roostum Beg am pledge for your safety—nothing shall touch you between this and Kufri—you are a good fellow—an ex- cellent fellow, and I like you—'by your head, I do ; be satisfied, you shall see Kufri in safety.’ ” The appearance and character of the Kurds are thus summed up. “ Like other men and nations, they are the creatures of education and circumstance, but are possessed of natural qualities that might be turned to excellent account. Bold they are, and hospitable after a fashion; but this last virtue has been sadly dimmed of late years by poverty and oppression. Like most pastoral and patriarchal people, they are distinguished by a strong love of kindred, which renders their quarrels fierce and bloody, each being perpetuated by a series of remorseless murders. Far from cruel by nature, these feuds and the love of war have made them reck- less of spilling blood, and caused them to estimate life at less value than it is held in more peaceful countries ; yet the recollection of consequences tends in some degree to repress this ruthless spirit, and restrains the passions in a manner which pity or a sense of crime would never efl'ect,—a compensation for the want of that more regular control which is ever found under like circumstances of society, “ In person the Kurds are well made and active, dif- fering perhaps in that respect but little from their neigh- bours the Persians. The national features, however, are very peculiar. The cast of countenance is sharp,—the form of the face ova1,the profile remarkable, owingtothe prom- inence of the nose and the comparative retrocession of the mouth and chin, which communicate to its outline a semicircular shape. The eyes are deep set, dark, quick, and intelligent; the brow ample and clear, but some- what retreating ; and the general mould of the features by far more delicate than those of the Persians, which are usually somewhat too strong. In Kurdistan you 318 MANNERS AND cusrons would look in vain for a snub nose. The mouth is almost always Well formed, and the teeth fine ; the hands and fingers small and slender. In short, there is something of elegance in their form, which would mark them as a handsome nation in any part of the world. “ The same remarks apply to the women, so far as I have had opportunities of observation. When young they are exceedingly pretty ; but when old or even at what with us would scarcely be deemed maturity, the sharp prominence of feature which characterizes them in common with the men, is unfavourable to beauty, and they soon appear faded and withered. Frequent occa- sions presented themselves for observing these particu- lars, as they do not wear veils like the Persian females. The utmost that is practised in this way is to bring the end of the handkerchief which covers their heads across the mouth and chin. I regret that it is little in my power to follow them into their privacy, and describe their domestic duties ; but, from what I do know, I have reason to believe that their life and occupations resemble inall respects those of the same order in Persia. Ladies of the richer class who live in towns remain in the harems of their husbands or fathers, and veil when they go abroad. The poorer, and all, indeed, who spend their days in villages or tents, perform the laborious duties which, in more civilized countries, belong to the men.” There are, besides the Kurds and Arabs, many tribes of Turkomans to be found in the extensive plains and waving downs of Upper Mesopotamia. These originally formed a portion of the Tartar tribes, which, under va- rious invaders, conquered the country, and have per- manently settled there. They are Sonnees in point of faith; of predatory habits like their neighbours; and principally pastoral in their modes of life. The Christian population, though scattered more or less over the whole region, is most numerous in the north- ern parts of both provinces. In several districts of Upper Mesopotamia they form the bulk of the labouring classes ; and in the vicinity of Mosul and of Mardin, and the on THE INHABITANTS. 319 mountainous country to the north and east of these places,* the greater number of the villages are entirely peopled with various denominations of believers. Of these the first to be mentioned are the Nestorians, Chal- deans, or Syrians, as they are indifl'erently termed, and who are subdivided into two sects—those who have acknowledged the supremacy of the Roman Pontitf, and those who adhere to their ancient faith; secondly, the Jacobitcs, who also have undergone a like subdivision ; thirdly, the Armenians, who cling to their own church and patriarch; and, fourthly, a very few who acknow- ledge an adherence to the Romish communion. As a full account of these several sects would amount to a history of Christianity in the East from its earliest origin, a short sketch of the leading facts must suffice; referring those of our readers who may be anxious to know more, to the laborious and very erudite work of Assemani,'l' who has brought together every thing that industry could collect upon the subject. Christianity appears to have made very early progress in these countries. The apostles Peter, Thomas, Bar- tholomew, Matthew, Judas the son of James, and Thad- deus, also called Lebaeus, are among those of the twelve inspired missionaries who are said to have preached to the Chaldeans and Assyrians. Besides which, many of the seventy had a share in this office, and Adeus, who was sent hither by St Thomas, was put to death at Edessa on his return from Persia, Assyria, and Baby- lonia by Abgarus the celebrated king of that state or province. Christianity made its first appearance in the East during the reign of Artabanes in Persia; and even in the first century the church had become considerable enough to prove a cause of uneasiness to the Persian king. ‘ The Rev. Horatio Southgate, missionary, and a late tra- veller in these parts, considers Mardin as the chief place and centre of the Syrian Christians. His Work contains many par- ticulal's on this subject. 1' Bibliotheca Orientalis, 4 vols folio, Rome, 1719-1728. 320 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS In the second century, the believers were persecuted by Trajan in his expedition, but they appear, notwithstand- ing, to have gained ground rapidly; for we hear of a great schism attributed to a bishop named Papas, in the end of the third and beginning of the fourth century; and Shapoor, about A. D. 330, not only put to death St Simeon Barsaboe, bishop of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, then 117 years old, but likewise twenty-two other bishops, besides minor functionaries, and many individuals of their flocks. At this time the see of Seleucia and Ctesi- phon was called Cuchensis, and here the patriarch re- sided until the year of the Hejira 140, when Almansor, the Abbasside caliph, having built Bagdad, the seat of the chief minister was removed thither. The Nestorian heresy occurred in the fifth century, about the year 431, when the author of it was condemned by the synod of Ephesus for his doctrines, and died in exile about 439. But these tenets spread far and wide over the East; and the seat of the patriarch appears to have been removed from Bagdad to Amida or Diar- bekir, where it was occupied by a long line of patriarchs, of the names of Simeon and Elias. About the middle of the sixteenth century a schism occurred in the Nestorian church. Simeon Mama, after a presidency of some years, was succeeded by Simeon Bar-Mama; who, being elected in opposition to a cer- tain ecclesiastic of high pretensions, John Sulaca, was exposed to some trouble. Sulaca, thus disappointed, taking with him a considerable body of the priesthood, repaired to Rome and signified to the pope his adhesion to the church, on which his holiness acknowledged him as patriarch of the Catholic Nestorians. The schism was maintained by the successors of these rivals. Elias, who followed Sulaca, opposed and perse- cuted Simeon Denha, next in order to Simeon Bar- Mama, at Diarbekir, until he finally forced him to quit his see, and take refuge in the province of Zein al Bech in the mountains of Ormi, near the confines of Armenia, where his successors, assuming the distinctive name of or THE INHABITANTS. 321 Simeon, remain to this day. Since that time there have been two distinct patriarchs of the Nestorians ; the one, under the name just given, continues to rule his flock in the mountains of Jewar, following the primitive faith; the other called Elias, formerly re- siding in Bagdad, occupies the monastery of St Hor- misdas, near Mosul, and is the head of the Catholic Nestorians. It appears, moreover, that towards the end of the seventeenth century the efforts of missionaries from Italy had occasioned so many of them to abjure their errors and embrace the Romish belief, that Pope Innocent XI. was induced to constitute for them a new patriarch named Joseph, whose seat was fixed at Caramit or Diarbekir. These heretics, in the earlier ages of the church, appear to have been numerous, and spread over the whole of Central Asia. Of their numbers at the present day no calculation can be made ; but, according to the information of their countryman Rassam,* the sees of both sects arereduced to nine, viz., Diarbekir, Sert, Jezirah, Mosul and Al Kosh, Amadieh, Kojannes, Selmast, Ooroomia, Bagdad. The Jacobite schism appears to have occurred about the year 550, originating with a monk named Jacob, who propagated the doctrine that there is but one nature in Christ. Of these also there are two sects, each of which has its patriarch; the one following the rites of the Latin church ; the other remaining separate. Divine service is performed by their priests in the Chaldean language; but mass is said in Hebrew. They believe in transubstantiation, and honour the holy sacrament when home by Romish priests to sick persons ; whereas the Syrians of the Greek church refuse this respect to the eucharist if consecrated by those who acknowledge the pope. * A very intelligent lperson, son of the Bishop at Mosul, who accompanied the late uphrates expedition as interpreter, and is now associated with that sent by the Royal Geographical Society into Kurdistan and Mesopotamia. U 322 MANNERS AND cusroms The Jacobite patriarchs originally took their title from Antioch, but only the earlier of their number resided there. It would appear that Tagritis (Tecreet) was one of their original seats : from thence they removed to Mar Mattei, near Mosul, the see of which place was joined to that convent. In the time of Niebuhr, the titular patriarch of Antioch resided at Diarbekir; but, according to Assemani, the sect appears to have been very numerous and widely diffused, for he gives a list of upwards of fifty dioceses in Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Babylonia alone. These, it is probable, did not all exist at the same period, and some of them were very small ; but their number implies a dense population and a considerable flock. Of the Armenians and Roman Catholics, there is little to be said. _ The first are chiefly found in towns, pursu- ing the profession of merchants or craftsmen : the latter, though so few as to constitute but an inconsiderable portion of the population, are more scattered over the country. There is at Bagdad a vicar appointed by the authority of Rome to look after this small flock, which does not, we believe, increase at the present moment. Of the character of the Christians in that part of Asia, the little we know is' not very favourable. Uneducated and oppressed—forced still more than their Mohamme- dan neighbours to cringe and deceive the despots who rule and pillage them—with no fit preceptors to teach them the value either of morality or religion, it is not to be expected that the cardinal virtues can flourish among them. Accordingly, we hear them spoken of with but little respect. Mr Rich alludes to the dirt and bad order of their villages,—-the squalidity and drunkenness of their inhabitants. Rassam, again, though son of the Bishop of Mosul, classes them with the rest of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, as being vicious from habit as well as educa- tion; asserting, however, that those who live in towns are industrious, carrying on useful trades, especially in cotton cloth and cutlery. The villagers, he adds, who cul- tivate the land in summer,manufacture calicoes in winter. or THE INHABITANTB. 323 The Nestorians of the mountains, those, namely, who inhabit the highlands of Kurdistan from Ooroomia to Mosul, are, he says, a very different race from those of the plains. They have numerous gardens, the produce of which they lay up for winter store ; and they barter gall-nuts, yellow-berries, goats’ hair and down, sheep’s wool, dried fruits, wax, honey, tobacco, cheese of an excellent quality, and sheep, for wheat and other ne- cessaries. Their tobacco in particular is excellent. These people are said to be handsome and strongly made, great hunters, and excellent marksmen, never going without their arms, and knowing well how to use them ; in short, their countryman Rassam gives pretty much the same account of them as others do. There is yet another sect of Christians found in the regions we are now describing, although their religion is of very doubtful character. These are the Sabaeans, often called Christians of St John Mendai, or Mendai Jaja by themselves, and Sabbi by the Arabians and Persians. They are sometimes also described as Chaldeans or Sy- rians, for there is reason to suppose that the creed of both was originally the same. Their descent has, accord- ing to some authors, been referred to Saba, the son of Cush, whose progeny are understood to have occupied the remote parts of the peninsula bordering on the Persian Gulf. But they themselves contend for the truth of a tradition which deduces them from those Arabians who were baptized by John the Baptist in the river Jordan. It would appear, however, that they originally came from Haran in Mesopotamia, and that, till the time of Julian the Apostate, they continued to be idolaters, worshipping the planets and host of heaven ; after which, they adopted certain of the Manichiean errors, and by degrees their sacrifices, especially of a cock and a ram. About A. D. 770, according to Abulfaragius, they were identified with a class of heretics who were put to death by the Cah'ph Haroun ul Raschid for infamous practices. 324 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS That the portion who in later ages have been known as Sabaeans, did however embrace Christianity accord- ing to the Nestorian persuasion, is certain, although the sect has for a long time degenerated into a very ques- tionable form. About A. D. 1480, they refused obedience altogether to the Patriarch of Babylonia, and separated themselves entirely from that church. They are said to worship one God—to revere angels and the stars—to read the psalms of David, but chiefly to pay regard to certain books, written in Chaldaic characters so ancient as now to be almost unknown, and which they attribute to Adam. They also preserve and repeat sayings of Seth and Enoch. They pray seven times a-day, fast a month before the vernal equinox, regard as holy the city of Haran in Mesopotamia, and make pilgrimages to it. They hold as saints Sabin Ben Edris (a son of Enoch), and Sabin Ben Mari (a contemporary of Abraham); respect the pyramids of Egypt, in one of which they say a son of Sabin hen Edris was buried; and also pay some regard to the temple of Mecca. In the times of the Ommiad caliphs, the Sabaeans, being severely treated, emigrated into Persia. and the lower parts of Chaldea, where they remained until after the death of Tamerlane. They were then once more subjected to a rigorous persecution by a certain chief, Mubarick, who, having seized on that part of the country, sought to exterminate the nation. This violence forced them to disperse among the neighbouring countries; some went to Haweeza; some to Dorak, to Shuster, Dezphool, Rumez, or Minas; others remained in Bus- sora, Jessayer, and other places; while a third party proceeded to Babylonia. Assemani* considered that in his day their numbers might amount to 20,000 or 25,000 families ; and they continue still to reside in the places we have named. Among other peculiar customs of this people, it is said that, in order to prevent the violation of their sepulchres, they seal the grave-clothes with a certain signet, on * Bib. Orien. vol. iv. p. 610. or THE INHABITANTS. 325 which are engraved the figures of a lion, a wasp, and a scorpion, surrounded by a serpent; and the following story implies a belief that the charm was effectual :— Nadir Shah, for the purpose of maintaining the effi- ciency of his army and preventing desertion, made the byractars or ensign-bearers answerable for the appear- ance of every man under their respective colours ; and in all cases of casualties these officers were obliged to produce the nose of the .deceased as a proof of his death. It happened that a desertion occurred in a corps at Dezphool in Kuzistan, and the byractar of the com- pany, in order to escape punishment, bethought him_ self of the expedient of taking the necessary token from the visage of the last-buried person in the place. This, as it happened, was a Saharan, which sect is numerous there. Accordingly, certain persons were sent in the night to effect the required purpose ;' but in vain did they attempt to open the grave. The guardian animals and reptiles assumed so fierce an attitude that the dis- turbers of the dead, after many efforts, withdrew, and, conscience-smitten, repaired next morning to the dwell- ing of the chief priest, and told their tale. “ I thank God,” said the hierarch, “ that our protectors have not yet lost their power; but at the end of the third day should ye visit the tomb ye will suffer no disturbance.” The men, however, preferred some other resource, and left the grave of the Sabsean unmolested. In enumerating the various sects that have appeared in Mesopotamia, it would be wrong to omit some notice of the Manichseans, although their title to the name of Christian may be justly questioned. Manes, the first propagator ofv the heresy, appeared in the reign of Shapoor, who it seems had been in some degree won 0Ver to the new doctrines; and Hormuzd, his successor, embraced them. But Bahram, his son, adhering to the faith of his fathers, inveigled the pretended prophet from his stronghold at Descara, and put him to a cruel death, killing or making slaves of all his followers. The religion he taught appears to have been an at— or run INHABITANTS- 327 remains quite uncertain. Their principal abode for a considerable time past has been in the mountainous range of Sinjar in Mesopotamia; but they are also pretty numerous in Assyria, particularly in the neigh- bourhood of Mosul and ancient Nineveh, where there are many villages entirely inhabited by them. Indeed, there are some circumstances which might lead to the conclusion that their original seat was rather in that part of Assyria than in Mesopotamia. This people, we learn from Niebuhr and Rich, call themselves Dassinis or Dawassinis—not Yezidees, which appellation appears to be a term of reproach bestowed upon them by the Mohammedans, who hate them. On every thing relating to their origin, their religion, and customs, they maintain a profound silence. The best informed of their Sonnee neighbours and of the Chris- tians of those parts, judging from what they have seen, not less than from what they have heard, say that they are the descendants of those Arabs who, under the direc- tions of Shummur, the servant or follower of Yezid bin Moaviah, put Hassan, the son of Ali, to death. They are led to this belief, it appears, because, as they assert, Shummur is regarded as a great saint by the Dawassinis; and the Sheahs, in conssquence, hold it meritorious to kill any of this sect. The author of their religion is understood to be Sheik Adi, one of the Merwanian caliphs, who is interred at- a place called by his name in the vicinity of Mosul, and which was formerly a Christian church dedicated to St Thad- deus. Their enemies accuse them of worshipping Satan, whom they invoke by the name of Chelebee or Lord. Others maintain that they venerate the sun and fire, and practise horrible ceremonies. It is said they pay re- gard to sundry images of animals; to that of the ser- pent, in memory of the seduction of Eve by that reptile, -—and to that of the ram, in remembrance of the obedi~ ence of Abraham. Once a-year, also, they worship the figure of a cock, which is called Mellek Taous, placed before the assembly upon a sort of candlestick. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS The Yezidee religion appears to be a compound of many others strangely jumbled together. Niebuhr in- deed remarks, that when asked regarding their faith, they themselves declare it to have part of the Christian, Mussulman, and Jewish. Mr Rich obServes that they have something approaching to Christianity. They ad- mit both baptism and circumcision, the first of which is performed by dipping three times in one of their sacred springs ; and they never enter a Christian church with- out kissing the threshold and pulling ofi" their shoes. Buckingham* says that when they come to Mardin and other places, they kiss the hands of the priests, and receive the sacrament from them, suffering not a drop of the wine to fall to the ground or even on their beards while drinking it. They fast three times in the year, and make one pil- grimage to the shrine of Sheik Adi. They believe in the metempsychosis, and never say, “ such a one is dead ;” but “he is changed.” Like the Druses, they always choose Mohammedan names. Their principal place of burial is at Bozan, at the foot of the mountain of Rabban Hormuzd; but the great scene of pilgrimage is Sheik Adi, where is the church already mentioned, and in which each tribe has its separate compartment. The priest or sheik reads prayers, and every one at intervals exclaims Amen! At this station there is a spring of water, which falls into a basin, and is used as one of their baptismal fonts. Niebuhr mentions that they are in the habit of throwing into it gold and silver in honour of the sheik ; a practice which being discovered by a Nestorian in the neighbour- hood, he contrived one night to enter the enclosure in pursuit of these treasures. The daughter of the keeper, having accidentally gone thither to draw water while the thief was searching in the reservoir, conceived it could be no other than Sheik Adi himself come to in- spect the offerings, and retired immediately to tell the " Travels in Mesopotamia, vol. i. p. 470. or THE INHABITANTS- 329 extraordinary news. The Dawassinis were enchanted with the honour done them~by their saint, while the Nestorian took care to keep his secret and the money. There is said to be a. similar basin at Sinjar, which is applied to the same uses. This came to the ears of the celebrated Solyman Pasha of Bagdad, who, thinking he could turn the sheik’s treasure to better account, visited the place with a powerful force. But though he succeeded in dispersing the tribes of Sinjarlis, and put many to the torture of the bastinado, he failed in dis- covering the treasury. The Yezidees are said to be a lively, brave, and hos- pitable people, good-humoured, well made, and comely. Those of Sinjar may be divided into fixed and roving inhabitants. The former cultivate the village grounds, and resemble the Fellah Arabs, as the mountaineers do the Bedouins. The latter, who are the plunderers, are the terror of caravans on this road ; and who, permitting their hair and beard to grow, wear an aspect as uncouth as their manners are savage. No one is suffered to ap- proach their haunts except a few Jews, who live in the town Khatuniyah, situated on an island in a lake of that name, and who act as brokers in disposing of the goods that are taken by the marauding parties. In reference to the origin of the Yezidees, or, as they are sometimes called in the East, Shaitan purust—Wor- shippers of Satan—we are tempted to mention a curious legend which exists in Seistan, an eastern province of Persia, among the inhabitants of which are not only many fire-worshippers or ghebres, but a considerable number of these Shaitan purust, and of another pagan sect called Chirag Koosh, or Light-extinguishers, who seem to be but a modification of the former, as both venerate or deprecate Satan. The account is as follows. In former times there existed, they say, a prophet named Hanlalah, whose life was prolonged to the measure of 1000 years. He was their' ruler and benefactor ; and as by his agency their flocks gave birth to young mi- raculously once a-week, though ignorant of the use of 330 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS money they enjoyed all the comforts of life with much gratitude to him. At length, however, he died, and was succeeded by his son, whom Satan, presuming on his inexperience, tempted to sin by entering into a large mulberry tree, from whence he addressed the successor of Hanlalah, and called on him to worship the prince of darkness. Astonished, yet unshaken, the youth resisted the temptation. But the miracle proved too much for the constancy of his flock, who began to turn to the worship of the devil. The young prophet, en- raged at this, seized an axe and a saw, and prepared to cut down the tree, when he was arrested by the appear- ance of a human form, who exclaimed, “ Rash boy, desist! turn to me, and let us wrestle for the victory. If you conquer, then fell the tree.” The prophet consented, and vanquished his opponent, who, however, bought his own safety and that of the tree by the promise of a large weekly treasure. After seven days, the holy victor again visited the tree to claim the gold or fell it to the ground; but Satan per~ suaded him to hazard another struggle, on promise that if conquered again the amount should be doubled. The second rencounter proved fatal to the youth, who was put to death by his spiritual antagonist ; and the result con- firmed the tribes over whom he had ruled in their wor- ship of the tree and its tutelary demon. In this legend the leading doctrine of all these Eastern religions—the constant contention between the powers of good and evil—is plainly shadowed forth, with the ad- ditional moral, that as long as he was actuated by a dis- interested zeal for religion, the young prophet was victb- rious over the spirit of evil, but failed so soon as that zeal gave place to a sordid cupidity for earthly treasure. This legend becomes still more interesting when com- pared with the following passage, which is taken from Assemani* in the part where he treats of the religions of Mesopotamia and Assyria :-—“According to the natives * Vol. iii. p. 493. or THE mnam’ranrs. 331 of the country, the Yezidees were at one time Chris- tians, who, however, in the course of ages, had for- gotten even the fundamental principles of their faith. I am, nevertheless, not inclined to believe this their origin; for I am of opinion that the word Yezidee is derived from Yezid, which in the idiom of Persia sig- nifies God. Yezidee, therefore, the plural of Yezid, in- dicates the observators of superstitious doctrines (as may be seen from Antonio Gyges, Tesoro della Lingua Ara- brica). Yezid was in fact the name of the idol which Elias, bishop and missionary of Mogham, overthrew with three blows of an axe ; and this fact sustains the opinion I have advanced. Monseignore Tommaso, bishop of Marquise, who lived in the commencement of the ninth century, relates that when this Elias, after having been chosen Bishop of Mogham,—a city on the frontiers of Persia, and near the Caspian Sea,—proceeded to enter on the duties of his diocese, he found it occupied by a barbarous people immersed in superstition and idolatry. “ The bishop, however, commenced his instructions; and his flock confessed that they received them with pleasure, were convinced of their truth, and were inclined to return to the true God, but that they were terrified at the thought of abandoning Yezid, the object of reli- gious veneration of their ancestors. This idol, they said, conscious of approaching rejection and contempt, would not fail to revenge itself by their total destruction. Elias desired to be led to this object of their adoration. They conducted him to the summit of a neighbouring hill, from whence a dark wood extended into the valley below. From the bosom of this rose a plane-tree of enormous height, majestic in the spread of its boughs and deep obscurity of its shade; but, transported with holy zeal, he demanded a hatchet, and rushing to the valley, sought the idol, whom he found lowering with a dark and menacing aspect. Nothing daunted, how- ever, he raised the axe, smote down the image of the prince of darkness, and continued his work till not only was the mighty tree laid prostrate, but every one of the 332 MANNERS sun cusrons, &c. numerous younger shoots, termed by the barbarians the children of Yezid, were likewise demolished.” The similarity of these two legends coming from such op- posite quarters, is very remarkable, and can scarcely be quite accidental. In addition to the religious sects already mentioned, we must not omit to mention that of the Ali Ullahis, who take their name from one of their tenets, which taught that the Spirit of God has appeared on earth in a succession of incarnations, one of which was in the person of Ali the son-in-law of Mohammed ; in other words, that Ali was God, as the term signifies. Of the other articles of their faith we are but ill informed, as they, like the Yczidees, being regarded with ill-will by the dominant sect of the Mohammedans, maintain great secrecy on all matters that respect their religious opinions. By some they are held to be the same with the Chirag Koosh, who have some abominable rites and customs. But this is certainly not the case ; and some of the most powerful tribes of Kermanshah and Mount Zagros, as the Gouran and chgenahand Kelhore, are Ali Ullahis. 334 NATURAL HISTORY. the subject with a few cursory generalities, have rather induced us to collect with the utmost care all the ma- terials we could procure. These indeed are few, for of older authorities, we believe, there are none ; and this remark includes, as already hinted, the learned Forskal, WhOSe researches do not embrace those countries. It is true that the eminent Danish naturalist supplied a DESCRIPTION or Ammans in his Oriental Itinerary,* as also a Fnona of Egypt and Arabia ;+ but Oriental is a wide word, and Forskal laboured chiefly in the neigh- bourhood of Alexandria ; whilst the Arabia he examined was not the vast plains of the Petraea and Deserts, which border upon Mesopotamia, but a small portion of the promontory of Arabia Felix, near Mocha; and both these districts are distant not less than a thousand miles from the regions which now engage our attention. Hence, though we do not mean to deny that some useful analogies in botany and zoology may be drawn from his works, yet all inferences of this nature must be deduced with the greatest caution. Under these circumstances, we must have recourse to such notices as can be procured from modern travellers, few of whom are professed nat- uralists. A distinguished exception, however, occurs in the case of the recent expedition to the Euphrates, under the charge of Colonel Chesney. Without the documents published in connexion with this survey, and especially the Researches of Mr Ainsworth, so often already alluded to, we could not have supplied any notice whatever on this interesting subject. From that publication we have drawn with the utmost freedom ; and beg now, once for all, to acknowledge our obligation to the labours and authority of the enlightened author. At the same time, we have not neglected whatever other sources of infor- mation we could discover; and hence we presume to " Dcscri tiones Animalium quae in Itinere Orientali observa- vit Pctrus$orskah Hauniae, 1775. + Flora Egyptiaco-Arabica, sive Descriptiones Plantarum guas per 1E tum Inferiorem et Arabiam Felicem detexit, illustravit P. orskal. Haunize, 1775 336 NATURAL msronr. the Taurus, towering above the line of perpetual snow, which in this latitude may be estimated at the height of about 10,000 feet ; the crest of the second range, viewed as a mean between the highest points and the passes, is about 5053; and the plain of Dim-bekir, between the second and third district, is at an elevation of 2500 feet. We commence our more particular survey in the central range with the hills about Kebban-Madan, near the junction of the eastern and western branches of the Euphrates, and where the lead and silver mines occur. The town of Kebban, connected with the mines, is built upon granite rock, which extends downwards to the banks of the river, and northwards rises nearly a thousand feet in mountainous masses. The formations to the south of the town are very various. The fundamental rock is a highly crystalline granite, on which is superim- posed gneiss rock, capped with chlorite schist, through which felspathic rock protrudes in dikes, or unconform- able and non-contemporaneous beds. The first metalli- ferous product that is met with appears to be chlorite of silver, with an admixture of iron and lead; and it appears in dark-coloured irregular masses, like the for- mation of the same kind which overlies mines of native silver in Peru. Between the mica and chlorite slate and the limestone are numerous mines of argentiferous galena or lead-glance, a metallic sulphuret containing lead, silver in small proportions, antimony, iron, and red silver (sulphuret of antimony and silver). These mines are said now to yield 195,000 pounds of lead, and 1000 pounds of silver annually.* Passing over, in our progress southwards, the district of Kharput, where there is a large plain extending south by West, we arrive at the copper mines of Arghana. The mountains which surround them have an elevation of from 4000 to 4600 feet; and Magharat,——“ the hill of caves,”—contains the principal mine. This eminence is ' Ainsworth’s Researches, p. 279-281. GEOLOGY. 337 composed of steatite, with veins of quartz, barytes, and asbestos of various kinds, the flexible, and the non-elastic ; beds of limestone, sandstone, and copper pyrites. There are upwards of fourteen galleries carried into the rock ; and the annual produce is said to be about 2,250,000 pounds. In this barren region are situated the water- shed of the Euphrates and the Tigris, and the primary sources of this latter stream. To the north of Arghana there is a district occupied by carbonaceous marls and sandstones; and from this locality specimens of good coal were transmitted to the Euphrates expedition by Mr Brant, her Majesty’s consul at Erzeroum.* Mr Ainsworth, in his account of this locality, remarks that the sandstone contained beds which were highly carbona- ceous, and others that were distinctly ferruginous. The former were converted into stone-coal, with a vitreous fracture and dark shining surface ; but they were non- bituminouod‘ He does not appear to have discovered any useful coal. Southward of this succeeds the plateau of Diarbekir, with a mean elevation of 1900 feet, and being for the most part a uniform flat, out up towards the east by the Tigris. The rocks of the table-land of Jezirah, at an elevation of 1540 feet, are of the same mineral character, and consist of basalts with augite, titaniferous iron, and calcareous spar. We may here remark, that neither the geological structure nor the correct topography of the Masius chain, including the Baarem Hills and J ibel-tur, have hitherto been described in a way that is at all satisfactory; We now proceed to the Second District, which ex- tends from the thirty-seventh degree north latitude to the thirty-fourth, and comprises laterally the basins ' See Colonel Chesne ’s General Statement of the Proceed- ings of the Euphrates xpedition, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical ooiety, vol. vii. p. 438. + Researches, pp. 271, 272. I See an interesting account of a. journey in this district by Mr Brant, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society vol. vi. p. 208. In the accompanying map, the eographica aspect is better represented than in any other we ve seen. x GEOLOGY. 341 Samosata to the north, and Bir to the south, including the Nimrod chain of hills, is composed of the upper and lower chalk formations. Advancing still further east towards the Tigris, and taking Mosul as a centre, we remark that the western partof the country is occupied by rocky formations, which rise in a gently undulating territory out of the plain of Mesopotamia. The formations in the immediate vicinity of the town consist of solid beds of massive, compact, and granular calcareous gypsum, in horizontal strata, and non-fossiliferous. This is the rock that is so exten- sively quarried as Mosul marble, of 'which the colour is blueish-white, but sometimes snow-white or blueish- gray. The gypsum is not separated by fissures, like that of Paris, and is less slaty than that of Kirkook. Super- imposed upon it is a thin formation of coarse friable limestone abounding in shells, which, in fact, is the common building-stone of the district. Above this de- posit is a bed, nine inches in thickness, of non-fossili— ferous argillaceous marls, highly dendritic, and resembling the happante of Montmartre. Over this is a coarse mass of green-coloured marls. It is in this locality, and in a formation similar to the one just described, at the foot of the cliffs of Mar Gabriel, that several thermal springs occur, which exhale hydro— sulphuric acid gas, and deposit sulphur in abundance. They are six in number, more or less copious, and the united streams form a rivulet, the colour of which is milk-White from the quantity of precipitated sulphur. Their general temperature ranges from 77° Fahrenheit to 78° ; that of the air being 57° in the shade. The one in Nineveh, designated by Mr Rich Thisbe’s Well, is commonly at the temperature of 66°. Celebrated sulphur mines occur about eight miles from Mosul ; and deposits of the mineral are wrought by means of galleries formed in the face of the cliffs. The rocks consist of crag, of coarse gypsum and marls, containing a bed of granular and semi-crystalline sulphur about seven feet in thick- ness. This mineral is compact, fine, and granular, gen- GEOLOGY. 343 consist throughout of Cyclade limestone, gypsum, marls, saliferous sand, and common sandstone. Two ranges of low hills run to the east of Kirkook in a north-westerly direction. The first rises scarcely 200 feet above the plain; the second about 500. The western one con- sists of Cyclade limestone and gypsum; the plain, of red and brown sandstone and red saliferous sands. This is the character of the calcareous deposit at the Abu Gerger of the Arabs,-—“ the father of boiling,”——a place remarkable for the exhibition of flames (hence called Hill of Flames), which appear to have been in existence from the most remote period. The limestone at this place entirely supersedes the marls and gypsum ; and the gases escape in a little central depression on the sum- mit of the ridge. The spot whence the flames issue has a dull, dusky, grayish aspect in broad daylight; and they are only visible upon near approach. The evolu- tion of sulphureous acid is so great, that it soon becomes intolerable; and a thermometer held in the evolved gasses rose to 220°. Wherever a spear is thrust into the ground a new blaze bursts forth ; not the pale lambent stream produced by carburetted hydrogen, nor the flickering light of hydrosulphuric acid in combustion, but a fierce and ardent fire, like that which would be produced by the mingled burning of sulphur, coal, and bitumen. Hence it would appear that these flames are not connected with the great volcanic phenomena which act, through fissures or rents, from the deep portions of the earth’s crust, but belong to some peculiar and local chemical action. Appearances very similar have been noticed on the coast of the county of Kerry; at Char- mouth in Dorsetshire; and at Auhin and Dutivielle in Prussia. The most striking feature in the present case is, the great extent of the phenomenon; its exceeding duration ; and that, according to report, it is continued during the driest weather.* * Ainsworth’s Researches, p. 243. GEOLOGY. 345 ciated marls, presents no traces of fresh-water shells, while in its subsequent expansion there is the same order of attending phenomena as are observed in other countries. To the south of J aber, a level range of marls, capped by gypsum, occurs on the right bank, about two miles long, and 300 feet high. At the northern end the gypsum is from twenty to twenty-five feet in thickness, and reposes upon cretaceous marls, 150 feet deep: the former soon attains a thickness of upwards of 40 feet, till, at the next southerly headland, it occupies the whole depth of the clifi“, forming hills about eighty feet high. On the left bank in this district, formations of a similar character recede to a greater distance from the river; and the hills, scarcely 100 feet in height, are composed, towards the north, of mural precipices of gypsum, reposing upon yellow marls. From Beles to Racca is a distance of seventy miles, of which sixty are occupied by the same formation; and no alteration of geognostic char- acters is met with till the river passes through the pro- longation of the Jibel Buchir at Zenobia, a further dis- tance, by its banks, of ninety-one miles. At that point the hills consist of marls and gypsum, covered by an overlying formation of plutonic rocks and crystalline breccia. The gypsum at first alternates with the marls, but soon assumes a predominating development. It oc- curs snow-white and saccharoidal, also small-grained and granular: it is likewise met with transparent, laminar, in thin beds, and in small masses, variously arranged like brick-tiles. At Salahiyah, the formations at the base of the cliffs are constituted of the usual gypsum and marls. Of the first there are no fewer than twenty-four beds, from two to four feet thick, alternating with marls, some of which are divided by veins of laminar trans- parent gypsum, which may be obtained for optical pur- poses, and as a substitute for glass. Superimposed upon these is a red ossiferous limestone breccia developed to the extent of many feet in thickness. It gives origin to a level and uniform plain, stony, and exceedingly desti_ tute of vegetation, stretching to the extreme verge of the GEOLOGY. 347 From these few hints it will appear, that the princi- pal object of contemplation in the structure and develop- ment of the rocks in the basin of the Euphrates is the great extent of the tertiary, more accurately the cretas ceous and supercretaceous deposits. They occupy a. space in a straight line of six degrees and a half of latitude; and among them the chalky and gypseous beds assume by far the most extensive development. The intercala- tion, at the limits of the chalk formations, of marls and gypsums unprovided with lacustrine shells in the cre- taceous layers, is another very striking fact; for in this case the intervening clays and limestone appear to be totally wanting, and gypscous deposits to have taken their place. The most remarkable peculiarity in the inferior gypsum is the eruption of plutonic masses; which phenomenon has ew'dently occurred at a period posterior to the elevation of the Taurian chain, as the formations now described are superimposed upon the last deposit by transport, which contains pebbles from those regions. A short notice of the celebrated Nara-ma Srnmes in this district must not be omitted. First of all, it is worthy of remark, that whether at the eastern or west- ern side of the great basin, they occupy very much the same geological position, and are found at the ex- treme limits of the lateral series of rock formation, and just at the point where these come in contact with the oldest alluvial deposits. Thus is it at Hit, on the banks of the Euphrates, in reference to the lateral form- ation of the Taurus, and so also to the east, near the Tigris, in regard to the lateral ranges of the Kurdistan mountains. Two localities have been pre-eminent-ly signalized; the one situated at Hit, the ancient Is, celebrated from all antiquity for its never-failing foun- tains of bitumen, which furnished the imperishable mortar of the Babylonian structure. We know it was visited by Alexander, Trajan, and Julian ; and now it is used only for daubing gopher-boats on the Euphrates. In this locality there are several fountains, and at some 350 NATURAL nrsrony. argillo-calcareous, but covered, generally speaking, with mould, dust, or sand. ‘ In various localities throughout this district, and more especially round the site of ancient Babylon, a curious phenomenon presents itself, which consists in a number of sand-hills on the level plain, that are constantly shifting their place and varying in amount, and yet al- ways remain in the same general locality. They appear to owe their existence to the presence of springs, which moisten the sand and cause its accumulation ; while the prevailing winds alter their form without affecting their position. They are objects of superstition to the Arabs. - Efliorescences, both of common salt and saltpetre, are abundant in these plains; and _it is of importance to distinguish them, as the one is probably derived from the decomposition of vegetable matter, characteristic of good vegetable mould, or of alluvium originating in rivers or lakes; whilst the other is no less strongly in- dicative of deposition from the sea, except when there are local formations of rock-salt. The soil of the marshes of Lemlum consists for the most part of a soft alluvial clay and mud, containing only fresh-water shells. The greater part of the basin, however, is occupied by aquatic plants; and the whole comprehends a district of nearly forty square miles. The extensive plains of Chaldea, eastward, are upon a somewhat higher level, and present a territory which is the seat of cultivation during the dry months. The soil here is a strong tenacious clay, of a deep blue colour, argillo-calcareous, and very uniform in its character ; it abounds in shells which belong to a very few genera, and these almost entirely marine. To the south of the point of union between the Eu- phrates and Tigris the surface is perpetually occupied by water, and covered with a corresponding vegetation, de- riving its character from a species of bent~grass, Agrostis, which has very much the appearance of the true reed, GEOLOGY. 351 Arundo, of northern Europe. These tracts exhibit great uniformity of feature, together with a boundless growth of plants of the same aspect, which are every where intersected by artificial canals, or spotted with ponds and lakes. The district which extends from the point of junction of the rivers to the embouchure in the Persian Gulf, is characterized on the eastern bank, and as far south as the mouth of the Karoon, by a fringe of date-trees, to which, at some distance inland, succeeds a band of reeds and rush marshes, then some pasturage, and finally, a small portion of cultivated land. Beyond this tract there is a level and uniform plain, which is sprinkled with mmional tamarisks, acacias, and saline plants one half of the year, and inundated during the other. The opposite or western bank of the stream is, for the most part, covered with date-trees; the succeeding tract of vegetation is very narrow, being often confined by ranges of sand-hills to a few hundred yards. Beyond this ver- dant band, an inundation, lasting six or eight months, veils the earth from sight; and, during the remainder of the year, nothing is seen but a level barren plain, without either moss or lichen to feed the piping sand- grouse. The region still further to the south, or the Junub, presents similar characters; exhibiting, for the most part, a belt of date-trees, surrounded with inundation at one season of the year, and a naked plain during the remainder. This district contains many villages, and canals which intersect it. That of Ashar flows past the fort of Nimiah to the city of Bussora, and twice a-day, with the flowing tide, waters the gardens of that un- healthy spot. The extensive level from the J unub to the confluence of the river with the sea, forms the Danasir or water-country of Niebuhr, and the Choabedeh of Sir William Jones. In the interior, there is the same barren succession of mud and sands, bounded by the pebbly deposits of the Pallacopas, and subjected to inundations 352 ' NATURAL HISTORY. during nine months of the year. The margin of the river, which on either side is lined with woods of the graceful date, atfords at times rich pasturage for buifaloes. Even here the villages are numerous, but small; and the population upon the whole is scanty. BOTANY. In a region so elevated and varied as the first or moun- tain district of the countries we are now considering, of which the soil is very diversified, and where the climate is remarkable for cold winters and hot summers, it may naturally be expected that the vegetation should exhibit striking varieties of feature and form. This is well illustrated in the interesting Journey of Mr Brant, al- ready referred to, where, respecting the neighbourhood of Kebban-Madan, he remarks,—“ The mountains round exhibit barrenness under its most forbidding aspects ; for they produce neither tree, nor shrub, nor vegetation of any kind.” And again, of the environs of Kharput, about thirty miles distant, he says,—“ The plain fur- nishes a vast quantity of grain; and wheat returns from twelve to sixteen fold; the productions of the soil are various, consisting of every kind of grain, grapes, wine of a superior quality, oil from seeds, and cotton.”* Mr Ainsworth, whom we are happy again to acknow- ledge as our principal guide, informs us, that the most remarkable feature in the vegetation of Taurus is the abundance of trees, shrubs, and plants in the northern, and their comparative absence in the southern district. With the intention of presenting a summary of whatever information has been collected, we shall here endeavour to introduce, somewhat condensed and sometimes in a tabular form, all the details supplied by this intelligent traveller. ' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. vi. pp. 206, 207. 354 NATURAL ms'romr. The broad and the narrow-leaved Phillyrew show themselves only on the northern side of the Taurus; and the common and large Rhododendrons first appear beyond the Chaqu Bel. Heaths are rare; the tree- heath, Erica arborea, flourishes near Sis. Among the useful and cultivated plants of Taurus may be noted the vine, the fig-tree, almond-tree, the olive, wheat, spelt-wheat (Triticum Spelta), winter barley (Hordeum harastichon), and common barley. Gall- nuts are gathered chiefly from the Dyers, Velonia, and Kermes oaks. There are also pears, apples, and apricots in abundance. The roots of the great yellow milk- vetch (Astragalus christianus) and Eastern sea-kail (Crambe orientalis) are sought as articles of food. Sumach (Rhus Cotinus) is used for tanning skins red, and buck- thorn (Rhamnus catharticus) as well as jointed Valantia (V. articulata) for giving them a yellow hue. We may here add, from Mr Rich’s valuable Narrative, that in Kurdistan, gall-nuts are produced in great plenty, espe- cially in the dwarf-oak (Quercus nana) forest of Kara Dag; and “the plant which produces gum-arabic grows wild in the mountains; it has a purple flower, and is called ghewun.” We should at once have referred this statement to the Acacia. arabica, the gum-arabic tree, whose habitat is said to be the East Indies, had not the author remarked that the flower is purple, whilst that of the other is white. “ Manna,” continues Mr Rich, “called in Turkish the divine sweetrneat, in Kurdish ghezo, is found on the dwarf-oak, though several other plants are said to pro- duce it, but not so abundantly, or in such good quality. It is collected by gathering the leaves of the tree, which, after being aIIOWed time to dry, are gently threshed on a cloth. The commodity is thus brought to market in lumps, mixed with fragments of leaves, from which it is afterwards cleared by boiling. There is another kind of manna found on rocks and stones, which is quite pure, of a white colour, and much more esteemed than the tree- 4 I 356 NATURAL nrs'romr. ceous biennials and a comparatively ephemeral vegetation. It is not however less true, that there are numerous districts of great beauty. Such in Mesopotamia are the valleys of Orfa and Harran, so interesting as connected with the history of the patriarch Abraham; and those in Assyria are in no respect inferior. That this remark holds good even in modern times, notwithstanding the misrule and neglect to which the country has been sub- jected, may be demonstrated by a few short sentences. “ The character of the desert,” says Mr Forbes, “improves gradually towards Mardin ; and that portion of the great plain of Mesopotamia which lies in the direction of Koach Hassar, equals if it does not surpass in fertility the richest soils in the world.”"' “ At length,” remarks Mr Rich, “ we reaehed the beautiful village of Deira, embosomed in a wood of the finest walnut-trees I ever saw. Gar~ dens, vineyards, and cultivation surrounded the village in every available spot on the sides of the mountains. The vines in many places crept up the trees, and extended from one to another, forming festoons and drapery. Multitudes of springs burst from the sides of the hills, and dashed over the roots of the trees in innumerable little cascades. Nothing was heard but the murmuring of waters ; and it was not easy to pass so beautiful a spot without a pause to enjoy its loveliness.”'i' And once more: Lieutenant Lynch, in the year 1839, writes,— “ The upper plain or country near and above the Ham- rine may be called a prairie, high and undulating, with the range of the Karachok Hills rising east of it, far from the Tigris, and cleft in the centre by the Zab. I am told the climate is delicious, except in the heats of summer, which are healthy ; and when I have been strolling along the banks of the river, it has been a luxury to breathe.”1‘ * Visit to the Sinjar Hills in 1838. Journal of the Royal Geog: hieal Society, vol. ix. p. 422. + 'c ’s Narrative, vol. i. p. 261. $_On the river Tigris, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. ix. p. 442. 358 NATURAL msronr. to the genera Stachys (hedge-nettle), Thymus (thyme), Sideritis (ironwort), Satureja (savory), and Origanum (marjory). A Pyrus grows in fallow, also one species of willow, and one of bramble: elm-leaved sumach (Rhus Coriaria) flourishes on the banks of the Euphrates. The most common plants on cultivated lands are the prickly-headed liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra and echtl nata), also Mimosa agrestis, and Euphorbia Pyrrhus. The oriental plane-tree, near springs and tombs, attains an enormous size. One at Bir is said to have measured thirty-six feet in circumference. The useful plants which occur in this zone, either cultivated or not, are still very numerous. Among the grains are wheat, barley, lentils (Eroum Lens), common chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), the garden-bean, chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus), red-flowered vetch( Vicia N i880- liana), the kidney bean, millet (Holcus Sorghum), and Lucerne. The Arabs eat the Holeus bicolor. The quantity of Potherbs now cultivated, where Euro- pean plants have been introduced, is considerable, though more or less characteristic. Of these may be named the cucumber, melon, the egg-plant (Solanum Mehmgena), the eatable Hibiscus, and various kinds of gourds. Among the fruits are the olive, the pistachia-tree, (P. Qfiicinalis), the white and common mulberry,the common fig, cherry, apricot, peach, and three varieties of plums; also the apple, pear, quince, dog-wood (Camus mas), sweet almond, walnut, hazel, lotus tree, beech, chestnut, Sibe- rean pine, nuts, and such like. Among cultivated plants there is tobacco, oil~grain (Sesamum orientale), castor-oil, hemp, common fenn-greck (Trigonella Foenum grazcum), the carthamus (0. tinctorius), and cotton. Among the useful vegetables furnished by the fields, are the Capparis spinosa Cotmmon caper SaturejahortensisSummer savory ee r Sine is orientalis Oriental mustard Borago ofl'icinalis Common borage Tor ylium syria- Malva rotundi- cum ........... Syrian hart-wort folia ........... Mallows Glycyrrh gla- Rumex acctosa . . Common sorrel bra... . . . . . . . . . Commonliquorice S. Nasturtium... . Sisymbrium Lycoperdon tube- A. oflicinalis.. . . . Common aspara- rosum ......... Tuberose puE-ball 8"! 360 NATURAL HISTORY. three new plants, first met at Balis, continued to prevail 140 miles down the river. The tamarisk first appeared at that place ; and the jungle to the south of the same sta- tion consisted of a species of poplar, with lanceolate leaves, which has been mistaken for the willow. A Lygeum and a bramble, a Clematis and two Asparaginm, with the tamarisk, were the only other varieties. South of Racca, in the forest of Aran, the mulberry first presents itself. At Zenobia, Umbelh'ferm begin to predominate. Anah is the most southern point of olive-trees, and the most northern of the date, with the exception of isolated trees, which are met with in the sheltered bay of Iskenderiah. The desert of Xenophon, extending from the Khabour to Rehoboth, is still what it was in the Greek general’s day, “ full of wormwood ; and if any other plants grow there, they have for the most part an aromatic smell.”* Advancing now to the alluvial district, it is to be ob- served that the woolly and spiny plants of the lowlands and rocky tracts of Mesopotamia are here completely superseded by the succulent species. The genera Sali- corm'a, Crassula, also Glass-worts, Salt-worts (Salsola), and Tragia, with certain Fig-marigolds (Mesembryan- thema) and Asters, with their representatives, cover the plains of Babylonia and Chaldea, and spread them- selves wherever the alluvial soil is impregnated, as it so frequently is, with nitre or marine salt. Among the marshes of Lemlum, the preponderance of sedges, cats’- tail (Typhacew), and the large grasses, announce, as in the temperate zone, the aquatic character of the country, and a comparatively cold and humid climate. The shallow sheets of water, which are dispersed amidst this marsh of reeds and rushes, like the meres of England, are generally invaded by a host of water-plants (Alis- maceae), water-lilies, and ranunculaceae ; and, in the dry parts of Chaldea the vegetation is characterized by the usual saline plants, the river-banks being fringed by shrubberies of tamarisk and acacia, and occasional groves * Ainsworth’s Researches, p. 47-49. BOTANY. 361 of poplar. The weeping-willow (Salim babylonica) is not met with in Babylonia. The common tamarisk of the country is the Tamariw orientalis of Forskal. The solitary tree “ of a species altogether strange to this country,” according to Heeren, and which Rich calls Lignum Vitae, growing upon the ruins of Kasr at Baby- lon, and supposed to be a last remnant of the hanging gardens, that appeared to Quintus Curtius like a forest, is also a tamarisk. Others exactly resembling it are fre- quently found overshadowing the wells of Farsistan; and are common in the country of the queen for whose solace those gardens are said to have been erected. Finally, the vegetation at the extreme limits of the alluvial soil is not a little singular, and has been well described by Mr Ainsworth. At the points, he remarks, where land is first gained from water, the soil is clothed with a uniform vegetation. A solitary plant, every where propagated over those great tracts, acts as umpire be- tween these two elements of the terraqueous surface, and first reclaims new territories to the former. It is a species of Mariscus, approaching very closely to the M. elatus of the East Indies, of which it is perhaps but a variety, as it difi'ers from it only in the marked elongation of the spikelets. This species, which has been called elongatus, flowers in May, at a mean temperature of 84", but under great atmospherical vicissitudes, and a range sometimes of 24° between the temperatures of night and day. It presents a rich green carpet, and a fine verdure, in the flowering season, relieved by the glistering aspect of the spikelets, which are nevertheless sober in their colour, as in the other species of the same family. The roots of this plant are fibrous, and take a firm hold of the soil; by which means they give, in their pro- pagation, solidity to whole masses of alluvium, and thus assist in repelling the invasion of the waters at spring- tides, during storms, and in periods of inundation. There is no combat here, such as when the sand-reed or sand- sedge, in other somewhat similar localities, endeavours to climb above the perpetually accumulating sands; for 364 NATURAL HISTORY. winter an under-coat of downy wool, which is naturally thrown off in spring. This double-coated race is coloured black, brown, golden and light-dun, gray and piebald. The colours of the two coats do not necessarily corre- spond, though black bristles commonly overlie brown wool. This variety exists in high perfection in the dis- trict of the true Angora goat, but has also a wider range, and prevails in Armenia and Kurdistan. The goat of Taurus is described as generally white, with buff-coloured ears and yellow horns, the hair fine and curled. The Kurdistan one has long black hair, curled and silky, horns bent downwards, pendulous black ears tipped with brown, which is sometimes the colour of the legs. Among the wild species there is the Capra ibew, and, it is believed, the 0'. Caucasicus. In the second District—that of the plains-Mr Ains- worth says that the monkey is unknown, as also through- out the whole of Assyria and Babylonia. The bat tribe, however, is numerous; the genera Rhinolophus and Nicteris having their representatives. Among the insec- tivora were found the long-cared hedgehog,—-E'rinaceum auritis of Pallas, and the Persian shrew of Pennant (Screw pusillus). The carnival-a may be said, on some accounts, to form the most important family in those countries. The lion is met with in the lower parts of the Euphrates and Tigris; and was seen as far north as Balis. A speci- men from the banks of the Tigris had not the fur of the isabella yellow colour attributed to the Arabian and Persian species, but was as brown as that of Bombay. A nameless variety of the hunting tiger, and distin— guished by some naturalists from the Felix Jubata by the title of F. Venatica, is not uncommon in the lower 7 districts of the country. An individual, exhibiting all the docility of the Persian youze, also existed at Bag- dad; and, notwithstanding the want of the retractile claws, climbed trees with facility. But the most com- mon of the cat tribe is the F. Ohaue of Giildenstedt, and described by Russel: this animal was often met with in hunting. The lynx inhabits the woody dis- 366 NATURAL nrsroar. are two kinds; the Turkoman variety, which haunts the plains, and that of the desert, with long hair and ears. Rabbits are infrequent. The order of Pachydermata is represented by the wild- boar, common in every spot at all adapted for its exist- ence, and by the wild horse of Mesopotamia (Equu: hemionus), although this fact has not been quite satisfac- torily ascertained. The chief domesticated horses are of two breeds,-—the Arab, finely limbed, slender, hardy, and fleet, and the Turkoman, of a larger size and stronger make. The asses are of a common breed, but larger than in Britain : there is also an improved variety, tall, delicately limbed, swift, and easy in pace ; and, lastly, the Damascus ass, with very long body, pendulous ears, smooth skin, and dark colour. At the head of the Ruminantia are the camels, of which the first in point of importance and utility is the Arabian (O. dromedarius), with one hunch and ‘pale fawn-coloured brown fur; the second is the Bac- trian or Persian (0. bactrianus), with two hunches, and plentiful hair upon the upper part of the neck. There are two varieties of the former; first, the drmnedary, decidedly the highest breed, of slight make, clean limbed, with small hunch ; it ambles with great agility ; and is used for war and expresses, as well indeed as for any other duty requiring haste or fatigue. Lieutenant-colonel Sheil speaks of this animal in these words :—“ It seems able to travel in all situations; mountains and plains, blaz- ing sun, frost and snow, seem alike to him. These beautiful creatures are unlike the awkward heavy camels of Persia and India, they are slender active ani- mals, and nearly white.”* The common Arabian camel is of a light dun colour; it is content to browse on thistles and prickly shrubs, can bear the want of water a long time, but it seldom carries more than two hundred and fifty pounds on each side. Besides these two species, ' Journey through Kurdistan, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. viii. p. 97. 368 NATURAL ms'ronv. Caucasian or European Zoological Province. Hence it is believed that the feathery tribes of these regions have a strong general resemblance to those of Europe ; whilst the southern districts are considered remarkable only for possessing very few and uninteresting groups. In the alpine country birds of prey are particularly abundant. The Egyptian neophron or vulture (V. percnopterus) is common in almost every town, where it lives in the shambles and burial-grounds; and a grifi'on (V. fulvus) was shot by Dr Helfer at Bir. The sea- eagle or osprey (Falco ossifragus of Gmel.), is not in- frequent ; the kite milvus) sweeps along the plains, and the kestril (F. tinnunculus) and Falco gentih's are brought up for the chase. Owls, too, are numerous in the Taurus, and in the chalk cliffs of the Euphrates; the species which have been observed are the great- horned or eagle owl (Strim bubo), the barn owl (S. flammea), the passerine or little owl (S. passerina), and the Ural owl (S. uralemis). Of another common family, namely the crows, there were noticed the raven, the car- rion and hooded crow, and the jackdaw. The jay made its appearance in the month of October; and an oriole (0. graculus) departed the same month. Besides these European species of well-known birds, there were others which, though peculiar, were not determined. A roller was seen, and a sterling more brilliant than our own. Of the I nsectivorous birds there were found the song- thrush, the blackbird, and three other European species ; also a roek-thrush, and the Turdus rufus and meats, which last is the celebrated locust-bird of Pliny ; also a water-ouzel and a species of shrike (Edolius). Few op- portunities occurred to the naturalists of the Euphrates Expedition of studying the interesting groups of warblers and wagtails. The bulbul of Syria is our nightingale ; and that of Persia is a thrush. The becafico is called the fig-sparrow ; the golden-crested wren is a bird of passage; the common wren and two species of stone- chat were occasionally seen. Among the Granivorous birds, the genus Alauda fur- zoomcr. 369 nished many species, among which the sky-lark was most rare, and the crested lark the most common. There were also the shore-lark and the A. calendra and the Tartar lark (A. tartarica of Pallas). The great and the cole tit, the ortolon and yellow buntings, and four or five species of finches, were encountered, of which the goldfinch was one. It was noticed that the common sparrow, far from being stationary about towns, some- times followed the migratory tribes in their numerous peregrinations; and in other cases, in the lower districts of the country, far away from the habitation of man, and among the jungle, they built their nests in dense con- gregations. The common cuckoo was seen : the order of Climbers appears to be rare, even in the woods; the familiar nut-hatch (Yurw torquilla) and two species of wood- pecker constituting all that were met with. The hoopoe was observed every where. Among the Alcyones, the bee-eater (Merops apiaater) and the M. cmlo cephalus Were noticed. Birds of this genus, as is well known, build in sand-banks and mounds of earth, where they are exposed to the attacks of jackals, who, after destroy- ing their victims, appropriate their retreats. Mr Ains- worth states, that in these countries the birds were observed to prepare their excavations not only near but actually beneath the highways; the only assignable reason for which arduous labour appeared to be, that they might thus, aided by the hardness of the trodden- down soil, frustrate the assaults of their ruthless foes. A similar consideration may influence them when they build, as they often do with great address, in vertical banks of rivers. Of the three species of kingfisher (Al- cedo) which were seen, none was European. The CM- lidones furnish two species of swallow, and the European goat-sucker ; and the Columba: present about fourteen species, among which are the collared turtle (0. risora) and the turtorella of the Italians (C. tastaceo incarnate of Forskal). Of the Game-birds, one of the feather-footed genus, z zoorocr. 371 common wild duck (A. beaches), and the A. sirewir of Forskal ; to which may be added, the goosander (Mer- gus merganser) and the black-throated diver (Colymbus auritus). On the Euphrates were observed two species of gull, one of the petrels, and a cormorant. With respect to the marshy regions of the lower district of the country, Mr Ainsworth informs us it is a common practice, during the dryseason, to fire the desiccated vege- tation, when the slightest breeze spreads the flames with fearful rapidity. On these occasions, numerous birds of prey, kites, vultures, and large graycrows, are seen hover- ing in the air, and sweeping through the dense piles of smoke which curl like clouds above the region of devas- tation, in the train of which they are ever and anon seen to alight, as an abundant destruction of animal life attends the progress of the fire. Small quadrupeds, such as ger- boas and shrew-mice, hurried out of their holes, fall victims to the kites and falcons; while a rich feast of half-broiled snakes and lizards awaits the vultures and the crows.* Reptiles.-—In the class of Reptiles our notices are scanty, though the species are numerous. Two kinds of land-tortoise occur in the plains, one of which resembles the common tortoise (Testudo grwca) ; two fresh-water species (Emys) were found in the Euphrates, and two of the soft tortoise (Trionyw). There were observed among ruins three different species of gecko, and the common chameleon in woody and sheltered districts. The Saurians of the plains vary in their character ac- cording to their means of subsistence ; they are chiefly I guanida, and Lacertinida, and not unfrequently Ophidia. Wherever rock, clay, or sand has the slightest tendency to vegetation, there insects multiply, and lizards make ' Ainsworth, p, 137. A similar practice, namely, that of firing the grass and hrushwood, exists in many parts of South America, and is interesting as showing the difl'erent dispositions of the Raptorial birds, which assemble on these occasions under very peculiar circumstances. A curious account of several occurrences of this kind will be found in M. Alcide D. D’Or- bigny’s “ Voyage dans l’Amerique meridionale.” 372 NATURAL HISTORY. their appearance. The fundamental forms which pre- vail on the plains are those with large heads and bodies, the skin being lubricated, and, by means of a secretion, well defended from the burning sun. Lizards of a long slender form and smooth do not prosper on arid and steril spots. A game appear at intervals over extensive tracts of country, and furnish nourishment to various mammifera and birds. It appears that the numerous large and non-venomous serpents which frequent the plains feed upon these lizards ; vipers confine themselves to the R0- a'enlia. The snakes in the neighbourhood of Solymaneah are reported by Mr Rich to be numerous, large, and also very venomous. On the more fertile and productive banks of the Euphrates, gigantic species of Amean are common, and are met with in the adjacent plains and among ruins. A specimen captured at Balis was, including the tail, two feet six inches in length. It is still uncertain whether a crocodile frequents the Upper Euphrates. The frog-like family, Batrachia, which furnish many species in the rivulets of the upper districts, are unknown in the plains and on the lower Euphrates and Tigris. An observation by Mr Rich on an animal of this group, evidently one of the tree-frogs, is too curious to be omitted. “ There is a green frog in Kurdistan, which climbs trees, and catches flies and locusts like a cat, by striking out with its fore paw. I have often seen it perform this feat. It is in every respect like the common frog, but is of an apple-green colour and smooth skin. I have seen them roosting in bushes at night.”* Fishes.-—-Among the fish which have been observed are the Aleppo eel, described by Gronovius, and desig- nated by Dr Solander and Sir E. Home Ophidium mas- bacambelus ; two siluri ; the bearded roach (Cobitis bar- batula) ; and the barbel (Barbus oulgaris), the most common fish of the Upper Euphrates and of the pond Djami Ibrahim, near Orfa. The chub (prrinus cepha- ‘ Rich’s Narrative, vol. i. p. 173. INDEX. 379 lent plants, grasses, and sedges, ib. Babylonian willow, 361. Vege- tation at the extreme limits of the alluvial soil, ib. Mariscus elonga- tus, ib. Brant, Mr, hisaccount of Diarbekir, 228. Buckingham's account of Babylon- ian ruins, 134-137, 141. His travels in Mesopotamia and Assyria, 218- 232. 278. Bumadus, river, 30, 170, 171. Bussora, 29. C. His sketch of Bagdad, 274- _ Ctesiphon, ancient city of, 115, 155. Taken by the Mohammedans, 217. Cunaxa, battle of, 18, 33, 182-185. Site of the town, 186. Cyaxares the Mede and N abopolassar the Babylonian take Nineveh, 65- 67. Cyrus the Great, 76, 78-80. Cyrus the Youn er, 180, 181. defeat and deat , 182-185. His D. Daniel, the prophet, 71, 75, 79, 88. Darius, king, 81, 82, 122. Delaim Arabs. 24. Dials, river, 30, 36, 260. Diarbekir, district of, 23. City of, 226. 227. Its population, 227, 228. Dijeil canal, 36. E. Calah, ancient town of, 262. )alneh, ancient city of, 114, 115. Canals, ancient, 31-36, 120. Modern, 36, 37. Caeruchi, a. people of Mesopotamia, 2 . Carchemish, city of, 70. Chaab Arabs, 24. Chaldea, ancient, 22. See Babylon. Chaldean marshes, 38. Chaldeans, opinions re rding their origin, 89, 90, 92. heir migra- tions, 93. Theory of the progress of their religion, and of the dis- persion of mankind after the flood, 90-94. Remarks on Faber’s theory, 95. Mr Beke’s theory, ib. Sup- ported by coincidence of ancient and modern names, 96. Bochart’s opinion, ib. The dominant people in ancient Babylon, 97. Origin and progress of their religion, 97, 98. Their cosmogony and doc- trines according to Berosus, 98. Similarity with the Scriptural ac- count of the Noachic deluge, 99, 100. Their mythology, 100, 101. Learning and science, 102. Astro- nom and astrology, 103, 104. Mat ematics and music, 104. Skill in working metals and gems, ib. Chalonitis, a district of Assyria, 23, 115. Charraz, ancient cit of, 200, 209, 222. Chesne , Colone1, is description of the uphrates, 26, 29, 141. Christianity, its early progress in the East, 319, 320. Ch iladan, king of Assyria and abylon, 64, 65. Circesium, ancient city of, 22. Colmmerce of ancient Babylon, 105- 08. Crassus. See Mesopotamia and As- syria, history of. Ctesias the historian, his system of notation, 43. His claims to credit discussed, 50-60. Edessa, ancient city of, 22. See Orfa. Elliot, Mr, his sketches of the Arabs on the banks of the Euphrates, 304-318. Beni Saeed, 304-306. Kurds, 306. Their mode of de- camping and encamping, 309. Their manners and character, 310- 312. Selim Aga, 313, 314. Roostum Aga, 314-317. National character of the Kurds, 317, 318. Erbile (Arbela), 241. Erech, ancient city of, 114, 115. Erzen, river, 29. Erzeroum, 26, 106. Esarhaddon king of Assyria, 63. He reduces Babylon, to which he carries Manasseh, king of Judah, ca tivc, 63, 70. Eup rates, river, 26-29. Its naviga- tion, 26. Scener and places along its banks, 27. ts periodical in- undations, 28, 29. Magnitude, ib. Its division into two streams, 33 Canals connected with, 31-37. A branch of it intersected Babylon, 118. Changes in its course, 141, 142. GeolOgical formation of the valley of, 344-352. Evil Merodach, 63. Considered the Belshazmr of Daniel, 75-77. F. Faber's account of the ancient Chal- deans, 90-94. Remarks on his theorx, 95. Feilee rabs, 24. Felugia, ruins of, 162. Fishes of Assyria and Mesopotamia, 372. 373- Forbes, Mr, his journey from Mosul to the Sinjar hills, 233-237. 380 ' INDEX. G. Geology of Assyria and Mesopo- tamia, 335-352. First district, primary rock,335. Kebban lead and silver mines, 336. Go per mines of Arghana, 336, 337. arbonaceous marls and sandstone, 337. Second district, formations between Orfa and Mosul, 337, 338, 340. Plutonic rocks, 339. Limestone deposits, ib. Marble,341. Sulphur springs and mines, ib. Hillso Kurdistan, 342. Hill of Flames, 343. Kufri and Hamrine bills, 344. Valley of the Euphrates, 344-352. Forma- tions, 345. Hills of denudation, 346. Sand-hills, ib. Naphtha springs, 347, 348. Third district, its limits, 349. Moving sand-hills, 350. ~ Salt efilorescences, ib. Marshes, ib. \Vater-country, 350- 352. Gerrha, town of, 105. Gordyazan Mountains, 23, 24. H. Hales, Dr, his chronology of the Ass ’rian monarchy, 42. Hamrme Mountains, 25, 244, 338. Geology of, 344. Haran, identical with the Charrae of the Romans, 222, 324. Hatra, ancient ruins of, 160-162. Heraclius, emperor, his triumphant expeditions, 214-217. Hermas or Huali, river, 30. Herodotus, his description of the boundaries of Assyria, 21, 31. His account of Nitocris, 78. Of the taking of Babylon, 79. Of the city, 117, 118, 143. Of the canals, 121), 121. Hillah, town of, 27, 28, 34. Hit, town of, 27, 347. Holofernes, eneral of Nabuchodo- nosor, his efeat and death, 64, 65. Hulwan, river, ruins near, 262. I. India, trade of ancient Babylon with, 107, 108. Insects of Assyria and Mesopotamia, 373-376. Irak-Arabi, its fertility, 24. Vestiges of its former greatness, 110. Irrigation, system of artificial, in ancient Babylon, 31, 32, 37. Iskhuriah, ancient mounds and ruins, 151, 152. J. Jacobite Christians,169, 171. Schism, 321, 322. J erbah Arabs, 24. Jewar, mountains of, 25, 255. J ezirah, district of, 23. Town of, 240. J ezirah ul Omar, town of, 29. Jonah the prophet sent to the King of Nineveh, 46, 59, 61. Julian’s expedition to the East, 209 His deat , and disastrous retreat of the army, 211-213. K. Kadesia, on the Tigris, ruins of, 159. Karkisia, the ancient Circesium, 30. Kasr, an ancient ruin, 128, 138, 144. Kerbelah, city of, 284. Kerrend, pass of, 20. Khabour, river, the ancient Cha~ boras, 29, 30, 237. Khatuniyah, lake of, 237. Khezail Arabs, 24. Khoosroo Purveez, his victorous career, 214 ; opposed by Heraclius, 215, 216. His death, 217. Kirkook, town of, 242, 243. Korna, town of, 28, 29, 40. Kufri hills, geology of, 344. Kufri, town of, 243. Kurdistan, mountains of, 25, 342. Kurds, 23, 306-318. See Elliot, Mr, his sketches of the Arabs on the Euphrates. L. Lake, artificial, in Babylonia, 121. Lemlum marshes, 24, 38, 350. M. Madan Arabs, 292. Their houses and flocks of buffaloes, 293. Manasseh, king of Judah, carried in chains to Babylon, 70. Manichaaans, their history and doc- trines, 325, 326. Manufactures of the ancient Baby- lonians, 105. Mardin, town of, 223-226. Marshes of ancient Babylonia, 38. Masius, Mount, 22, 25, 29. Median wall, joining the Euphrates and the Tigris, 22, 156, 157. Mediyad, plain of, 240. Merodach Baladan king of Babylon, 46, 69, 70. Mesopotamia and Assyria, interest attached to their early history, 17, 18. Ancient boundaries and divi- sions, 20, 21-23. Modern divisions, 23. Inhabitants, ib. Soil and climate, 24, 25. Mountain-ranges, 25, 26. Rivers, 26-30. Mesopotamia and Assyria, subse- quent history of, 179-203. Ar- taxerxes and Cyrus, 180. Battle of Cunaxa and death of Cyrus, 382 INDEX. Ptolemy’s divisions of Assyria, 20. His account of ancient canals, 32. His canon, 46, 69. Afi'ords the only _| true chronology of the Babylonian ‘ em ire, 69. Pul, ' gof Assyria, 61, 100, 116. R. Ragau, battle of, 64. Rawlinson, Major, remarks on an- cient ruins by, 261, 262. Religion of the inhabitants of modern Mesopotamia and Assyria, 318- 332. Christian population, 318. Nestorians, Chaldeans, or Syrians, 319, 323. Early progress of Chris- tianity in the East, 319. Nestorian heresy, 320, 321. Jacobite schism, 321. Armenians and Roman Ca- tholics, 322. Sabseans, 323-325. Manichseans, 325. Yezidees, 326- 332. Ali Ullahis, 332. Rennell’s illustrations of the expedi- tion of Cyrus, 180, 181, 193. Rewandooz, state and chief of, 251- 255. Rich’s memoir on the ruins of Baby- lon, 113, 126-134. Description of the ruins of Nineveh , and residence in Kurdistan, 164-178, 250, 256- 260. His account of the Yezidees, 327, 328. Roomyah, marshes of, 33, 38. Rgogtum Ago, a Kurdish chief, 314- Ross, Dr, his journey to Samarra, and account of ancient ruins, 156- 158, 160, 242, 251, 252, 255. Roumkala, geology of, 339. Russell, Dr, his chronology of the Assyrian monarchy, 43, 44, 45, 51. S. Sabeans, their origin and tenets, 323-325. Samarra, ruins of, 156, 158, 159. Samosata, town of, 339. l Saosducheus, king of Assyria and ' ' Babylon, 64. Sarac, supposed Sardanapalus, last Assyrian monarch, 65. Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, 58, , 59, 65, 70. ‘ Scenite Arabs, 22, 106. Scriptural account of the Assyrian ‘ monarchy, 45, 46, 51, 60-62. Scrip- tural denunciations against Baby- lon, 79, 122. Seleucia, city of, 82, 83, 155. 5 Selim Aga, a Kurdish chief, 313, 314. l Seljuk dynasty, 267. Semiramis, the celebrated queen of Assyria, 53-56, 70, 106. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades grdea, 62. Destruction of his army , Sert, town of, 238, 239. Shahraban, antiquities near, 257. Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 61. Shapoor, exploits of, 208, 209-213. Sheil, Colonel, his journey to J ezirah ibn Omar, 239-242. Shiner, lains of, 18, 111, 113. Shut el rab, river, 30. Shut el H ye, valley and river, 38, 39. Sinjar, mountain-ranges of, 25, 112, 228, 338. District of , described, 233- 237. Sittace, ancient town of, 158, 186. Solymaneah, pashalic and town of, 247-251. Sook el Shiook, town of, 295. 802uthgate, Mr, his notice of Mosul, 32. Strabo’s divisions of Assyria, 20. His boundaries, 21. Account of Seleucia, 83. Susiana, marshes of, 36, 40. Syrian Christians, 319. T. Tamerlane, 268. Taurus, mountain-range of, 21, 25. Geology of, 335. Tecreet, town of, 160. Teredon, ancient city of, 106, 150. Thapsacus, ancient town of, on the Euphrates, 21, 181. Thonos Concolerus or Sardanapalus loses his throne and his life by Ar- baces and Belesis, 58, 59. Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, 61. Tigris, river, 29. Its tributaries, ib. Canals connected with, 35. J unc- tion with the Euphrates, 29. Scenery on its banks, 271, 272. Boats navigating],I 272, 273. Trajan overruns esopotamia and Assyria, 208. U. Umgeyer, ancient Babylonian re- mains, 148, 149. Ur of the Cbaldees, 95-97, 222. W. \Vaasut, town of, 38, 39, 155. \Vorkha, ruins of, 38, 149, 150. X. Xenophon's account of the retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks, 180-193. Xerxes destroys the temple of Belus, 82, 120. .- 4 EDINBURGH CABINET LIBRARY. No. II. NARRATIVE OF DISCOVERY AND ADVENTURE AFRICA FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME 2 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND ZOOLOGY. HUGH Mumu’r, F.R.S.E.; Paorxsson Jaunson; and James WILSON, F.R.S.E. 8: M.W. S. 'l'lllll EDITIUI, EILARGEII. lllli WWII!- No. III. VIEW OF ANCIENT AND MODERN EGYPT: WITH AN OUTLINE OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY. By the Right Rev. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D. THIRD EDITION. III! WWII. No. IV. PALESTINE, OR. THE 921119 31.an : FROM THE nannrnsr PERIOD TO THE racsnrrr TIME. By the Right Rev. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D. Fllllkl'll illlTlllll. BIIE V0111"!- In this volume the Author has presented at oncca Topographical Description of the Holy Land as it exists at present, and also a History of the wonderful people by whom it was anciently possessed; accomplishing thereby an object which has not been attempted by any former writer. It contains, besides, a View of the Political Constitution, the Antiquities, Literature, and Religion of the Hebrews, with an Account of their Principal Festivals, and the manner in which they were observed. It concludes with an Outlineofthe Natural History of Palestine, applied to the Illustration of the Sacred Writings, and more espe. cially of the Mosaical Law. 8 EDINBURGH CABINET LIBRARY. No. XII. NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA: COIH’RBHENDING THE!!! CIVIL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES, ARTS, RELIGION, LITERATURE AND NATURAL HISTORY. By the Right Rev. IlIICHAEL RnsssLL, LL.D. Sillllllll illlTlDI. DIE VOLUIIL In preparing this volume the Author has enjoyed considerable advantages. . Besides the recent works of Cailliaud, English, Linant, and Pearce, he has had access to several manuscript volumes, both of Travels and Letters ; and also to the portfolio of a scientific gentleman, who took Drawings of the principal Monuments of Nubia. Nos. XIII. XIV. ARABIA, - ANCIENT AND MODERN: CONTAINING A Description of the Country-an Account of its Inhabitants, Antiquities, Political Condition, and Early Commerce—the Life and Religion of Mohammad—the Conquests, Arts, and Literature of the Saracens—- the Caliphs of Damascus, Bagdud, Africa, and Spain—the Civil Government and Religious Ceremonies of the Modern Arabs_ Origin and Suppression of the Wahabees-the Institutions, Char- acter, Manners, and Customs of the Bedouins ; and a comprehensive View of its Natural History. By Annnsw CRICHTON, LLD. Sifillllll EDITION. "l0 VUUIIES- 4.» “""~{J'_..__- ,» e_,.,__, V," .7 I EDINBURGH CABINET LIBRARY. 9 No. XV. AN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT PERSIL FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME: WITH A DETAILED VIEW OF ITS RESOURCES, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION,NATURAL HISTORY, AND THE CHARACTER OF ITS INHABITANTS; Particularly of the Wandering Tribe: ; INCLUDING A DESCRIPTION 01' AFGHANISTAN AND BE LOOCHISTAN. By J. BAILLIE FRASER, Esq., Author of " Travels in Khorasan,” “ A Tour through the Himala," “ Mesopotamia and Assyria, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time," &C- SECOND EDITIUII. 011E Vlllllli. No. XVI. LIVES OF EMINENT ZOOLOGISTS FROM ARISTOTLE TO LINNxEUS INCLUSIVE 1 WITH m'rrwnocs'onv REMARKS ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY, AND OCCASIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROGRESS OF ZOOLOGY By W. MACGILLIVIIAY, A.M., 840. (ill! V0111"!- J'l-o‘ ..I ~'\.-. EDINBURGH CABINET LIBRARY. No. XXI. AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE, AND OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, FROM THE VOYAGE 0F MAGELLAN TO THE DEATH OF COOK. SEMIII Elll'l'llll. OI! VDLIIIE. This volume exhibits the History of Maritime Enterprise in one of the most interesting Regions of the \Vorld, during a period of more than two centuries and a half. It contains, besides many others, Narratives of the Voyages and iAdventures of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the discoverer of the South Sea— Magellan—Quiros—Schouten and Le Maire—Tasman-Commodore Anson— Byron—Wallis-Carteret, and Bougainville. The Account of Captain Cook’s Voyages is ample and comprehensive, and is very fully illustrated from_the Works of recent English and French Navigators; and in the Memoir of his Life is embodied some valuable information, for which the Publishers are in- debted to the Relatives of his Family. The achievements of three British Circumnavigators—Drake, Cavendish, and Dampier-seemed to deserve a more minute description than was com. patible with the design of this work, and the Fifth Number of the EDINBURGH Canmn'r LIBRARY was accordingly devoted to an Account of their Lives and Actions. . I4 EDINBURGH CABINET LIBRARY. transmitted full and recent statistical details relative to that colony. Respecting Prince Edward Island, very useful materials were supplied by Mr Stewart, a gentleman. deeply concerned there both as proprietor and manager. To Mr Bruyeres and other distinguished persons connected with the Land Companies, the Author is indebted for several important communications. From other sources of high authority, which cannot here be fully particularized, valuable information, otherwise inaccessible, has been obtained. Emigration, the most important light under which British America can be viewed, will be found to have occupied a very prominent place in the writer’s researches. He has endeavoured to supply the intending settler with more comprehensive and precise details than have hitherto been collected. The pros- pects which will open to the emigrant, the course which he ought to pursue, the difficulties to be encountered, and the best means of overcoming them, have been considered at full length. In subservience to this object, a very minute account has been given of the different districts, their situation, climate, and soil, in connexion with their natural and aciiuired advantages of every description. The branches of Natural History, Zoology, Botany, and Geology, have been very carefully illustrated by Mr Wilson, Dr Greville, and Professor Train,- gentlemen whose names afl‘ord a sufficient guarantee for the value and accuracy of their information. To illustrate these' various subjects the utmost care has been taken to prepare a series of maps exhibiting at once the general geography of British America and its most important localities. One, on a large scale, comprehends all the provinces already occupied, while four of smaller dimensions show the topo- graphy of those districts which are best adapted for settlement. Various divi- sions and towns that have recently sprung up, and could not be included in any former map, have been carefully marked. To the Third Volume is annexed a delineation of the whole of the Northern and Western Regions which form the theatre of the fur trade, and of those recent expeditions which had for their object an extended knowledge of the remote shores and neighbouring seas. No. XXVIII. AN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT ICELAND, GREENLAND, THE FAROE ISLANDS; wr'rrr ILLUSTRATIONS OF THEIR NATURAL HISTORY.- Ill! VOLUME. HwHU it