Social Darwinism - Wikipedia Social Darwinism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Biological concepts of natural selection & survival fitness re-imagined socio-politically Part of a series on Discrimination General forms Age Class (Caste) Physical Disability Education Economic Employment Genetics Hair texture Height Housing Language Looks Race / Ethnicity / Nationality Rank Religion Sanity Sex Sexual orientation Size Skin color Specific forms   Social Acephobia Adultism Amatonormativity Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Antisemitism (Judeophobia) Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Cronyism Drug use Elitism Ephebiphobia Fatism Gerontophobia Heteronormativity Heterosexism HIV/AIDS stigma Homophobia Leprosy stigma Lesbophobia Misandry Misogyny Nepotism Pedophobia Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Reverse Sectarianism Supremacism Black White Transphobia Non-binary Transmisogyny 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Keith Thompson Joseph Tommasi Terry Tremaine John Tyndall Jack van Tongeren Russell Veh Varg Vikernes Martin Webster Jeff Weise Bill White Christian Worch Francis Parker Yockey Ernst Zündel History Operation Condor 1963 Guatemalan coup d'etat 1967 Greek coup d'etat Borghese coup Piazza Fontana bombing Neo-Nazism in America 2011 Norway attacks Unite the Right rally Unite the Right 2 Christchurch mosque shootings Poway synagogue shooting Related topics Far-right politics Right-wing populism British Fascism Italian Fascism Ku Klux Klan Nazi punk National Socialist black metal Political Soldier White power music White power skinhead Third Position Alt-right Radical right  Politics portal v t e Social Darwinism refers to various theories that emerged in Western Europe and North America in the 1870s that applied biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology, economics, and politics.[1][2] Social Darwinism posits that the strong see their wealth and power increase while the weak see their wealth and power decrease. Various social Darwinist schools of thought differ on which groups of people are the strong and which are the weak, and also differ on the precise mechanisms that reward strength and punish weakness. Many such views stress competition between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism, while others support authoritarianism, eugenics, racism, imperialism, fascism, Falangism, Nazism, and struggle between national or racial groups.[3][4][5] Social Darwinism declined in popularity as a purportedly scientific concept following the First World War, and was largely discredited by the end of the Second World War—partially due to its association with Nazism and partially due to a growing scientific consensus that it was scientifically groundless.[6][7] Later theories that were categorized as social Darwinism were generally described as such as a critique by their opponents; their proponents did not identify themselves by such a label.[8][7] Creationists have frequently maintained that social Darwinism—leading to policies designed to reward the most competitive—is a logical consequence of "Darwinism" (the theory of natural selection in biology).[9] Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy of appeal to nature, since the theory of natural selection is merely intended as a description of a biological phenomenon and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon is good or that it ought to be used as a moral guide in human society.[10] While most scholars recognize some historical links between the popularisation of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, they also maintain that social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution. Scholars debate the extent to which the various social Darwinist ideologies reflect Charles Darwin's own views on human social and economic issues. His writings have passages that can be interpreted as opposing aggressive individualism, while other passages appear to promote it.[11] Darwin's early evolutionary views and his opposition to slavery ran counter to many of the claims that social Darwinists would eventually make about the mental capabilities of the poor and colonial indigenes.[12] After the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, one strand of Darwins' followers, led by Sir John Lubbock, argued that natural selection ceased to have any noticeable effect on humans once organised societies had been formed.[13] However, some scholars argue that Darwin's view gradually changed and came to incorporate views from other theorists such as Herbert Spencer.[14] Spencer published[15] his Lamarckian evolutionary ideas about society before Darwin first published his hypothesis in 1859, and both Spencer and Darwin promoted their own conceptions of moral values. Spencer supported laissez-faire capitalism on the basis of his Lamarckian belief that struggle for survival spurred self-improvement which could be inherited.[16] An important proponent in Germany was Ernst Haeckel, who popularized Darwin's thought and his personal interpretation of it, and used it as well to contribute to a new creed, the monist movement. Contents 1 Origin of the term 1.1 Usage 2 Proponents 3 Hypotheses relating social change and evolution 4 Nazi Germany 5 Other regional distributions 5.1 United States 5.2 Japan 5.3 China 5.4 Germany 6 Criticism and controversy 6.1 Multiple incompatible definitions 6.2 Nazism, eugenics, fascism, imperialism 6.3 Peter Kropotkin and mutual aid 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 External links Origin of the term[edit] The term Darwinism was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in his March 1861 review of On the Origin of Species,[17] and by the 1870s it was used to describe a range of concepts of evolution or development, without any specific commitment to Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection.[18] The phrase "social Darwinism" first appeared in Joseph Fisher's 1877 article on The History of Landholding in Ireland, which was published in the Transactions of the Royal Historical Society.[19] Fisher was commenting on how a system for borrowing livestock called "tenure" had led to the false impression that the early Irish had already evolved or developed land tenure;[20] These arrangements did not in any way affect that which we understand by the word " tenure", that is, a man's farm, but they related solely to cattle, which we consider a chattel. It has appeared necessary to devote some space to this subject, inasmuch as that usually acute writer Sir Henry Maine has accepted the word " tenure " in its modern interpretation and has built up a theory under which the Irish chief " developed " into a feudal baron. I can find nothing in the Brehon laws to warrant this theory of social Darwinism, and believe the further study will show that the Cáin Saerrath and the Cáin Aigillne relate solely to what we now call chattels, and did not in any way affect what we now call the freehold, the possession of the land. — Joseph Fisher[20] Despite the fact that Social Darwinism bears Charles Darwin's name, it is also linked today with others, notably Herbert Spencer, Thomas Malthus, and Francis Galton, the founder of eugenics. In fact, Spencer was not described as a social Darwinist until the 1930s, long after his death.[21] The social Darwinism term first appeared in Europe in 1880, and journalist Emilie Gautier had coined the term with reference to a health conference in Berlin 1877.[19] Around 1900 it was used by sociologists, some being opposed to the concept.[22] The American historian Richard Hofstadter popularized the term in the United States in 1944. He used it in the ideological war effort against fascism to denote a reactionary creed that promoted competitive strife, racism, and chauvinism. Hofstadter later also recognized (what he saw as) the influence of Darwinist and other evolutionary ideas upon those with collectivist views, enough to devise a term for the phenomenon, Darwinist collectivism.[5] Before Hofstadter's work the use of the term "social Darwinism" in English academic journals was quite rare.[23] In fact, ... there is considerable evidence that the entire concept of "social Darwinism" as we know it today was virtually invented by Richard Hofstadter. Eric Foner, in an introduction to a then-new edition of Hofstadter's book published in the early 1990s, declines to go quite that far. "Hofstadter did not invent the term Social Darwinism", Foner writes, "which originated in Europe in the 1860s and crossed the Atlantic in the early twentieth century. But before he wrote, it was used only on rare occasions; he made it a standard shorthand for a complex of late-nineteenth-century ideas, a familiar part of the lexicon of social thought." — Jeff Riggenbach[1] Usage[edit] Social Darwinism has many definitions, and some of them are incompatible with each other. As such, social Darwinism has been criticized for being an inconsistent philosophy, which does not lead to any clear political conclusions. For example, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics states: Part of the difficulty in establishing sensible and consistent usage is that commitment to the biology of natural selection and to 'survival of the fittest' entailed nothing uniform either for sociological method or for political doctrine. A 'social Darwinist' could just as well be a defender of laissez-faire as a defender of state socialism, just as much an imperialist as a domestic eugenist.[24] The term "social Darwinism" has rarely been used by advocates of the supposed ideologies or ideas; instead it has almost always been used pejoratively by its opponents.[8] The term draws upon the common meaning of Darwinism, which includes a range of evolutionary views, but in the late 19th century was applied more specifically to natural selection as first advanced by Charles Darwin to explain speciation in populations of organisms. The process includes competition between individuals for limited resources, popularly but inaccurately described by the phrase "survival of the fittest", a term coined by sociologist Herbert Spencer. Creationists have often maintained that social Darwinism—leading to policies designed to reward the most competitive—is a logical consequence of "Darwinism" (the theory of natural selection in biology).[9] Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy of appeal to nature and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon ought to be used as a moral guide in human society.[10] While there are historical links between the popularization of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution. While the term has been applied to the claim that Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection can be used to understand the social endurance of a nation or country, social Darwinism commonly refers to ideas that predate Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species. Others whose ideas are given the label include the 18th century clergyman Thomas Malthus, and Darwin's cousin Francis Galton who founded eugenics towards the end of the 19th century. The expansion of the British Empire fitted in with the broader notion of social Darwinism used from the 1870s onwards to account for the remarkable and universal phenomenon of "the Anglo-Saxon overflowing his boundaries", as phrased by the late-Victorian sociologist Benjamin Kidd in Social Evolution, published in 1894.[25] The concept also proved useful to justify what was seen by some as the inevitable extermination of "the weaker races who disappear before the stronger" not so much "through the effects of … our vices upon them" as "what may be called the virtues of our civilisation." Winston Churchill, a political proponent of eugenics, maintained that if fewer ‘feebleminded’ individuals were born, less crime would take place.[26] Proponents[edit] Herbert Spencer Herbert Spencer's ideas, like those of evolutionary progressivism, stemmed from his reading of Thomas Malthus, and his later theories were influenced by those of Darwin. However, Spencer's major work, Progress: Its Law and Cause (1857), was released two years before the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, and First Principles was printed in 1860. In The Social Organism (1860), Spencer compares society to a living organism and argues that, just as biological organisms evolve through natural selection, society evolves and increases in complexity through analogous processes.[27] In many ways, Spencer's theory of cosmic evolution has much more in common with the works of Lamarck and Auguste Comte's positivism than with Darwin's. Jeff Riggenbach argues that Spencer's view was that culture and education made a sort of Lamarckism possible[1] and notes that Herbert Spencer was a proponent of private charity.[1] However, the legacy of his social Darwinism was less than charitable.[28] Thomas Malthus Spencer's work also served to renew interest in the work of Malthus. While Malthus's work does not itself qualify as social Darwinism, his 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population, was incredibly popular and widely read by social Darwinists. In that book, for example, the author argued that as an increasing population would normally outgrow its food supply, this would result in the starvation of the weakest and a Malthusian catastrophe. According to Michael Ruse, Darwin read Malthus' famous Essay on a Principle of Population in 1838, four years after Malthus' death. Malthus himself anticipated the social Darwinists in suggesting that charity could exacerbate social problems. Another of these social interpretations of Darwin's biological views, later known as eugenics, was put forth by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, in 1865 and 1869. Galton argued that just as physical traits were clearly inherited among generations of people, the same could be said for mental qualities (genius and talent). Galton argued that social morals needed to change so that heredity was a conscious decision, to avoid both the over-breeding by less fit members of society and the under-breeding of the more fit ones. Francis Galton In Galton's view, social institutions such as welfare and insane asylums were allowing inferior humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors". Darwin read his cousin's work with interest, and devoted sections of Descent of Man to discussion of Galton's theories. Neither Galton nor Darwin, though, advocated any eugenic policies restricting reproduction, due to their Whiggish distrust of government.[29] Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy addressed the question of artificial selection, yet Nietzsche's principles did not concur with Darwinian theories of natural selection. Nietzsche's point of view on sickness and health, in particular, opposed him to the concept of biological adaptation as forged by Spencer's "fitness". Nietzsche criticized Haeckel, Spencer, and Darwin, sometimes under the same banner by maintaining that in specific cases, sickness was necessary and even helpful.[30] Thus, he wrote: Wherever progress is to ensue, deviating natures are of greatest importance. Every progress of the whole must be preceded by a partial weakening. The strongest natures retain the type, the weaker ones help to advance it. Something similar also happens in the individual. There is rarely a degeneration, a truncation, or even a vice or any physical or moral loss without an advantage somewhere else. In a warlike and restless clan, for example, the sicklier man may have occasion to be alone, and may therefore become quieter and wiser; the one-eyed man will have one eye the stronger; the blind man will see deeper inwardly, and certainly hear better. To this extent, the famous theory of the survival of the fittest does not seem to me to be the only viewpoint from which to explain the progress of strengthening of a man or of a race.[31] Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory was not Darwinism, but rather attempted to combine the ideas of Goethe, Lamarck and Darwin. It was adopted by emerging social sciences to support the concept that non-European societies were "primitive", in an early stage of development towards the European ideal, but since then it has been heavily refuted on many fronts.[32] Haeckel's works led to the formation of the Monist League in 1904 with many prominent citizens among its members, including the Nobel Prize winner Wilhelm Ostwald. The simpler aspects of social Darwinism followed the earlier Malthusian ideas that humans, especially males, require competition in their lives to survive. Further, the poor should have to provide for themselves and not be given any aid. However, amidst this climate, most social Darwinists of the early twentieth century actually supported better working conditions and salaries. Such measures would grant the poor a better chance to provide for themselves yet still distinguish those who are capable of succeeding from those who are poor out of laziness, weakness, or inferiority.[citation needed] Hypotheses relating social change and evolution[edit] Further information: Social evolution "Social Darwinism" was first described by Eduard Oscar Schmidt of the University of Strasbourg, reporting at a scientific and medical conference held in Munich in 1877. He noted how socialists, although opponents of Darwin's theory, used it to add force to their political arguments. Schmidt's essay first appeared in English in Popular Science in March 1879.[33] There followed an anarchist tract published in Paris in 1880 entitled "Le darwinisme social" by Émile Gautier. However, the use of the term was very rare—at least in the English-speaking world (Hodgson, 2004)[34]—until the American historian Richard Hofstadter published his influential Social Darwinism in American Thought (1944) during World War II. Hypotheses of social evolution and cultural evolution were common in Europe. The Enlightenment thinkers who preceded Darwin, such as Hegel, often argued that societies progressed through stages of increasing development. Earlier thinkers also emphasized conflict as an inherent feature of social life. Thomas Hobbes's 17th century portrayal of the state of nature seems analogous to the competition for natural resources described by Darwin. Social Darwinism is distinct from other theories of social change because of the way it draws Darwin's distinctive ideas from the field of biology into social studies. Darwin, unlike Hobbes, believed that this struggle for natural resources allowed individuals with certain physical and mental traits to succeed more frequently than others, and that these traits accumulated in the population over time, which under certain conditions could lead to the descendants being so different that they would be defined as a new species. However, Darwin felt that "social instincts" such as "sympathy" and "moral sentiments" also evolved through natural selection, and that these resulted in the strengthening of societies in which they occurred, so much so that he wrote about it in Descent of Man: The following proposition seems to me in a high degree probable—namely, that any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or nearly as well developed, as in man. For, firstly, the social instincts lead an animal to take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a certain amount of sympathy with them, and to perform various services for them.[35] Nazi Germany[edit] Alfred Rosenberg Nazi Germany's justification for its aggression was regularly promoted in Nazi propaganda films depicting scenes such as beetles fighting in a lab setting to demonstrate the principles of "survival of the fittest" as depicted in Alles Leben ist Kampf (English translation: All Life is Struggle). Hitler often refused to intervene in the promotion of officers and staff members, preferring instead to have them fight amongst themselves to force the "stronger" person to prevail—"strength" referring to those social forces void of virtue or principle.[36] Key proponents were Alfred Rosenberg, who was hanged later at Nuremberg. Such ideas also helped to advance euthanasia in Germany, especially Action T4, which led to the murder of mentally ill and disabled people in Germany.[37] The argument that Nazi ideology was strongly influenced by social Darwinist ideas is often found in historical and social science literature.[38] For example, the philosopher and historian Hannah Arendt analysed the historical development from a politically indifferent scientific Darwinism via social Darwinist ethics to racist ideology.[39] By 1985, creationists were taking up the argument that Nazi ideology was directly influenced by Darwinian evolutionary theory.[40] Such claims have been presented by creationists such as Jonathan Sarfati.[41][42] Intelligent design creationism supporters have promoted this position as well. For example, it is a theme in the work of Richard Weikart, who is a historian at California State University, Stanislaus, and a senior fellow for the Center for Science and Culture of the Discovery Institute.[43][better source needed] It is also a main argument in the 2008 intelligent-design/creationist movie Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed. These claims are widely criticized.[44][45][46][47][48][49] The Anti-Defamation League has rejected such attempts to link Darwin's ideas with Nazi atrocities, and has stated that "Using the Holocaust in order to tarnish those who promote the theory of evolution is outrageous and trivializes the complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry."[50][51] Robert J. Richards describes the link as a myth that ignores far more obvious causes of Nazism - including the "pervasive anti-Semitic miasma created by Christian apologists" - and dismisses efforts to tie Darwin to Nazism as "crude lever" used by religious fundamentalists to try and reduce public support for Darwin's theories.[52] Similar criticisms are sometimes applied (or misapplied) to other political or scientific theories that resemble social Darwinism, for example criticisms leveled at evolutionary psychology. For example, a critical reviewer of Weikart's book writes that "(h)is historicization of the moral framework of evolutionary theory poses key issues for those in sociobiology and evolutionary psychology, not to mention bioethicists, who have recycled many of the suppositions that Weikart has traced."[47] Another example is recent scholarship that portrays Ernst Haeckel's Monist League as a mystical progenitor of the Völkisch movement and, ultimately, of the Nazi Party of Adolf Hitler. Scholars opposed to this interpretation, however, have pointed out that the Monists were freethinkers who opposed all forms of mysticism, and that their organizations were immediately banned following the Nazi takeover in 1933 because of their association with a wide variety of causes including feminism, pacifism, human rights, and early gay rights movements.[53] Other regional distributions[edit] United States[edit] It was during the Gilded Age that social Darwinism festered most in American society, predominantly through the rationale of the late 19th-century industrial titans, such as John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie.[54] Nationwide monopolists of this type applied Darwin's theory, namely the concept of natural selection, to explain corporate dominance in their respective fields and thus justify their exorbitant accumulations of wealth.[55] Rockefeller, for example, proclaimed: "The growth of a large business is merely a survival of the fittest...the working out of a law of nature and a law of God."[56] Robert Bork backed this notion of inherent characteristics being the sole determinant of survival, in the business-operations context, when he said: "In America, the rich are overwhelmingly people – entrepreneurs, small-business men, corporate executives, doctors, lawyers, etc. – who have gained their higher incomes through intelligence, imagination, and hard work."[57] Moreover, William Graham Sumner lauded this same cohort of magnates, and further extended the theory of 'corporate Darwinism'. Sumner argued that societal progress depended on the "fittest families" passing down wealth and genetic traits to their offspring, thus allegedly creating a lineage of superior citizens.[54] However, contemporary social scientists repudiate such claims, and demand that economic status be considered not a direct function of one's inborn traits and moral worth.[55] In 1883, Sumner published a highly influential pamphlet entitled "What Social Classes Owe to Each Other", in which he insisted that the social classes owe each other nothing, synthesizing Darwin's findings with free enterprise capitalism for his justification.[citation needed] According to Sumner, those who feel an obligation to provide assistance to those unequipped or under-equipped to compete for resources, will lead to a country in which the weak and inferior are encouraged to breed more like them, eventually dragging the country down. Sumner also believed that the best equipped to win the struggle for existence was the American businessman, and concluded that taxes and regulations serve as dangers to his survival. This pamphlet makes no mention of Darwinism, and only refers to Darwin in a statement on the meaning of liberty, that "There never has been any man, from the primitive barbarian up to a Humboldt or a Darwin, who could do as he had a mind to."[58] Sumner never fully embraced Darwinian ideas, and some contemporary historians do not believe that Sumner ever actually believed in social Darwinism.[59] The great majority of American businessmen rejected the anti-philanthropic implications of the theory. Instead they gave millions to build schools, colleges, hospitals, art institutes, parks and many other institutions. Andrew Carnegie, who admired Spencer, was the leading philanthropist in the world (1890–1920), and a major leader against imperialism and warfare.[60] H. G. Wells was heavily influenced by Darwinist thoughts, and novelist Jack London wrote stories of survival that incorporated his views on social Darwinism.[61] Film director Stanley Kubrick has been described as having held social Darwinist opinions.[62] Japan[edit] See also: Eugenics in Japan Social Darwinism has influenced political, public health and social movements in Japan since the late 19th and early 20th century. Social Darwinism was originally brought to Japan through the works of Francis Galton and Ernst Haeckel as well as United States, British and French Lamarckian eugenic written studies of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[63] Eugenism as a science was hotly debated at the beginning of the 20th century, in Jinsei-Der Mensch, the first eugenics journal in the empire. As Japan sought to close ranks with the west, this practice was adopted wholesale along with colonialism and its justifications. China[edit] Social Darwinism was formally introduced to China through the translation by Yan Fu of Huxley's Evolution and Ethics, in the course of an extensive series of translations of influential Western thought.[64] Yan's translation strongly impacted Chinese scholars because he added national elements not found in the original. Yan Fu criticized Huxley from the perspective of Spencerian social Darwinism in his own annotations to the translation.[65] He understood Spencer's sociology as "not merely analytical and descriptive, but prescriptive as well", and saw Spencer building on Darwin, whom Yan summarized thus: Peoples and living things struggle for survival. At first, species struggle with species; they as [people] gradually progress, there is a struggle between one social group and another. The weak invariably become the prey of the strong, the stupid invariably become subservient to the clever."[66] By the 1920s, social Darwinism found expression in the promotion of eugenics by the Chinese sociologist Pan Guangdan. When Chiang Kai-shek started the New Life movement in 1934, he . . . harked back to theories of Social Darwinism, writing that "only those who readapt themselves to new conditions, day by day, can live properly. When the life of a people is going through this process of readaptation, it has to remedy its own defects, and get rid of those elements which become useless. Then we call it new life."[67] Germany[edit] In the 1860s and 1870s, social Darwinism began to take shape in interaction between Charles Darwin and his German advocates, namely August Schleicher, Max Müller and Ernst Haeckel. Evolutionary linguistics was taken as a platform to construe a Darwinian theory of mankind. Since it was thought at the time that the orangutan and human brain were roughly the same size, Darwin and his colleagues suspected that only the invention of language could account for differentiation between humans and other Great Apes. It was suggested that the evolution of language and the mind must go hand in hand. From this perspective, empirical evidence from languages from around the world was interpreted by Haeckel as supporting the idea that nations, despite having rather similar physiology, represented such distinct lines of 'evolution' that mankind should be divided into nine different species. Haeckel constructed an evolutionary and intellectual hierarchy of such species.[68] In a similar vein, Schleicher regarded languages as different species and sub-species, adopting Darwin's concept of selection through competition to the study of the history and spread of nations.[69] Some of their ideas, including the concept of living space were adopted to the Nazi ideology after their deaths.[68] Social evolution theories in Germany gained large popularity in the 1860s and had a strong antiestablishment connotation first. Social Darwinism allowed people to counter the connection of Thron und Altar, the intertwined establishment of clergy and nobility, and provided as well the idea of progressive change and evolution of society as a whole. Ernst Haeckel propagated both Darwinism as a part of natural history and as a suitable base for a modern Weltanschauung, a world view based on scientific reasoning in his Monist League. Friedrich von Hellwald had a strong role in popularizing it in Austria. Darwin's work served as a catalyst to popularize evolutionary thinking.[70] A sort of aristocratic turn, the use of the struggle for life as a base of social Darwinism sensu stricto came up after 1900 with Alexander Tille's 1895 work Entwicklungsethik (Ethics of Evolution), which asked to move from Darwin till Nietzsche. Further interpretations moved to ideologies propagating a racist and hierarchical society and provided ground for the later radical versions of social Darwinism.[70] Social Darwinism came to play a major role in the ideology of Nazism, which combined it with a similarly pseudo-scientific theory of racial hierarchy to identify the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race.[71] Nazi social Darwinist beliefs led them to retain business competition and private property as economic engines.[72][73] Nazism likewise opposed social welfare based on a social Darwinist belief that the weak and feeble should perish.[74] This association with Nazism, coupled with increasing recognition that it was scientifically unfounded, contributed to the broader rejection social Darwinism after the end of World War II.[6][7] Criticism and controversy[edit] Multiple incompatible definitions[edit] Social Darwinism has many definitions, and some of them are incompatible with each other. As such, social Darwinism has been criticized for being an inconsistent philosophy, which does not lead to any clear political conclusions. For example, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics states: Part of the difficulty in establishing sensible and consistent usage is that commitment to the biology of natural selection and to 'survival of the fittest' entailed nothing uniform either for sociological method or for political doctrine. A 'social Darwinist' could just as well be a defender of laissez-faire as a defender of state socialism, just as much an imperialist as a domestic eugenist.[75] Nazism, eugenics, fascism, imperialism[edit] Social Darwinism was predominantly found in laissez-faire societies where the prevailing view was that of an individualist order to society. A different form of social Darwinism was part of the ideological foundations of Nazism and other fascist movements. This form did not envision survival of the fittest within an individualist order of society, but rather advocated a type of racial and national struggle where the state directed human breeding through eugenics.[76] Names such as "Darwinian collectivism" or "Reform Darwinism" have been suggested to describe these views to differentiate them from the individualist type of social Darwinism.[5] As mentioned above, social Darwinism has often been linked to nationalism and imperialism.[77] During the age of New Imperialism, the concepts of evolution justified the exploitation of "lesser breeds without the law" by "superior races".[77] To elitists, strong nations were composed of white people who were successful at expanding their empires, and as such, these strong nations would survive in the struggle for dominance.[77] With this attitude, Europeans, except for Christian missionaries, seldom adopted the customs and languages of local people under their empires.[77] Peter Kropotkin and mutual aid[edit] Peter Kropotkin argued in his 1902 book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution that Darwin did not define the fittest as the strongest, or most clever, but recognized that the fittest could be those who cooperated with each other. In many animal societies, "struggle is replaced by co-operation". It may be that at the outset Darwin himself was not fully aware of the generality of the factor which he first invoked for explaining one series only of facts relative to the accumulation of individual variations in incipient species. But he foresaw that the term [evolution] which he was introducing into science would lose its philosophical and its only true meaning if it were to be used in its narrow sense only—that of a struggle between separate individuals for the sheer means of existence. And at the very beginning of his memorable work he insisted upon the term being taken in its "large and metaphorical sense including dependence of one being on another, and including (which is more important) not only the life of the individual, but success in leaving progeny." [Quoting Origin of Species, chap. iii, p. 62 of first edition.] While he himself was chiefly using the term in its narrow sense for his own special purpose, he warned his followers against committing the error (which he seems once to have committed himself) of overrating its narrow meaning. In The Descent of Man he gave some powerful pages to illustrate its proper, wide sense. He pointed out how, in numberless animal societies, the struggle between separate individuals for the means of existence disappears, how struggle is replaced by co-operation, and how that substitution results in the development of intellectual and moral faculties which secure to the species the best conditions for survival. He intimated that in such cases the fittest are not the physically strongest, nor the cunningest, but those who learn to combine so as mutually to support each other, strong and weak alike, for the welfare of the community. "Those communities", he wrote, "which included the greatest number of the most sympathetic members would flourish best, and rear the greatest number of offspring" (2nd edit., p. 163). The term, which originated from the narrow Malthusian conception of competition between each and all, thus lost its narrowness in the mind of one who knew Nature.[78] Noam Chomsky discussed briefly Kropotkin's views in an 8 July 2011 YouTube video from Renegade Economist, in which he said Kropotkin argued ... the exact opposite [of social Darwinism]. He argued that on Darwinian grounds, you would expect cooperation and mutual aid to develop leading towards community, workers' control and so on. Well, you know, he didn't prove his point. It's at least as well argued as Herbert Spencer is ...[79] See also[edit] Biodiversity Cultural elitism Cultural evolution Cultural selection theory Evolutionary linguistics Environmental racism Hierarchy Meritocracy Scientific racism Social ecology Social implications of the theory of evolution Social progress Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology Supremacism Titan (mythology) Transhumanism Universal Darwinism References[edit] Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) ^ a b c d Riggenbach, Jeff (2011-04-24) The Real William Graham Sumner, Mises Institute ^ Williams, Raymond (2000). "Social Darwinism". In John Offer (ed.). Herbert Spencer: Critical Assessment. London ; New York: Routledge. pp. 186–199. ISBN 9780415181846. ^ Gregory Claeys (2000). The "Survival of the Fittest" and the Origins of Social Darwinism. Journal of the History of Ideas 61 (2):223-240. ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 298–299 ^ a b c Leonard, Thomas C. (2009) Origins of the Myth of Social Darwinism: The Ambiguous Legacy of Richard Hofstadter's Social Darwinism in American Thought Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 71, p.37–51 ^ a b "Social Darwinism". History.com. Retrieved 31 May 2019. ^ a b c Bannister, Robert C. (2000). "Social Darwinism". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2000. ^ a b Hodgson 2004, pp. 428–430 ^ a b Paul, Diane B. in Gregory Radick (5 March 2009). The Cambridge Companion to Darwin. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–20. ISBN 978-0-521-71184-5. Like many foes of Darwinism, past and present, the American populist and creationist William Jennings Bryan thought a straight line ran from Darwin's theory ('a dogma of darkness and death') to beliefs that it is right for the strong to crowd out the weak ^ a b Sailer, Steve (30 October 2002). "Q&A: Steven Pinker of 'Blank Slate'". UPI. Archived from the original on 5 December 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2015. ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 300–01 ^ Adrian Desmond and, James Richard Moore (2009). Darwin's Sacred Cause: How a Hatred of Slavery Shaped Darwin's Views on Human Evolution. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2017). "The Politics of Cognition: Liberalism and the Evolutionary Origins of Victorian Education". British Journal for the History of Science. 50 (4): 677–699. doi:10.1017/S0007087417000863. PMID 29019300. ^ Claeys, Gregory (2000). "The 'Survival of the Fittest' and the Origins of Social Darwinism". Journal of the History of Ideas. 61 (2): 223–40. doi:10.1353/jhi.2000.0014. S2CID 146267804. ^ Spencer, Herbert (1852). "4"A Theory of Population, Deduced from the General Law of Human Fertility". Westminster Review. 57: 468–501. ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 301–02 ^ Huxley, T.H. (April 1860). "ART. VIII. – Darwin on the origin of Species". Westminster Review. pp. 541–70. Retrieved 19 June 2008. What if the orbit of Darwinism should be a little too circular? ^ Bowler 2003, p. 179 ^ a b Fisher, Joseph (1877). "The History of Landholding in Ireland". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. V: 228–326. doi:10.2307/3677953. JSTOR 3677953., as quoted in the Oxford English Dictionary ^ a b Fisher 1877, pp. 249–50 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFisher1877 (help) ^ Hodgson ^ Ward, Lester F (1907). "Social Darwinism". American Journal of Sociology. 12: 709–10. doi:10.1086/211544. ^ Hodgson 2004, pp. 445–46 ^ McLean, Iain (2009). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford University: Oxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 9780199207800. ^ Benjamin Kidd, Social Evolution, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2007, 400 pages, ISBN 978-0548805237, p. 47. ^ King, D. (1999). In the name of liberalism: illiberal social policy in Britain and the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press). ^ Spencer, Herbert. 1860. 'The Social Organism', originally published in The Westminster Review. Reprinted in Spencer's (1892) Essays: Scientific, Political and Speculative. London and New York. ^ Paul, Diane B. (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Darwin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-521-77197-9. ^ Paul, Diane (2006). "Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics" (PDF). In Hodge, Jonathan; Radick, Gregory (eds.). The Cambridge companion to Darwin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ISBN 9780511998690. ^ Barbara Stiegler, Nietzsche et la biologie, PUF, 2001, p. 90. ISBN 2-13-050742-5. See, for ex., Genealogy of Morals, III, 13 here [1] ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, §224 ^ Scott F. Gilbert (2006). "Ernst Haeckel and the Biogenetic Law". Developmental Biology, 8th edition. Sinauer Associates. Archived from the original on 3 February 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008. Eventually, the Biogenetic Law had become scientifically untenable. ^ Schmidt, Oscar; J. Fitzgerald (translator) (March 1879). "Science and Socialism". Popular Science Monthly. 14: 577–91. ISSN 0161-7370. Darwinism is the scientific establishment of inequality ^ but see Wells, D. Collin (1907). "Social Darwinism". American Journal of Sociology. 12 (5): 695–716. doi:10.1086/211544. JSTOR 2762378. ^ Descent of Man, chapter 4 ISBN 1-57392-176-9 ^ cf. 1997 BBC documentary: "The Nazis: A Warning from History" ^ "T4 Program | Definition and History". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2020. ^ E.g. Weingart, P., J. Kroll, and K. Bayertz, Rasse, Blut, und Gene. Geschichte der Eugenik und Rassenhygiene in Deutschland (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1988). ^ Arendt, H.: Elements of Totalitarianism, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: New York 1951. pp. 178–179 ^ "CA002.1: Social Darwinism". TalkOrigins Archive. 26 September 2003. Retrieved 25 April 2012. ^ Jonathan Sarfati (2002) "Nazis planned to exterminate Christianity" Creation 24:3 p27ff. ^ Jonathan Sarfati (1999) "The Holocaust and evolution" Creation 22:1 p4ff. ^ Weikart, Richard (10 October 2004). "Senior Fellow Richard Weikart responds to Sander Gliboff". Center for Science and Culture. Retrieved 17 May 2008. ^ Zimmerman, Andrew (April 2005). "Richard Weikart. From Darwin to Hitler". The American Historical Review. American Historical Review. 110 (2): 566–567. doi:10.1086/531468. ^ Roll-Hansen, Nils (December 2005). "Richard Weikart: From Darwin to Hitler". 96 (4). Isis. pp. 669–671. doi:10.1086/501405. ^ Gliboff, Sander (September 2004). "Review: Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler". H-German. Retrieved 17 May 2007. ^ a b Judaken, Jonathan (June 2005). "Review: Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler". H-Ideas. Retrieved 17 May 2007. ^ Taylor Allen, Ann (March 2006). "Book Review of From Darwin to Hitler". The Journal of Modern History. pp. 255–257. doi:10.1086/502761. ^ Avalos, Hector (2007). "Creationists for Genocide". Talk Reason. Retrieved 17 May 2007. ^ "ADL chimes in on Stein's anti-evolution film". 30 April 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2019. ^ Pallen, Mark (1 September 2011). The Rough Guide to Evolution. Rough Guides UK. ISBN 978-1-4093-5855-8 – via Google Books. ^ Richards, Robert J (2009). "That Darwin and Haeckel Were Complicit in Nazi Biology." (PDF). In Numbers, Ronald L. (ed.). Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03327-6 – via Google Books. ^ Weikart, Richard (2002). "Evolutionäre Aufklärung"? Zur Geschichte des Monistenbundes. Wissenschaft, Politik und Öffentlichkeit: von der Wiener Moderne bis zur Gegenwart. Wien: WUV-Universitätsverlag. pp. 131–48. ISBN 3-85114-664-6. ^ a b "Constitutional Rights Foundation". www.crf-usa.org. Retrieved 27 June 2020. ^ a b Reich, Robert (20 November 2005). "The Two Darwinisms". The American Prospect. Retrieved 27 June 2020. ^ Felix, Elving. "Research Guides: John D. Rockefeller: Topics in Chronicling America: Introduction". guides.loc.gov. Retrieved 27 June 2020. ^ Reich, Robert B. (2005). Reason: Why Liberals Will Win the Battle for America. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-7660-4. ^ The Project Gutenberg eBook of What Social Classes Owe To Each Other, by William Graham Sumner. www.gutenberg.org. 16 June 2006. Retrieved 15 April 2018. ^ "A careful reading of the theories of Sumner and Spencer exonerates them from the century-old charge of social Darwinism in the strict sense of the word. They did not themselves advocate the application of Darwin's theory of natural selection." The Social Meaning of Modern Biology: From Social Darwinism to Sociobiology ^ "At least a part—and sometimes a generous part" of the great fortunes went back to the community through many kinds of philanthropic endeavor, says Bremner, Robert H. (1988). American Philanthropy (2nd ed.). p. 86. ISBN 978-0-226-07324-8. ^ "Borrowing from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, social Darwinists believed that societies, as do organisms evolve over time. Nature then determined that the strong survive and the weak perish. In Jack London's case, he thought that certain favored races were destined for survival, mainly those that could preserve themselves while supplanting others, as in the case of the White race." The philosophy of Jack London Archived 2005-10-27 at the Wayback Machine ^ Herr, Michael (2000). Kubrick. Grove Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8021-3818-7. Retrieved 20 February 2016. ^ Otsubo, S.; Bartholomew, J. R. (1998). "Eugenics in Japan: some ironies of modernity, 1883–1945". Sci Context. 11 (3–4): 545–65. doi:10.1017/S0269889700003203. PMID 15168677. ^ Jonathan D. Spence. The Search for Modern China". W.W. Norton, 1990, p. 301. ^ Jin, Xiaoxing (2019). "Translation and transmutation: The Origin of Species in China". The British Journal for the History of Science. 52: 117–141. doi:10.1017/S0007087418000808. PMID 30587253. ^ Ibid. ^ Ibid., 414–15. ^ a b Richards, R. J. (2013). Was Hitler a Darwinian?: Disputed Questions in the History of Evolutionary Theory. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-05893-1. ^ Aronoff, Mark (2017). "Darwinism tested by the science of language". In Bowern; Horn; Zanuttini (eds.). On Looking into Words (and Beyond): Structures, Relations, Analyses. SUNY Press. pp. 443–456. ISBN 978-3-946234-92-0. Retrieved 3 March 2020. ^ a b Puschner, Uwe (2014). Sozialdarwinismus als wissenschaftliches Konzept und politisches Programm, in: Gangolf Hübinger (ed.), Europäische Wissenschaftskulturen und politische Ordnungen in der Moderne (1890-1970) (= Schriften des Historischen Kollegs, Kolloquien 77), München 2014, pp. 99–121 (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 9783110446784. ^ Baum, Bruce David (2006). The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity. New York City/London: New York University Press. p. 156. ^ Barkai, Avaraham 1990. Nazi Economics: Ideology, Theory and Policy. Oxford Berg Publisher. ^ Hayes, Peter. 1987 Industry and Ideology IG Farben in the Nazi Era. Cambridge University Press. ^ Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin Books. pp. 483–84. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3. ^ McLean, Iain (2009). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford University: Oxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 9780199207800. ^ Leonard, Thomas C. (2005) Mistaking Eugenics for Social Darwinism: Why Eugenics is Missing from the History of American Economics History of Political Economy, Vol. 37 supplement: 200–233 ^ a b c d Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James; Daly, Jonathan W.; Von Laue, Theodore H. (2014). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. Volume II: Since 1600 (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. pp. 634–635. ISBN 978-1-305-09142-9. LCCN 2014943347. OCLC 898154349. Retrieved 1 February 2016. The most extreme ideological expression of nationalism and imperialism was Social Darwinism. In the popular mind, the concepts of evolution justified the exploitation by the 'superior races' of 'lesser breeds without the law.' This language of race and conflict, of superior and inferior people, had wide currency in the Western nations. Social Darwinists vigorously advocated empires, saying that strong nations—by definition, those that were successful at expanding industry and empire—would survive and others would not. To these elitists, all white peoples were more fit than nonwhites to prevail in the struggle for dominance. Even among Europeans, some nations were deemed more fit than others for the competition. Usually, Social Darwinists thought their own nation the best, an attitude that sparked their competitive enthusiasm. ...In the nineteenth century, in contrast to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Europeans, except for missionaries, rarely adopted the customs or learned the languages of local people. They had little sense that other cultures and other peoples deserved respect. Many Westerners believed that it was their Christian duty to set an example and to educate others. Missionaries were the first to meet and learn about many peoples and the first to develop writing for those without a written language. Christian missionaries were ardently opposed to slavery.... ^ Kropotkin, kniaz' Petr Alekseevich. "Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution". ^ Chomsky, Noam (8 July 2011). "Noam Chomsky – on Darwinism". Primary sources[edit] Darwinism: Critical Reviews from Dublin Review (Catholic periodical)|Dublin Review, Edinburgh Review, Quarterly Review (1977 edition) reprints 19th century reviews and essays Darwin, Charles (1859). "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" (1st ed.). London: John Murray. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Darwin, Charles (1882). "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex" (2nd ed.). London: John Murray. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Fisher, Joseph (1877). "The History of Landholding in Ireland". London: Transactions of the Royal Historical Society: 249–50. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Fiske, John. Darwinism and Other Essays (1900) Secondary sources[edit] Bannister, Robert C. Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought (1989) Bannister, Robert C. Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880–1940 (1987) Bernardini, J.-M. Le darwinisme social en France (1859–1918). Fascination et rejet d'une idéologie, Paris, CNRS Edition, 1997. Boller, Paul F. Jr. American Thought in Transition: The Impact of Evolutionary Naturalism, 1865–1900 (1969) Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23693-6. Crook, D. Paul. Darwinism, War and History : The Debate over the Biology of War from the 'Origin of Species' to the First World War (1994) Crook, Paul (1999). "Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945". The Australian Journal of Politics and History. 45. Crook, Paul. Darwin's Coat-Tails: Essays on Social Darwinism (Peter Lang, 2007) Degler, Carl N. In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (1992). Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James (1991). Darwin. London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-7181-3430-3. Dickens, Peter. Social Darwinism: Linking Evolutionary Thought to Social Theory (Philadelphia: Open University Press, 2000). Gossett, Thomas F. Race: The History of an Idea in America (1999) ch 7 Hawkins, Mike (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought 1860-1945: Nature and Model and Nature as Threat. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57434-1. Hodge, Jonathan and Gregory Radick. The Cambridge Companion to Darwin (2003) Hodgson, Geoffrey M. (December 2004). "Social Darwinism in Anglophone Academic Journals: A Contribution to the History of the Term" (PDF). Journal of Historical Sociology. 17 (4): 428–63. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.524.4248. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6443.2004.00239.x. hdl:2299/406. Retrieved 17 February 2010. Social Darwinism, as almost everyone knows, is a Bad Thing. Hofstadter, Richard (1944). Social Darwinism in American Thought. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780807055038. Hofstadter, Richard (1992). Eric Foner (ed.). Social Darwinism in American Thought (with a new introduction ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0807055038. Jones, Leslie, Social Darwinism Revisited History Today, Vol. 48, August 1998 Kaye, Howard L. The Social Meaning of Modern Biology: From Social Darwinism to Sociobiology (1997). Versen, Christopher R. "What's Wrong with a Little Social Darwinism (In Our Historiography)" The History Teacher 42#4 (2009), pp. 403–423 online Sammut-Bonnici, T. & Wensley, R. (2002), 'Darwinism, Probability and Complexity: Transformation and Change Explained through the Theories of Evolution', International Journal of Management Reviews, 4(3) pp. 291–315. 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Günther Wilhelm Gustloff Emil Hácha Rudolf Hess Reinhard Heydrich Heinrich Himmler Adolf Hitler Émile Janvion Wang Jingwei William Joyce Edgar Jung Meir Kahane Bronislav Kaminski Max Leo Keller Ikki Kita Yevhen Konovalets Alexandros Koryzis Vihtori Kosola Fritz Julius Kuhn Agostino Lanzillo Charles Lindbergh Dimitrije Ljotić Leopoldo Lugones Hristo Lukov Curzio Malaparte Nikola Mandić Maximiliano Hernández Martínez Charles Maurras Tefik Mborja Ioannis Metaxas Robert Michels Oswald Mosley Asit Krishna Mukherji Heinrich Müller Benito Mussolini Eoin O'Duffy Gearóid Ó Cuinneagáin Sergio Panunzio Giovanni Papini Ante Pavelić Patrick Pearse William Dudley Pelley Philippe Pétain Ernest Peterlin Plaek Phibunsongkhram Bolesław Piasecki Alfred Ploetz Robert Poulet Ezra Pound José Antonio Primo de Rivera Vidkun Quisling Rudolf Rahn Pedro Pablo Ramírez Lucien Rebatet Hanna Reitsch Cécil von Renthe-Fink Joachim von Ribbentrop Dionisio Ridruejo Alfredo Rocco Konstantin Rodzaevsky Alfred Rosenberg Leon Rupnik Plínio Salgado Rafael Sánchez Mazas Margherita Sarfatti Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Carl Schmitt Kurt Schuschnigg Arthur Seyss-Inquart Horia Sima Ardengo Soffici Troy Southgate Othmar Spann Ugo Spirito Milan Stojadinović Gregor Strasser Otto Strasser Mykola Stsiborskyi Ferenc Szálasi Jozef Tiso Shūmei Ōkawa Gonzalo Torrente Ballester Aleksandar Tsankov Georges Valois Anastasy Vonsyatsky Lee Beom seok Yeom dong jin Works Literature The Doctrine of Fascism Fascist Manifesto Friendly Fascism: The New Face of Power in America La Conquista del Estado Manifesto of Race Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals Mein Kampf My Autobiography My Life The Myth of the Twentieth Century Zweites Buch Zaveshchanie russkogo fashista Periodicals l'Alba Der Angriff Arriba La Conquista del Estado Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung Deutsche Zeitung in Norwegen Deutsche Zeitung in den Niederlanden Fashist Figli d'Italia Fritt Folk Fronten Gândirea Gioventù Fascista Hrvatski Domobran Je suis partout La France au travail Münchener Beobachter Nash Put' Novopress Nea Imera NS Månedshefte Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift Le Pays Réel Il Popolo d'Italia Das Reich Das Schwarze Korps Sfarmă-Piatră Al-Sha'ab Signal Slovák Slovenská pravda Der Stürmer Tomori Vlajka Volk en Staat Völkischer Beobachter Film Der Sieg des Glaubens Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht Triumph of the Will Sculpture Allach Related topics Art of the Third Reich Fascist architecture Heroic realism Nazi architecture Nazism and cinema Nazi plunder Syndicalism Conservatism Organizations Institutional Ahnenerbe Chamber of Fasces and Corporations Grand Council of Fascism Imperial Way Faction Italian Nationalist Association Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen Quadrumvirs Activist Friends of New Germany German American Bund Russian Fascist Organization Youth Albanian Lictor Youth Arab Lictor Youth Ethiopian Lictor Youth Fascist Union of Youth Frente de Juventudes Al-Futuwwa Gioventù Italiana del Littorio Great Japan Youth Party Hitler Youth Faith and Beauty Society Deutsches Jungvolk Jungmädelbund League of German Girls Hlinka Youth Mocidade Portuguesa Nationale Jeugdstorm National Youth Organisation (Greece) NS Ungdomsfylking Opera Nazionale Balilla Union of Fascist Little Ones Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (boys) Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (girls) Ustashe Youth Paramilitary Albanian Fascist Militia Black Brigades Blackshirts Blueshirts Blueshirts (Falange) Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar Einsatzgruppen Gold shirts Greenshirts Greyshirts Heimwehr Hirden Hlinka Guard Iron Wolf Lăncieri Legião Portuguesa (Estado Novo) Makapili Rodobrana Schutzstaffel Serbian Volunteer Corps (World War II) Silver Legion of America Sturmabteilung Sudetendeutsches Freikorps Ustashe Militia Volkssport Walloon Legion Waffen-SS Weerbaarheidsafdeling Werwolf Yokusan Sonendan Student Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista Gruppi Universitari Fascisti National Socialist German Students' League Sindicato Español Universitario International Axis powers NSDAP/AO ODESSA History 1910s Arditi Fascio 1920s March on Rome Corfu incident Acerbo Law Beer Hall Putsch Aventine Secession Italian economic battles 28 May 1926 coup d'état 1930s March of the Iron Will November 1932 German federal election March 1933 German federal election Enabling Act Austrian Civil War July Putsch 1934 Montreux Fascist conference Romani genocide Spanish Civil War 4th of August Regime Anti-Comintern Pact 1940s World War II Nazi crimes against the Polish nation The Holocaust Persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia End in Italy Denazification Nuremberg Trials Tokyo Trials Lists Anti-fascists Books about Hitler British fascist parties Fascist movements by country (A-F G-M N-T U-Z) Nazi ideologues Nazi leaders Speeches by Hitler SS personnel Related topics Alt-right Anti-fascism Anti-Nazi League Christofascism Clerical fascism Cryptofascism Esoteric Nazism Fascist (epithet) Fascist mysticism Feudal fascism Francoism French fascism Germanisation Glossary of Nazi Germany Hindu fascism Hitler salute Italianization Italianization of South Tyrol Islamofascism Japanization Ku Klux Klan Neo-fascism Neo-Nazism Roman salute Social fascism Synarchism Tropical fascism Unite Against Fascism Völkisch movement Women in Nazi Germany Category  Politics portal v t e Jim Crow Era Participants Federal government Presidents Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt William Howard Taft Woodrow Wilson Warren G. Harding Calvin Coolidge Herbert Hoover Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Congress African-American Senators African-American Representatives Henry Cabot Lodge William E. Chandler George F. Hoar John J. Ingalls Henry W. Blair Benjamin Harrison John Sherman James G. Blaine Joseph B. Foraker US Supreme Court Waite Court (1874–88) Fuller Court (1888–1910) White Court (1910–21) Taft Court (1921–30) Hughes Court (1930–41) Stone Court (1941–46) Vinson Court (1946–53) Federal bureaucracy Home Owners' Loan Corporation National Labor Relations Board Fair Employment Practice Committee State governments Southern United States Alabama Joseph F. Johnston John B. Knox Stouten H. Dent William C. Oates George P. Harrison Frank S. White Arkansas J.E. Williams John N. Tillman Ambrose H. Sevier, Jr. Florida Georgia Thomas E. Watson M. Hoke Smith Kentucky Carl Day James Hargis Louisiana Murphy J. Foster Ernest Kruttschnitt Maryland Mississippi James Z. George James K. Vardaman Horatio F. Simrall North Carolina Marion Butler Furnifold Simmons Oklahoma South Carolina Benjamin Tillman Robert Smalls Coleman Blease Tennessee Robert Love Taylor Thomas R. Myers Josiah H. Dortch Benjamin J. Lea J.C. Myers Texas Alexander W. Terrell Virginia Alfred P. Thom Allen Caperton Braxton Others African Americans Ku Klux Klan Democratic Party Republican Party Farmers' Alliance Greenback Party Bourbon Democrat Grange Agricultural Wheel Union Labor Party of Arkansas Timeline Prelude Reconstruction Era Civil rights movement (1865–1896) Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era Nadir of American race relations Arkansas Civil Rights Act of 1868 Tennessee State Constitution of 1870 Blyew v. United States (1871) Chicot County massacre of 1871 Illinois School Laws of 1872 Arkansas Civil Rights Act of 1873 Illinois School Laws of 1874 Vagrancy Law (Mississippi) (1876) Pig Law (Mississippi) (1876) Ex parte Siebold (1879) Exodusters 1880–1889 Strauder v. West Virginia (1880) Virginia v. Rives (1880) Ex parte Virginia (1880) Neal v. Delaware (1881) Civil Rights Cases (1883) United States v. Harris (1883) Danville riot of 1883 Pace v. Alabama (1883) Ohio Public Accommodations Law of 1884 Iowa Civil Rights Act of 1884 Ex parte Yarbrough (1884) Illinois Civil Rights Act of 1885 Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1887) Thibodaux massacre (1887) Assassination of John M. Clayton (1888) Paragould race riots (1888–1908) Myers Law (Tennessee) (1889) Lea Law (Tennessee) (1889) Dortch Law (Tennessee) (1889) Tennessee implements poll tax (state constitution 1870) (1889) 1890–1899 Louisville, New Orleans, and Texas Railroad v. Mississippi (1890) Lodge Bill (1890) Sevier Law (Arkansas) (1890) Ferguson v. Gies (1890) (Michigan) Lodge Bill (1891) Tillman Act (Arkansas) (1891) Separate Coach Law of 1891 (Arkansas) Southern Horrors (1892) Hampton race riot of 1892 Baltimore Afro-American (1892) Sayre Law (Alabama) (1893) Lea Law (Tennessee) (1893) Dodson v. State (1894) (Arkansas) Ohio Civil Rights Act of 1894 Mills v. Green (1895) Atlanta Exposition Speech (1895) The Red Record (1895) Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) Gibson v. Mississippi (1896) Smith v. Mississippi (1896) Canfield race riot of 1896 Polk County race riot of 1896 Ohio Anti-Mob Violence Act of 1896 Atkins race riot of 1897 Nevada County race riot of 1897 Williams v. Mississippi (1898) Wilmington insurrection of 1898 Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education (1899) Imperium in Imperio (1899) Little River County race riot of 1899 1900–1909 Carter v. Texas (1900) Robert Charles riots of 1900 Alabama Constitutional Convention of 1901 Up from Slavery (1901) Omaha race riot of 1901 Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House (1901) Louisiana State Penitentiary (1901) The Leopard's Spots (1902) Giles v. Harris (1903) The Souls of Black Folk (1903) Tarrance v. Florida (1903) Brownfield v. South Carolina (1903) Streetcar Segregation Act of 1903 (Arkansas) Bonanza race riot of 1904 Rogers v. Alabama (1904) Mississippi State Penitentiary (1904) Day Law (Kentucky) (1904) Springfield race riot of 1904 Watkinsville lynching (1905) Niagara Movement (1905) The Clansman (1905) Clyatt v. United States (1905) The Chicago Defender (1905) Springfield race riot of 1906 Chattanooga riot of 1906 Greensburg race riot of 1906 Atlanta race riot of 1906 Brownsville Affair (1906) Hodges v. United States (1906) Berea College v. Kentucky (1908) Springfield race riot of 1908 Twining v. New Jersey (1908) National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1909) 1910–1919 Great Migration (1910) Jack Johnson race riots of 1910 Slocum massacre of 1910 Franklin v. South Carolina (1910) El Dorado race riot of 1910 Pittsburgh Courier (1910) Crumpacker Bill (1911) Universal Negro Improvement Association (1914) United States v. Reynolds (1914) National Urban League (1911) Bailey v. Alabama (1911) Walnut Ridge race riot of 1912 The Birth of a Nation (1915) Guinn v. United States (1915) Association for the Study of African American Life and History (1915) Lynching of Jesse Washington (1916) The Passing of the Great Race (1916) Buchanan v. Warley (1917) Houston riot of 1917 East St. Louis riot of 1917 Philadelphia race riot of 1918 Chester race riot of 1918 Negro World (1918) Red Summer Charleston race riot of 1919 Omaha race riot of 1919 Bisbee riot of 1919 Longview race riot of 1919 Chicago race riot of 1919 Knoxville riot of 1919 Elaine race riot of 1919 Washington, D.C. riot of 1919 "If We Must Die" poem (1919) Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States 1889-1918 (1919) 1920–1929 Harlem Renaissance 1920 Duluth lynchings Ocoee massacre of 1920 Nineteenth Amendment (1920) North Carolina repeals poll tax (1920) Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill (1921) Newberry v. United States (1921) Tulsa race riot of 1921 Rosewood massacre of 1923 Catcher race riot of 1923 Moore v. Dempsey (1923) Racial Integrity Act of 1924 (Virginia) Love v. Griffith (1924) Chandler v. Neff (1924) Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (1925) Corrigan v. Buckley (1926) Nixon v. Herndon (1927) Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 Rope and Faggot (1929) Jessie De Priest tea at the White House (1929) 1930–1939 Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith (1930) Sainte Genevieve race riot of 1930 Scottsboro Boys (1931) Federal Home Loan Bank Board (1932) Nixon v. Condon (1932) Powell v. Alabama (1932) Highlander Folk School Hocutt v. Wilson (1933) (North Carolina) Home Owners' Loan Corporation (1933) National Housing Act of 1934 Costigan-Wagner antilynching bill (1934) Louisiana repeals poll tax (1934) National Labor Relations Board (1935) National Council of Negro Women (1935) Grovey v. Townsend (1935) Norris v. Alabama (1935) Patterson v. Alabama (1935) Harlem riot of 1935 Brown v. Mississippi (1936) University v. Murray (1936) (Maryland) Breedlove v. Suttles (1937) Florida repeals poll tax (1937) Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1938) New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co. (1938) Hale v. Kentucky (1938) Arkansas referendum on poll tax (1938) Alexandria Library sit-in (1939) Lane v. Wilson (1939) Gone with the Wind (1939) Mills v. Board of Education of Anne Arundel County (1939) 1940–1949 Wagner-Gavagan antilynching bill (1940) Chambers v. Florida (1940) Smith v. Texas (1940) Alston v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia (1940) Hasqett v. Werner (1941) United States v. Classic (1941) Fair Employment Practice Committee (1941) Executive Order 8802 (1942) Hill v. Texas (1942) "Double V" campaign Congress of Racial Equality Beaumont race riot of 1943 Detroit race riot of 1943 Harlem riot of 1943 Agana race riot of 1944 Smith v. Allwright (1944) Pollock v. Williams (1944) An American Dilemma (1944) Hedgepeth and Williams v. Board of Education (1944) Georgia repeals poll tax (1945) Executive Order 9908 (1946) Civil Rights Congress (1946) Morgan v. Virginia (1946) Boswell Amendment 1946 Georgia lynching President's Committee on Civil Rights (1946) Airport Homes race riots (1946) Columbia race riot of 1946 Mendez v. Westminster (1947) Journey of Reconciliation (1947) Fernwood Park race riot (1947) Patton v. Mississippi (1947) Elmore v. Rice (1947) Southern Conference Educational Fund Levi Pearson v. Clarendon County Board of Education (1947) To Secure These Rights (1947) Executive Order 9980 (1948) Executive Order 9981 (1948) Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma (1948) Perez v. Sharp (1948) Elmore v. Rice (1948) Rosana Aubert v. Orleans Parish School Board (1948) Peekskill riots of 1949 Virginia referendum on poll tax (1949) Texas referendum on poll tax (1949) Davis v. Schnell (1949) State of Iowa v. Katz (1949) Englewood race riot (1949) Aftermath Civil Rights Movement Black Power movement Aspects General Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Loophole clauses Character clause Grandfather clause Understanding clause Literacy test Poll tax Cumulative poll tax Property qualifications Voting devices Direct primary White primaries Multiple box ballot Eight-box law Secret ballot At-large voting Gerrymandering Moving polling stations Historiography Bibliography of Jim Crow Walter C. Hamm "The Three Phases of Colored Suffrage" (1899) William Alexander Mabry The Disfranchisement of the Negro in the South (1933) V. O. Key, Jr. Southern Politics in State and Nation (1949) C. Vann Woodward Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (1951) The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955) J. Morgan Kousser The Shaping of Southern Politics (1974) Michael Perman Struggle for Mastery (2001) Memory Legacy Great Migration Harlem Renaissance Other topics Sproule v. Fredericks (Tennessee) Lynching Anti-miscegenation laws List of Jim Crow law examples by state Racism Social Darwinism White supremacy Color line Disfranchisement Voter suppression in the United States Historical race concepts Judicial aspects of race in the United States Segregation Racial segregation Miscegenation Military segregation Residential segregation School segregation Housing segregation Public housing Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia Stereotypes of African Americans The New Jim Crow (2010) Sundown town All-white jury Sharecropping Convict lease Chain gang Category:History of racial segregation in the United States v t e LaVeyan Satanism Organizations Church of Satan First Satanic Church (see also The Black House, Grotto, Council of Nine) Associated figures Anton Szandor LaVey Blanche Barton Peter H. Gilmore Peggy Nadramia Diane Hegarty Karla LaVey Jayne Mansfield Kenneth Anger Boyd Rice Adam Parfrey Clark Ashton Smith King Diamond Forrest J Ackerman Marilyn Manson Gavin Baddeley Coop Steven Johnson Leyba Thomas Thorn Isaac Bonewits Lustmord Shane Bugbee Gregg Turkington Reginald Bretnor Influential figures Friedrich Nietzsche Ayn Rand Herbert Spencer Arthur Desmond Charles Darwin Sigmund Freud Niccolò Machiavelli Carl Jung Wilhelm Reich P.T. Barnum William Mortensen Aleister Crowley Maria de Naglowska Stanisław Przybyszewski Helena Blavatsky Grigori Rasputin Benjamin Franklin H. P. Lovecraft Edward Bernays H. L. Mencken Jack London Ambrose Bierce Benjamin De Casseres Arthur Schopenhauer Max Stirner Bernardino Nogara Basil Zaharoff Literature The Satanic Bible The Satanic Witch The Satanic Rituals The Secret Life of a Satanist The Church of Satan The Devil's Notebook Satan Speaks! Letters from the Devil The Satanic Scriptures Other media The Satanic Mass Satanis: The Devil's Mass Speak of the Devil: The Canon of Anton LaVey The Black Flame Satan Takes a Holiday Strange Music Death Scenes Satanic holidays Birthday Equinoxes Walpurgisnacht Solstices Halloween Yule Ideas and concepts Amorality Animalism Antihumanism Balance of nature Blasphemy Burlesque Carnality Carnivalesque Carpe diem, carpe noctem Elitism Epicureanism Egoism Egotheism Eugenics Grotesque body Hierarchy Individualism Iconoclasm Jungian psychology Law of the jungle Lex talionis Materialism Meritocracy Misanthropy Naturalism Psychic vampire Realism Self-preservation Social Darwinism Social stratification Universal Darwinism Related topics An Interview with Peter H. Gilmore Satanic panic Hellfire Club The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters v t e Nazism Organisation National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) Sturmabteilung (SA) Schutzstaffel (SS) Geheime Staatspolizei (Gestapo) Hitler Youth (HJ) National Socialist Flyers Corps (NSFK) National Socialist Motor Corps (NSKK) League of German Girls (BDM) National Socialist German Doctors' League National Socialist League for Physical Exercise (NSRL) National Socialist Women's League (NSF) Reich Labour Service (RAD) Werwolf History Early timeline Adolf Hitler's rise to power Re-armament Nazi Germany Night of the Long Knives Nuremberg rallies Anti-Comintern Pact Kristallnacht World War II Tripartite Pact The Holocaust Nuremberg trials Denazification Consequences Ideology Architecture Führer Führerprinzip Gleichschaltung Anti-democratic thought Strasserism Hitler's political views Mein Kampf (Hitler) The Myth of the Twentieth Century (Rosenberg) National Socialist Program New Order Preussentum und Sozialismus Propaganda Themes Hitler's prophecy Anti-American Religious aspects Women in Nazi Germany Race Blood and Soil Eugenics Greater Germanic Reich Heim ins Reich Lebensborn Master race Racial policy Religion Atrocities and war crimes Action T4 Nazi concentration camps Final Solution Human experimentation Porajmos Outside Germany Arrow Cross Party (Hungary) Bulgarian National Socialist Workers Party Czechoslovakia German National Socialist Workers' Party (Czechoslovakia) Sudeten German Party Greek National Socialist Party Hungarian National Socialist Party Liechtenstein German National Movement in Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Homeland Service Nasjonal Samling (Norway) National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands National Socialist Bloc (Sweden) National Socialist League (UK) National Socialist Movement of Chile National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark National Unity Party (Canada) Nationalist Liberation Alliance (Argentina) Nazism in Brazil South Africa Ossewabrandwag (South Africa) South African Gentile National Socialist Movement Switzerland Eidgenössische Sammlung National Front (Switzerland) National Movement of Switzerland National Union (Switzerland) United States American Nazi Party German American Bund National Socialist Movement Volksdeutsche Bewegung (Luxembourg) World Union of National Socialists Lists Books by or about Hitler Ideologues Leaders and officials Nazi Party members Speeches given by Hitler SS personnel Role and impact in German society The Wehrmacht Cinema Economy People Adolf Hitler Joseph Goebbels Heinrich Himmler Hermann Göring Martin Bormann Reinhard Heydrich Gregor Strasser Otto Strasser Albert Speer Rudolf Hess Ernst Kaltenbrunner Adolf Eichmann Joachim von Ribbentrop Houston Stewart Chamberlain Alfred Rosenberg Wilhelm Frick Hans Frank Rudolf Höss Josef Mengele Richard Walther Darré Erich Ludendorff Baldur von Schirach Artur Axmann Ernst Röhm Dietrich Eckart Gottfried Feder Ernst Hanfstaengl Julius Streicher Hermann Esser Walther Funk Robert Ley Karl Brandt Wolfram Sievers Roland Freisler Otto Skorzeny Karl Donitz Leonardo Conti Wernher von Braun Fritz Julius Kuhn George Lincoln Rockwell Related topics Fascism Esoteric Nazism Far-right politics German resistance Glossary of Nazi Germany Nazi salute Neo-Nazism Social Darwinism Stormfront Swastika Völkisch movement Zweites Buch Category v t e Social and political philosophy Ancient philosophers Aristotle Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Laozi Mencius Mozi Origen Plato Polybius Shang Socrates Sun Tzu Tertullian Thucydides Valluvar Xenophon Xunzi Medieval philosophers Alpharabius Augustine Averroes Baldus Bartolus Bruni Dante Gelasius al-Ghazali Giles Hostiensis Ibn Khaldun John of Paris John of Salisbury Latini Maimonides Marsilius Nizam al-Mulk Photios Thomas Aquinas Wang William of Ockham Early modern philosophers Beza Bodin Bossuet Botero Buchanan Calvin Cumberland Duplessis-Mornay Erasmus Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Harrington Hayashi Hobbes Hotman Huang Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Malebranche Mariana Milton Montaigne More Müntzer Naudé Pufendorf Rohan Sansovino Sidney Spinoza Suárez 18th–19th-century philosophers Bakunin Bentham Bonald Bosanquet Burke Comte Constant Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Hamann Hegel Herder Hume Jefferson Justi Kant political philosophy Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Möser Nietzsche Novalis Paine Renan Rousseau Royce Sade Schiller Smith Spencer Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th–21st-century philosophers Adorno Ambedkar Arendt Aurobindo Aron Azurmendi Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Butler Camus Chomsky De Beauvoir Debord Du Bois Durkheim Dworkin Foucault Gandhi Gauthier Gehlen Gentile Gramsci Habermas Hayek Heidegger Irigaray Kautsky Kirk Kropotkin Laclau Lenin Luxemburg Mao Mansfield Marcuse Maritain Michels Mises Mou Mouffe Negri Niebuhr Nozick Nursî Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Pettit Plamenatz Polanyi Popper Qutb Radhakrishnan Rand Rawls Rothbard Russell Santayana Sartre Scanlon Schmitt Searle Shariati Simmel Simonović Skinner Sombart Sorel Spann Spirito Strauss Sun Taylor Walzer Weber Žižek Social theories Anarchism Authoritarianism Collectivism Communism Communitarianism Conflict theories Confucianism Consensus theory Conservatism Contractualism Cosmopolitanism Culturalism Fascism Feminist political theory Gandhism Individualism Islam Islamism Legalism Liberalism Libertarianism Mohism National liberalism Republicanism Social constructionism Social constructivism Social Darwinism Social determinism Socialism Utilitarianism Concepts Civil disobedience Democracy Four occupations Justice Law Mandate of Heaven Peace Property Revolution Rights Social contract Society War more... 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