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==Influence==
Kant's influence on Western thought has been profound.<ref>Prof. Oliver A. Johnson claims that, "With the possible exception of Plato's Republic, (Critique of Pure Reason) is the most important philosophical book ever written." Article on Kant within the collection "Great thinkers of the Western World", Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.</ref> Although the basic tenets of Kant's [[transcendental idealism]] (i.e. that space and time are 'a priori' forms of human perception rather than real properties, that human perception is entirely informed by "a priori" epistemic structures, and the claim that formal logic and transcendental logic coincide) have been falsified in modern science and logic,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|access-date=2020-09-02|website=www.pitt.edu|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}</ref>  and don't set any longer the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers, Kant is credited with having changed the framework within which modern philosophical inquiry has been carried at least up to the early nineteenth century. This shift consisted in several closely related innovations that, although highly contentious in themselves, have become important postmodern philosophy and in the social sciences broadly construed generally:
* The human subject seen as the centre of inquiry into human knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they exist independently of human perception or of how they are for us;<ref>See Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–88; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).</ref>
* The notion that is possible to discover and systematically explore the inherent limits to our ability to know entirely "a priori";
* The notion of the "categorical imperative," an assertion that people are naturally endowed with the ability and obligation toward right reason and acting.  Perhaps his most famous quote is drawn from the Critique of pure reason: "two things fill my mind with ever-increasing wonder and awe: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me" (der bestirnte Himmel über mir und das moralische Gesetz in mir.")
* The concept of "conditions of possibility", as in his notion of "the conditions of possible experience"{{spaced ndash}}that is that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, we must first understand these conditions;
* The theory that objective experience is actively constituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind;
* His notion of moral autonomy as central to humanity;
* His assertion of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as means.

Kant's ideas have been incorporated into a variety of schools of thought. These include [[German Idealism]], [[Marxism]], [[positivism]], [[phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[existentialism]], [[critical theory]], [[linguistic philosophy]], [[structuralism]], [[post-structuralism]], and [[deconstructionism]].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

===Historical influence===
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2016}}

During his own life, much critical attention was paid to his thought. He influenced [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], and [[Novalis]] during the 1780s and 1790s. The school of thinking known as [[German Idealism]] developed from his writings. The German Idealists Fichte and Schelling, for example, tried to bring traditional "metaphysically" laden notions like "the Absolute", "God", and "Being" into the scope of Kant's [[critical thought]].<ref>There is much debate in the recent scholarship about the extent to which Fichte and Schelling actually overstep the boundaries of Kant's critical philosophy, thus entering the realm of dogmatic or pre-Critical philosophy. Beiser's ''German Idealism'' discusses some of these issues. Beiser, Frederick C. ''German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]], 2002.</ref> In so doing, the German Idealists tried to reverse Kant's view that we cannot know what we cannot observe.

[[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Immanuel Kant in [[Kaliningrad]] ([[Königsberg]]), Russia. Replica by {{Interlanguage link multi|Harald Haacke|de}} of the original by [[Christian Daniel Rauch]] lost in 1945.]]

Hegel was one of Kant's first major critics. The main accusations Hegel charged Kant's philosophy with were formalism (or 'abstractism') and irrationality. In Hegel's view the entire project of setting a "transcendental subject" apart from nature, history, and society was fundamentally flawed,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}</ref> although parts of that very project could be put to good use in a new direction, that Hegel called the "absolute idealism". Similar concerns moved Hegel's criticisms to Kant's concept of moral autonomy, to which Hegel opposed an ethic focused on the "ethical life" of the community.<ref>Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences.'' trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right.'' Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right.'' trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.</ref> In a sense, Hegel's notion of "ethical life" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, [[Kantian ethics]]. And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "desires", by means of reason. Thus, in contrast to later critics like Nietzsche or Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's concerns.<ref>Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.</ref>

Kant's thinking on religion was used in Britain to challenge the decline in religious faith in the nineteenth century. British Catholic writers, notably [[G.K. Chesterton]] and [[Hilaire Belloc]], followed this approach. [[Ronald Englefield]] debated this movement, and Kant's use of language.{{efn|See Englefield's article "Kant as Defender of the Faith in Nineteenth-century England", ''Question'', 12, 16–27 (London, Pemberton) reprinted in ''Critique of Pure Verbiage, Essays on Abuses of Language in Literary, Religious, and Philosophical Writings'', edited by G.A. Wells and D.R. Oppenheimer, Open Court, 1990.}} Criticisms of Kant were common in the realist views of the new positivism at that time.

[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] was strongly influenced by Kant's [[transcendental idealism]]. He, like [[G.E. Schulze]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe nor are they completely beyond our access. Ever since the first ''Critique of Pure Reason'' philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Many have argued, if such a thing exists beyond experience then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category 'causality' beyond the realm of experience.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} For Schopenhauer things in themselves do not exist outside the non-rational will. The world, as Schopenhauer would have it, is the striving and largely unconscious will. Michael Kelly, in the preface to his 1910 book ''Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism'', stated: "Of Kant it may be said that what is good and true in his philosophy would have been buried with him, were it not for Schopenhauer...."

With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's influence began to wane, though there was in Germany a movement that hailed a return to Kant in the 1860s, beginning with the publication of ''Kant und die Epigonen'' in 1865 by [[Otto Liebmann]]. His motto was "Back to Kant", and a re-examination of his ideas began (see [[Neo-Kantianism]]). During the turn of the 20th century there was an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as the [[Marburg School]], represented in the work of [[Hermann Cohen]], [[Paul Natorp]], [[Ernst Cassirer]],<ref>Beck, Lewis White. "Neo-Kantianism". In ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 5–6. Macmillan, 1973. Article on Neo-Kantianism by a translator and scholar of Kant.</ref> and anti-Neo-Kantian [[Nicolai Hartmann]].<ref>Cerf, Walter. "Nicolai Hartmann". In ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 3–4. Macmillan, 1973. Nicolai was a realist who later rejected the idealism of Neo-Kantianism, his anti-Neo-Kantian views emerging with the publication of the second volume of ''Hegel'' (1929).</ref>

Kant's notion of "Critique" has been quite influential. The Early German Romantics, especially [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] in his "Athenaeum Fragments", used Kant's self-reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry.<ref>Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.</ref> Also in [[Aesthetics]], [[Clement Greenberg]], in his classic essay "Modernist Painting", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as "immanent criticism", to justify the aims of [[Abstract Art|Abstract painting]], a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitiaton—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting.<ref>Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]] was also greatly influenced by Kant's notion of "Critique" and wrote several pieces on Kant for a re-thinking of the Enlightenment as a form of "critical thought". He went so far as to classify his own philosophy as a "critical history of modernity, rooted in Kant".<ref>See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology." Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.</ref>

Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']] knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through intuition.<ref>For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.</ref> Kant's often brief remarks about [[mathematics]] influenced the mathematical school known as [[intuitionism]], a movement in [[philosophy of mathematics]] opposed to [[David Hilbert|Hilbert's]] [[formalism (mathematics)|formalism]], and [[Frege]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[logicism]].<ref>[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.</ref>

===Influence on modern thinkers===
[[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|West German postage stamp, 1974, commemorating the 250th anniversary of Kant's birth]]
With his ''[[Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]'', Kant is considered to have foreshadowed many of the ideas that have come to form the [[democratic peace theory]], one of the main controversies in [[political science]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27}}</ref>

Prominent recent Kantians include the British philosophers [[P.F. Strawson]],<ref>Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.</ref> [[Onora O'Neill]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=March 14, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Quassim Cassam]]<ref>Cassam, Q., "The Possibility of Knowledge" Oxford: 2009</ref> and the American philosophers [[Wilfrid Sellars]]<ref>Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes.'' Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967</ref> and [[Christine Korsgaard]].<ref>Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends.'' Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-49644-6|0-521-49962-3}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''</ref> Due to the influence of Strawson and Sellars, among others, there has been a renewed interest in Kant's view of the mind. Central to many debates in [[philosophy of psychology]] and [[cognitive science]] is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness.<ref>[[Andrew Brook|Brook, Andrew]]. ''Kant and the Mind''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. See also, Meerbote, R. "Kant's [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|Functionalism]]". In: J.C. Smith, ed. ''Historical Foundations of Cognitive Science''. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1991. Brook has an article on Kant's View of the Mind in the [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/ Stanford Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709014732/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/ |date=9 July 2010 }}</ref>

[[Jürgen Habermas]] and [[John Rawls]] are two significant political and moral philosophers whose work is strongly influenced by Kant's moral philosophy.<ref>See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action.'' Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.</ref> They argued against relativism,<ref>Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Eds.): Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–48.</ref> supporting the Kantian view that universality is essential to any viable moral philosophy. Jean-Francois Lyotard, however, emphasized the indeterminacy in the nature of thought and language and has engaged in debates with Habermas based on the effects this indeterminacy has on philosophical and political debates.<ref>Rorty, R. (2984) Habermas and Lyotard on postmodernity. Praxis International (32–44)</ref>

[[Mou Zongsan|Mou Zongsan's]] study of Kant has been cited as a highly crucial part in the development of Mou’s personal philosophy, namely [[New Confucianism]]. Widely regarded as the most influential Kant scholar in China, Mou's rigorous critique of Kant’s philosophy—having translated all three of Kant’s [[Critique of Pure Reason|critiques]]—served as an ardent attempt to reconcile Chinese and Western philosophy whilst increasing pressure to [[Westernization|westernize]] in China.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |date=November 19, 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3-11-022624-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wing‐Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=February 21, 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}</ref>

Kant's influence also has extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences, as in the sociology of [[Max Weber]], the psychology of [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Carl Gustav Jung]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323540339 |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055820/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323540339_Kant_and_Jung_on_the_prospects_of_Scientific_Psychology |url-status=live }}</ref> and the linguistics of [[Noam Chomsky]]. Kant's work on mathematics and synthetic ''a priori'' knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist [[Albert Einstein]] as an early influence on his intellectual development, which he later criticised heavily and rejected.<ref>Issacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe." p. 20.</ref> Because of the thoroughness of the Kantian paradigm shift, his influence extends to thinkers who neither specifically refer to his work nor use his terminology.

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