Liberalism in the Netherlands - Wikipedia Liberalism in the Netherlands From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Liberalism History Age of Enlightenment List of liberal theorists (contributions to liberal theory) Ideas Civil and political rights Cultural liberalism Democracy Democratic capitalism Economic freedom Economic liberalism Egalitarianism Free market Free trade Freedom of the press Freedom of religion Freedom of speech Gender equality Harm principle Internationalism Laissez-faire Liberty Market economy Natural and legal rights Negative/positive liberty Non-aggression Principle Open society Permissive society Private property Rule of law Secularism Separation of church and state Social contract Welfare state Schools of thought Anarcho-capitalism Classical liberalism Radical liberalism Left-libertarianism Geolibertarianism Right-libertarianism Conservative liberalism Democratic liberalism Green liberalism Liberal autocracy Liberal Catholicism Liberal conservatism Liberal feminism Equity feminism Liberal internationalism Liberal nationalism Liberal socialism Social democracy Muscular liberalism Neoliberalism National liberalism Ordoliberalism Radical centrism Religious liberalism Christian Islamic Jewish Secular liberalism Social liberalism Technoliberalism Third Way Whiggism People Acton Alain Alberdi Alembert Arnold Aron Badawi Barante Bastiat Bentham Berlin Beveridge Bobbio Brentano Bright Broglie Burke Čapek Cassirer Chicherin Chu Chydenius Clinton Cobden Collingdood Condorcet Constant Croce Cuoco Dahrendorf Decy Dewey Dickens Diderot Dongsun Dunoyer Dworkin Einaudi Emerson Eötvös Flach Friedman Galbraith Garrison George Gladstone Gobetti Gomes Gray Green Gu Guizot Hayek Herbert Hobbes Hobhouse Hobson Holbach Hu Humboldt Jefferson Jubani Kant Kelsen Kemal Keynes Korais Korwin-Mikke Kymlicka Lamartine Larra Lecky Li Lincoln Locke Lufti Macaulay Madariaga Madison Martineau Masani Michelet Mill (father) Mill (son) Milton Mises Molteno Mommsen Money Montalembert Montesquieu Mora Mouffe Naoroji Naumann Nozick Nussbaum Obama Ohlin Ortega Paine Paton Popper Price Priestley Prieto Quesnay Qin Ramírez Rathenau Rawls Raz Renan Renouvier Renzi Ricardo Röpke Rorthy Rosmini Rosselli Rousseau Ruggiero Sarmiento Say Sen Earl of Shaftesbury Shklar Sidney Sieyès Şinasi Sismondi Smith Soto Polar Spencer Spinoza Staël Sumner Tahtawi Tao Thierry Thorbecke Thoreau Tocqueville Tracy Troeltsch Turgot Villemain Voltaire Ward Weber Wollstonecraft Zambrano Organizations Africa Liberal Network Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party Arab Liberal Federation Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats European Democratic Party European Liberal Youth European Party for Individual Liberty International Alliance of Libertarian Parties International Federation of Liberal Youth Liberal International Liberal Network for Latin America Liberal parties Liberal South East European Network Regional variants Europe Latin America Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech lands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain South Africa South Korea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States Arizona School Classical Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Related topics Bias in academia Bias in the media  Liberalism portal  Politics portal v t e Liberalism in the Netherlands started as an anti-monarchical effort spearheaded by the Dutch statesman Thorbecke, who almost single-handedly wrote the 1848 Constitution of the Netherlands that turned the country into a constitutional monarchy. In contemporary politics, there are both left and right-wing parties that refer to themselves as "liberal", with the former more often espousing social liberalism and the latter more often espousing classical liberalism. A common characteristic of these parties that they are nominally irreligious, in contrast to the traditionally dominant and still popular Christian democracy.[1] This article gives an overview of liberalism in the Netherlands. It is limited to political parties with substantial support, mainly proved by having had a representation in parliament. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Before 1918 1.2 1918-1994 1.3 After 1994 2 Individual Liberal Parties 2.1 From Liberal Union until People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 2.2 Radical League and Free-minded Democratic League 2.3 (League of) Free Liberals 2.4 Economic League 2.5 Liberal Party 2.6 Democrats 66 3 Liberal leaders 4 Liberal thinkers 5 Parliamentary representation 6 See also 7 References Background[edit] The Netherlands has a long liberal political tradition. From the founding of the Dutch Republic in the 16th century to beginning of the 19th century the main political conflict was between the liberal urban patriciate and the supporters of the House of Orange, from the lower class and orthodox variants of Protestantism.[2] The urban patriciate favoured religious tolerance. Between mid-19th century to the late-1800 they were a dominant force in shaping the Dutch parliamentary democratic rechtsstaat. In the early 20th century the liberals split between progressive liberals and conservative liberals. Due to their political division and the introduction of universal suffrage the liberals disappeared from the political stage. After the Second World War the liberals were united again under one roof, the VVD, but the party remained small. It entered some administration coalitions as a junior party. A progressive liberal party, D'66 was founded in 1966. Since the 1970s however liberalism has been on the rise again electorally. Since 1977 the largest, more conservative, liberal party, VVD has been in government for twenty two years. In early 21st century the VVD saw major splits over the issue of integration and migration. In 2010, they won the national elections for the first time in its history. Before 1918[edit] Johan Rudolph Thorbecke in 1852, during his first term as Prime Minister. In the early years of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1814–1848) the House of Representatives was dominated by conservatives supportive of the policy of government of William I and later William II. From 1840 onward, the amount of liberals in the House gradually increased. These liberals advocated a parliamentary democracy with a directly elected House of Representatives and in which the ministers, not the King, had executive power. In 1844, nine liberal representatives led by the jurist and historian Johan Rudolph Thorbecke attempted in vain to amend the constitution and introduce parliamentary democracy. In 1848, amidst a wave of revolutions across Europe, the balance of power shifted in favour of the liberals. In order to prevent civil unrest in the Netherlands, William II formed a commission, chaired by Thorbecke, which would draft a new constitution.[3] The new constitution, which was introduced in October 1848, limited the power of the king by introducing ministerial responsibility and by giving parliament the right to amend laws and hold investigative hearings. It also extended the census suffrage and codified civil rights, such as the freedom of assembly, the privacy of correspondence, freedom of ecclesiastical organisation and the freedom of education. In the period following the constitutional amendment, liberalism was the dominant political force in the Netherlands. Liberalism also dominated the universities, the media and business.[4] The liberals supported a laissez-faire economy, free trade, civil rights and a gradual expansion of suffrage.[3] Thorbecke became Prime Minister of the Netherlands in 1849, and would serve two more terms throughout his lifetime. Because of their dominant position, the liberals did not deem it necessary to organise themselves in a political party. Instead there was a loose liberal parliamentary group and locally organised liberal caucuses. The liberals also did not organize their own pillar, a system of like-minded social organisations. The liberals were politically allied with the Catholics, whom the liberals granted considerable freedom of religion.[citation needed] After Thorbecke's death in 1872, the liberals grew increasingly disunited. By 1897, a division had emerged between the supporters of the progressive liberal Jan Kappeyne van de Coppello on the one side, and those of the conservative liberal Johan George Gleichman on the other.[5] Only in the late 19th century, when the opposition began to organise itself in the Anti-Revolutionary Party and the Roman Catholic State Party, the liberals followed suit. On 4 March 1885, the Liberal Union was established. In the 1890s some liberals, such as Samuel van Houten, Johannes Tak van Poortvliet and Kappeyne van de Coppello started to propose a more active role of the government, breaking with the Thorbeckian laissez-faire ideal. This led to the establishment of the progressive Free-thinking Democratic League in 1901. The liberals saw a second split with the establishment of the more conservative liberal League of Free Liberals in 1906. There are different names for these two tendencies. The more progressive liberals have been called "radical", "freeminded" or "democratic" liberals, while the more conservative liberals have been called "free" or "old" liberals. The issue which divided the liberals most was the question whether to extend the census or even to introduce universal suffrage, the progressive liberals favoured universal suffrage, the conservative liberals did not. The progressive liberals also favoured government intervention in the economy, such as Van Houten's ban on child labour. Due to the two round electoral system the liberals were required to cooperate. In order to prevent the coalition of Catholics and Protestants win the second round of the elections, all the liberals united behind their candidates in the second round, often joined by social democrats. This alliance was called the concentration. On basis of concentration pluralities, often supported by social democrats for a majority several cabinets were formed in the early 20th century. In 1917 under one of these liberal minority cabinets universal male suffrage was introduced, as well as a proportional electoral system and equal finance for religious schools, this compromise was called the pacification of 1917. The extension of suffrage however severely weakened the position of the liberals. Of the 37 seats they had in 1917, they were left with 14 in 1918. 1918-1994[edit] Netherlands This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Netherlands Constitution Charter Wet Algemene Bepalingen Human rights Monarchy King Willem-Alexander Council of Ministers Ministers Plenipotentiary Aruba Curaçao St. Maarten Cabinet Prime Minister (list) Mark Rutte Deputy Prime Ministers Hugo de Jonge Kajsa Ollongren Carola Schouten Ministries States General Senate President: Ankie Broekers-Knol Current membership Historic composition House of Representatives Speaker: Khadija Arib Current membership Historic composition Parliamentary committees Judiciary Supreme Court High Councils of State Council of State Court of Audit National Ombudsman Elections Recent elections General: 2010 2012 2017 Provincial: 2011 2015 2019 Municipal: 2010 2014 2018 European: 2009 2014 2019 Referendums Referendums: 2005 2016 2018 Political parties Politicians Local government Provincial politics Water boards Municipal politics BES islands Foreign relations Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister: Stef Blok Diplomatic missions of / in the Netherlands Nationality law Passport Visa requirements Visa policy of the Schengen Area Visa policy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Caribbean Related topics Corruption in the Netherlands De Nederlandsche Bank Law of the Netherlands Modern history Republicanism in the Netherlands Social Economic Council Other countries v t e In 1922 the liberal parties reorganized: all conservative liberals, from the Liberal Union and the League Free Liberals as well as more conservative liberals from smaller parties, joined to form the Liberal State Party. The progressive liberals remained separate in the Freeminded Democratic League, a merger of the Radical League and progressive liberals, that had already been formed in 1901. In the interbellum the liberals grew even smaller. Under pressure of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the rise of the National Socialist Movement. The liberals did cooperate as junior partners in several cabinets in the crisis. After the Second World War the conservative liberal Liberal State Party refounded itself as Freedom Party. The progressive liberal Freeminded Democratic League joined the new Doorbraak leftwing Labour Party. Several progressives were unhappy with the social-democratic course of the PvdA and joined the Freedom Party to found the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy in 1948. The VVD remained a small party until the 1970s, with about 10% of the vote. They did however form part of the government both in the grand coalition with social-democrats, Catholics and Protestants in the late 1940s early 1950s, and with the Catholics and Protestants over the course of the 1960s. The party was led by the former leader of the Freeminded Democratic League, Pieter Oud. In the Dutch pillarized political system the liberals mainly appealed to urban, secular upper and middle class. The liberals did not have a strong pillar of social organization, such as trade unions and news papers, like the other political families had. Instead they were aligned with the weak neutral pillar.[6] In 1966 a radical democratic party was founded, Democrats 66. In the foundation several progressive liberals from the VVD had been involved. The party sought to radically democratize the political system, the society and the economy. D66 was led by the charismatic Hans van Mierlo. The party joined forces with the social-democratic PvdA and the progressive Christian PPR to work for a more fair and democratic Netherlands. The party participated in the leftwing cabinet Den Uyl. Over the course of the 1980s however the party began to espouse a more progressive liberal course, especially under Jan Terlouw. The party remained an ally of the PvdA however, joining a short-lived centre-left coalition cabinet with the PvdA and the Christian democratic CDA in 1981. In the meanwhile the VVD had grown considerably. Under the leadership of Hans Wiegel the VVD has taken a more conservative course.[4] The party began to criticize the large and inefficient welfare state. The party combined this economic liberalism with progressive positions on social issues, which characterized the 1970s, such as abortion, homosexuality and women's rights. The VVD capitalized the weakening of religious and depillarization of the 1970s and made considerable electoral gains: in 1967 the party won just over 10% in 1981 this had more than doubled to 23%. Between 1982 and 1986 the VVD cooperated in the centre-right cabinets Lubbers, which implemented a far reaching reform of the welfare state the VVD had advocated since the 1970s. After 1994[edit] In 1994 the Christian democratic CDA lost its traditional electoral power base. The VVD and D66 won considerably. A progressive purple cabinet was formed with D66 and the VVD under the lead of PvdA. The cabinet managed a thriving Dutch economy, implemented progressive social legislation on euthanasia, gay marriage and prostitution. In the 2002 election campaign the purple coalition came under heavy criticism of the populist politician Pim Fortuyn for mismanaging the public sector, migration and the integration of migrants. The two liberal parties lost considerably in the elections. Liberalism in the Netherlands came under attack after the shock assassination of Fortuyn just days before the election.[7] The VVD however joined a coalition cabinet with the heirs of Fortuyn and the CDA. The cabinet fell shortly. After the 2003 elections the D66 replaced the LPF. The centre-right cabinet implemented reforms of the welfare state and oversaw declining migration figures. Migration and integration and especially the place of the Islam in the Netherlands, however, remained controversial issues. In 2003 the VVD had invited social-democratic critic of Islam, Ayaan Hirsi Ali to join their parliamentary party. She together with MP Geert Wilders caused considerable controversy with her direct criticism of the Islam. In the cabinet VVD minister Rita Verdonk sought to limit migration and stimulate integration of minorities. Two years after Fortuyn's assassination, another murder, this time of filmmaker Theo van Gogh, put the country's liberal tradition at further risk.[8] In 2004 Geert Wilders left the VVD to form the Party for Freedom, which combined uncompromising criticism of Islam with a plea for lower taxation and skepticism towards European integration. In 2006 a conflict between Hirsi Ali and Verdonk over her status as an asylum seeker caused the downfall of the cabinet after D66 had revoked its confidence of Verdonk, whose positions on migration the party had already distanced itself from. In the 2006 general election the VVD and D66 lost considerably: D66 lost three of its six seats, the VVD six of its 28 seats. Wilders' PVV won nine seats. Rita Verdonk, second on the list of the VVD won more preference votes than the party's top candidate Mark Rutte. After demanding the leadership of the party, Verdonk left the VVD to form her own nationalist party, Proud of the Netherlands. In the European Parliament election of 2009, the VVD and D66 both won 3 seats each, while PVV picked up 4 seats. The PVV was assigned the additional seat that went to the Netherlands after the Treaty of Lisbon was signed. The VVD and D66 joined the Liberal fraction in the European Parliament, while the PVV did not register as member of any fraction. In the 2010 general election the VVD returned to previous strength and became the largest party the first time in history with 31 seats, leading to a liberal-led coalition for the first time since 1918. Also D66 increased their number of seats to 10. Ultimately, the VVD opted for a coalition with the CDA, with VVD leader Mark Rutte as prime minister—the first liberal to hold the post since 1918. Individual Liberal Parties[edit] Note: The ⇒ sign denotes parties which never achieved any representation in parliament. From Liberal Union until People's Party for Freedom and Democracy[edit] 1885: Liberals formed the Liberal Union (Liberale Unie) 1892: A radical faction formed the ⇒ Radical League 1894: A conservative faction formed the ⇒ Free Liberals 1901: A radical faction seceded to merge with the ⇒ Radical League into the ⇒ Freethinking Democratic League 1921: The LU merged with the ⇒ Economic League, the ⇒ League of Free Liberals, the Neutral Party and the Middle Class Party into the Freedom League (Vrijheidsbond) 1922: A conservative faction seceded as the ⇒ Liberal Party 1928: The Vrijheidsbond is renamed in Liberal State Party (Liberale Staatspartij) 1929: Staalman, founder of the Middle Class Party, leaves the LSP and found the Middle Party for City and Country 1945: The LSP is reorganised into the Freedom Party (Partij van de Vrijheid), including a faction of the ⇒ Freethinking Democratic League 1948: The Freedom Party merged with former members of the Freethinking Democratic League into the present-day People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie) Radical League and Free-minded Democratic League[edit] 1892: A radical faction of the ⇒ Liberal Union formed the Radical League (Radicale Bond) 1901: A second radical faction of the ⇒ Liberal Union merged with the Radical League into the Free-minded Democratic League (Vrijzinnig Democratische Bond) 1917: A right-wing faction secededas the ⇒ Economic League 1946: The Free-minded Democratic League merged into the present-day Labour Party (Partij van de Arbeid), a faction joined the ⇒ Freedom Party 1948: Some former members left the Labour Party and merged into the ⇒ People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (League of) Free Liberals[edit] 1894: A conservative faction of the ⇒ Liberale Union formed the Free Liberals (Vrije Liberalen), since 1906 renamed the League of Free Liberals (Bond van Vrije Liberalen) 1921: The league merged into the ⇒ Freedom League Economic League[edit] 1917: A right-wing faction of the ⇒ Freethinking Democratic League formed the Economic League (Economische Bond) 1921: The league merged into the ⇒ Freedom League Liberal Party[edit] 1922: A right-wing faction of the ⇒ Freedom League formed the Liberal Party (Liberale Partij) and disappeared in 1925 Democrats 66[edit] 1966: Independent progressive liberals formed the party Democrats 66 (Democraten '66), later without apostrophe Liberal leaders[edit] Liberals in the 19th century Johan Rudolf Thorbecke Joannes Kappeyne van de Coppello Pieter Cort van der Linden Liberal Union Nicolaas Pierson Theo de Meester Cornelis Lely Johannes Tak van Poortvliet Hendrik Goeman Borgesius Pieter Rink Radical League/Economic League Willem Treub League of Free Liberals Willem de Beaufort Hendrik Dresselhuys Samuel van Houten Meinard Tydeman Hendrik Coenraad Dresselhuijs Free-thinking Democratic League Philip Kohnstamm Dirk Bos Hendrik Lodewijk Drucker Pieter Oud Roelof Kranenburg Dolf Joekes Liberal Party Samuel van Houten Freedom Party Steven Bierema Liberal State Party Hendrik Coenraad Dresselhuijs Dirk Fock Willem Carel Wendelaar Ben Telders People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Pieter Oud Edzo Toxopeus Molly Geertsema Hans Wiegel Ed Nijpels Rudolf de Korte Joris Voorhoeve Frits Bolkestein Hans Dijkstal Gerrit Zalm Jozias van Aartsen Mark Rutte Dirk Stikker Johan Witteveen Otto van Lidth de Jeude Harm van Riel Klaas Dijkhoff Arie Pais Hans de Koster Annemarie Jorritsma Haya van Someren Annelien Kappeyne van de Coppello Henk Kamp Uri Rosenthal Henk Korthals Frits Korthals Altes Johan Remkes Leendert Ginjaar Hans Hoogervorst Neelie Kroes Jo Schouwenaar-Franssen Hans van Baalen Henk Vonhoff Ivo Opstelten Koos Rietkerk Democrats 66 Hans van Mierlo Jan Terlouw Elst Borst Alexander Pechtold Jacob Kohnstamm Jan Glastra van Loon Aar de Goede Alexander Rinnooy Kan Thom de Graaf Hans Wijers Roger van Boxtel Laurens Jan Brinkhorst Liberal thinkers[edit] In the Contributions to liberal theory the following Dutch thinkers are included: Erasmus (1466–1536) Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798–1872) Parliamentary representation[edit] Election VVD D66 Total seats Seats In gov't Seats In gov't 1948 8 / 100 Yes 8 / 100 1952 9 / 100 No 9 / 100 1956 13 / 150 No 13 / 150 1959 19 / 150 Yes 19 / 150 1963 16 / 150 Yes 16 / 150 1967 17 / 150 Yes 7 / 150 No 24 / 150 1971 16 / 150 Yes 11 / 150 No 27 / 150 1972 22 / 150 No 6 / 150 Yes 28 / 150 1977 28 / 150 Yes 8 / 150 No 36 / 150 1981 26 / 150 No 17 / 150 Yes 43 / 150 1982 36 / 150 Yes 6 / 150 No 42 / 150 1986 27 / 150 Yes 9 / 150 No 36 / 150 1989 22 / 150 No 12 / 150 No 34 / 150 1994 31 / 150 Yes 24 / 150 Yes 55 / 150 1998 38 / 150 Yes 14 / 150 Yes 52 / 150 2002 24 / 150 Yes 7 / 150 No 31 / 150 2003 28 / 150 Yes 6 / 150 Yes 34 / 150 2006 22 / 150 No 3 / 150 No 25 / 150 2010 31 / 150 Yes 10 / 150 No 41 / 150 2012 41 / 150 Yes 12 / 150 No 53 / 150 2017 33 / 150 Yes 19 / 150 Yes 52 / 150 See also[edit] History of the Netherlands Politics of the Netherlands List of political parties in the Netherlands Orangism (Kingdom of the Netherlands) Socialism in the Netherlands Christian democracy in the Netherlands Pim Fortuyn List Party for Freedom References[edit] ^ What's liberal politics in the Netherlands?, Expatica ^ Andeweg, R.B. and G.A. Irwin (2002) Governance and Politics of the Netherlands Basingstoke: MacMillan, p.47 ^ a b "Liberalen". Parlement & Politiek (in Dutch). Retrieved 4 September 2015. ^ a b Andeweg, R.B. and G.A. Irwin (2002) Governance and Politics of the Netherlands Basingstoke: MacMillan, p.48 ^ "Bond van Vrije Liberalen". Parlement & Politiek (in Dutch). Retrieved 4 September 2015. ^ Andeweg, R.B. and G.A. Irwin (2002) Governance and Politics of the Netherlands Basingstoke: MacMillan, p.25 ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/1977511.stm ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/nov/07/terrorism.religion v t e Liberalism in Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard v t e Liberal political parties in the Netherlands Social Radical League Free-thinking Democratic League Economic League Democrats 66 Classical Freedom Party Conservative Liberal Union League of Free Liberals Liberal Party Liberal State Party People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands&oldid=971893898" Categories: Liberalism in the Netherlands Liberalism by country Political history of the Netherlands Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic Hidden categories: CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 8 August 2020, at 22:21 (UTC). 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