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{{redirect|Kant|other uses|Kant (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|Prussian philosopher}}
{{use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| name = Immanuel Kant
| image = Kant gemaelde 3.jpg
| caption = Portrait by Johann Gottlieb Becker, 1768
| birth_date = {{birth date|1724|04|22|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Königsberg]], [[East Prussia]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
(present-day [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]])
| death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|df=yes|1804|02|12|1724|04|22}}}}
| death_place = [[Königsberg]], [[East Prussia]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| education = [[Collegium Fridericianum]]
[[University of Königsberg]]
([[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]]; [[Master of Arts|M.A.]], April 1755; [[PhD]], September 1755; PhD,[[[Frederick C. Beiser]], ''German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801'', Harvard University Press, 2002, part I.]
|[[Foundationalism]][{{cite book|last=Rockmore|first=Tom |author-link=Tom Rockmore|title=On Foundationalism: A Strategy for Metaphysical Realism|url=https://archive.org/details/onfoundationalis00rock_117|url-access=limited|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2004|pages= [https://archive.org/details/onfoundationalis00rock_117/page/n48 65]|isbn=978-0-7425-3427-8}}]
|[[Metaphysical conceptualism]][{{cite journal | last1 = Oberst | first1 = Michael | year = 2015 | title = Kant on Universals | journal = History of Philosophy Quarterly | volume = 32 | issue = 4| pages = 335–52 }}]|[[Perceptual non-conceptualism]][{{cite journal|last=Hanna|first=Robert |title=Kantian non-conceptualism|journal=Philosophical Studies|volume=137|issue=1|pages=41–64|date=January 2008|doi=10.1007/s11098-007-9166-0|s2cid=170296391 }}][The application of the term "perceptual non-conceptualism" to Kant's [[philosophy of perception]] is debatable (see {{cite encyclopedia|last=Hanna|first=Robert|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-judgment/supplement1.html|chapter=The Togetherness Principle, Kant's Conceptualism, and Kant's Non-Conceptualism: Supplement to Kant's Theory of Judgment|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|title=Archived copy|access-date=20 August 2018|archive-date=11 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611215054/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-judgment/supplement1.html|url-status=live}}).]
|[[Transcendental idealism]]
|[[Empirical realism]]
|[[Indirect realism]][{{cite book|title=Realism and Antirealism in Kant's Moral Philosophy: New Essays|last1=Santos|first1=Robinson dos|last2=Schmidt|first2=Elke Elisabeth|isbn=9783110574517|year=2017|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|page=199|quote=Kant is an indirect realist.}}]
|[[Correspondence theory of truth]]{{efn|However, Kant has also been interpreted as a defender of the [[coherence theory of truth]].[{{Cite web |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/ |title=The Coherence Theory of Truth (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) |access-date=29 April 2020 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101014528/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-coherence/ |url-status=live }}]}}[{{cite encyclopedia|last=David|first=Marian|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/|chapter=The Correspondence Theory of Truth|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2016|access-date=2019-10-18|title=Archived copy|archive-date=14 February 2014|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6NO84cVT6?url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/|url-status=live}}]
|[[Liberal naturalism]][Hanna, Robert, ''Kant, Science, and Human Nature''. Clarendon Press, 2006, p. 16.]
|[[Kantian ethics]]
|[[Classical liberalism]]}}
| notable_ideas = {{collapsible list|
* [[Abstract and concrete|Abstract–concrete distinction]][''[[Critique of Pure Reason|KrV]]'' A51/B75–6. See also: Edward Willatt, ''Kant, Deleuze and Architectonics'', Continuum, 2010 p. 17: "Kant argues that cognition can only come about as a result of the union of the abstract work of the understanding and the concrete input of sensation."]
* [[Aesthetic judgment|Aesthetic]]–[[teleological judgment]]s
* [[Analytic–synthetic distinction]]
* [[Categorical imperative|Categorical]] and [[hypothetical imperative]]
* [[Category (Kant)|Categories]]
* [[Cosmotheology]]
* [[Critical philosophy]]
* [[Copernican Revolution#Immanuel Kant|Copernican revolution]] in philosophy
* [[Aesthetic distance|Disinterested delight]]
* [[Empirical realism]]
* [[Kant's antinomies]]
* [[Kant's pitchfork]]
* [[Kingdom of Ends]]
* Mathematical vs. dynamical [[Sublime (philosophy)#Immanuel Kant|sublimity]][{{cite encyclopedia|last=Burnham|first=Douglas|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantaest/|title=Immanuel Kant: Aesthetics|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2019-10-18|archive-date=20 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220151820/https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantaest/|url-status=live}}]
* [[Nebular hypothesis]]
* [[Noogony]] and [[noology]]
* [[Noumenon]] vs. [[thing-in-itself]]
* [[Ontotheology]]
* Primacy of [[practical reason]][''[[Critique of Practical Reason|KpV]]'' 101–02 (=''Ak'' V, 121–22). See also: Paul Saurette, ''The Kantian Imperative: Humiliation, Common Sense, Politics'', University of Toronto Press, 2005, p. 255 n. 32.]
* [[Public reason#Immanuel Kant|Public reason]]
* ''[[Rechtsstaat#Immanuel Kant|Rechtsstaat]]''
* ''[[Sapere aude]]''
* [[Schema (Kant)|Transcendental schema]]
* [[Theoretical philosophy|Theoretical]] vs. [[practical philosophy]]
* [[Transcendental idealism]]
* [[Transcendental subject]]
* [[Transcendental theology]]
* [[Understanding (Kant)|Understanding–reason distinction]]
}}
| influences = {{hlist|[[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Wolff]]|[[Alexander Baumgarten|Baumgarten]]|[[Plato]]|[[Aristotle]]|[[Johann Georg Hamann|Hamann]] |[[Sextus Empiricus|Empiricus]]|[[Lucretius]]|[[David Hume|Hume]] |[[Adam Smith|Smith]] |[[René Descartes|Descartes]] |[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] |[[John Locke|Locke]]| [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] |[[Isaac Newton|Newton]] |[[Johannes Nikolaus Tetens|Tetens]][Kuehn 2001, p. 251.] |[[Christian August Crusius|Crusius]][I. Kant, ''Theoretical Philosophy: 1755–1770'', Cambridge University Press, p. 496] |[[Emanuel Swedenborg|Swedenborg]] (disputed)[{{cite book|last=Josephson-Storm|first=Jason|title=The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=2017|pages=185–86|url={{Google books|xZ5yDgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-226-40336-6}}]|[[Euclid]]}}
| influenced = Virtually all subsequent [[Western philosophy]], especially [[Jakob Sigismund Beck|Beck]], [[Friedrich Eduard Beneke|Beneke]], [[Bernard Bolzano|Bolzano]], [[Rudolf Carnap|Carnap]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], [[Paul Guyer|Guyer]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]], [[George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], [[F. H. Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Karl Jaspers|Jaspers]], [[Salomon Maimon|Maimon]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce]], [[Karl Popper|Popper]], [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling |Schelling]], [[Friedrich Schleiermacher|Schleiermacher]], [[Friedrich Schlegel|Schlegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[African Spir|Spir]], [[Eduard Zeller|Zeller]]
| signature = Immanuel Kant signature.svg
| academic_advisors = [[Martin Knutzen]], [[Johann Gottfried Teske]] (M.A. advisor), [[:s:de:ADB:Marquardt, Konrad Gottlieb|Konrad Gottlieb Marquardt]][[http://users.manchester.edu/FacStaff/SSNaragon/Kant/bio/biokon2.htm Biographies: Königsberg Professors – Manchester University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226035656/http://users.manchester.edu/FacStaff/SSNaragon/Kant/Bio/biokon2.htm |date=26 December 2016 }}: "His lectures on logic and metaphysics were quite popular, and he still taught theology, philosophy, and mathematics when Kant studied at the university. The only textbook found in Kant's library that stems from his student years was Marquardt's book on astronomy."]
| notable_students = [[Jakob Sigismund Beck]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] (epistolary correspondent)
| thesis1_title = Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio (A New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition)
| thesis1_url = https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html
| thesis1_year = September 1755
| thesis2_title = De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis (Dissertation on the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World)
| thesis2_url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123&redir_esc=y
| thesis2_year = August 1770
}}
{{Immanuel Kant}}
'''Immanuel Kant''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|k|æ|n|t}},[[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927133528/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant |date=27 September 2019 }}. ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.][[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant "Kant"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant |date=23 October 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.] {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɑː|n|t}};[{{cite LPD|3}}][{{cite EPD|18}}] {{IPA-de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant, -nu̯ɛl -|lang}};[{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Immanuel|work=[[Duden]]|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|title=Kant|work=Duden|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant|url-status=live}}] 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German [[Philosophy|philosopher]] and one of the central [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers.[{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/|title=Immanuel Kant: Metaphysics|last=McCormick|first=Matt|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=20 February 2019|archive-date=15 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215052959/https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/|url-status=live}}][{{Citation|last=Rohlf|first=Michael|title=Immanuel Kant|date=2020|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Spring 2020|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2020-05-27|archive-date=3 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903101055/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant/|url-status=live}}] Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in [[epistemology]], [[metaphysics]], [[ethics]], and [[aesthetics]] have made him one of the most influential figures in modern [[Western philosophy]].[{{Cite web|title=Immanuel Kant {{!}} Biography, Philosophy, Books, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Immanuel-Kant|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27|archive-date=16 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616235359/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Immanuel-Kant|url-status=live}}]
In his doctrine of [[transcendental idealism]], Kant argued that [[space]] and [[time]] are mere "forms of intuition" which structure all [[experience]], and therefore that while "[[Thing-in-itself|things-in-themselves]]" exist and contribute to experience, they are nonetheless distinct from the objects of experience. From this it follows that the objects of experience are mere "appearances", and that the nature of things as they are in themselves is consequently unknowable to us.[{{cite book|last1=Durant|first1=Will|last2=Durant|first2=Ariel|title=The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution|date=1967|publisher=MJF Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq2ffQUf1GIC|isbn=978-1-56731-021-4|pages=571, 574|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055815/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq2ffQUf1GIC|url-status=live}}][{{cite book|title=A little history of philosophy|author=Nigel Warburton|publisher=Yale University Press|chapter-url={{Google books|SGL4QPwDTVsC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|page=134|chapter=Chapter 19: Rose-tinted reality: Immanuel Kant|isbn=978-0-300-15208-1|year=2011}}] In an attempt to counter the [[Philosophical skepticism|skepticism]] he found in the writings of philosopher [[David Hume]], he wrote the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' (1781/1787),[There are two relatively recent translations:
*{{cite book|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|title=Critique of Pure Reason|series=The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant|year=1999|translator-last1=Guyer|translator-first1=Paul|translator-last2=Wood|translator-first2=Allen W.|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|isbn=978-0-5216-5729-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqeX8MJurLkC|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055837/https://books.google.com/books?id=qqeX8MJurLkC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|translator-last=Pluhar|translator-first=Werner S.|title=Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Hackett|year=1996|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87220-257-3}}
Both translations have their virtues and both are better than earlier translations: {{cite journal|last=McLaughlin|first=Peter|title=Review|journal=Erkenntnis|year=1999|volume=51|issue=2/3|page=357|doi=10.1023/a:1005483714722}}
Page references to the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' are commonly given to the first (1781) and second (1787) editions, as published in the Prussian Academy series, as respectively "A [page number]" and "B [page number]".] one of his most well-known works. In it, he developed his theory of experience to answer the question of whether [[Analytic-synthetic distinction|synthetic]] ''[[a priori]]'' knowledge is possible, which would in turn make it possible to determine the limits of [[metaphysical]] inquiry. Kant drew a parallel to the [[Copernican Revolution#Immanuel Kant|Copernican revolution]] in his proposal that the objects of the senses must conform to our spatial and temporal forms of [[intuition]], and that we can consequently have ''a priori'' cognition of the objects of the senses.{{efn|"Up to now it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to the objects; but all attempts to find out something about them ''a priori'' through concepts that would extend our cognition have, on this presupposition, come to nothing. Hence let us once try whether we do not get farther with the problems of metaphysics by assuming that the objects must conform to our cognition, which would agree better with the requested possibility of an ''a priori'' cognition of them, which is to establish something about objects before they are given to us. This would be just like the first thoughts of [[Copernicus]], who, when he did not make good progress in the explanation of the celestial motions if he assumed that the entire celestial host revolves around the observer, tried to see if he might not have greater success if he made the observer revolve and left the stars at rest. Now in metaphysics we can try in a similar way regarding the intuition of objects. If intuition has to conform to the constitution of the objects, then I do not see how we can know anything of them ''a priori''; but if the object (as an object of the senses) conforms to the constitution of our faculty of intuition, then I can very well represent this possibility to myself."[{{cite book|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|title=Critique of Pure Reason|series=The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant|year=1999|others=Translated and edited by [[Paul Guyer]] and [[Allen W. Wood]]|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|isbn=978-0-5216-5729-7}}]{{rp|110 (B xvi–vii)}}|name=apriori}}
Kant believed that [[reason]] is also the source of [[morality]], and that [[aesthetics]] arise from a faculty of disinterested judgment. Kant's views continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[political theory]], and [[Aesthetics#Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis|post-modern aesthetics]].[ He attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond what he believed to be the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He wanted to put an end to what he saw as an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as Hume. He regarded himself as showing the way past the impasse between [[rationalists]] and [[empiricists]],][{{cite journal|last1=Vanzo|first1=Alberto|title=Kant on Empiricism and Rationalism|journal=History of Philosophy Quarterly|volume=30|issue=1|pages=53–74|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/id/eprint/59913|date=January 2013|access-date=17 December 2015|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055822/http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/59913/|url-status=live}}] and is widely held to have synthesized both traditions in his thought.[{{cite encyclopedia|last=Rohlf|first=Michael|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|title=Immanuel Kant|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Summer 2018|access-date=6 October 2015|archive-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123355/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/|url-status=live}}]
Kant was an exponent of the idea that [[perpetual peace]] could be secured through universal [[democracy]] and [[international cooperation]], and that perhaps this could be the culminating stage of [[world history]].[Kant, Immanuel (1784). "[[Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose]]".] The nature of Kant's religious views continues to be the subject of scholarly dispute, with viewpoints ranging from the impression that he shifted from an early defense of an [[ontological argument]] for the existence of God to a principled [[agnosticism]], to more critical treatments epitomized by [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], who criticized the imperative form of Kantian ethics as "theological morals" and the "Mosaic Decalogue in disguise",[Arthur Schopenhauer, ''On the Basis of Morals]]'', in ''The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics'', trans. Chris Janaway (2009), sections 4–5.] and [[Nietzsche]], who claimed that Kant had "theologian blood"[Friedrich Nietzsche, [[The Antichrist (book)|''The Anti-Christ'']] (1895), [https://books.google.com/books?id=DcVl57jzP2gC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=%22theologian+blood%22+the+antichrist#v=onepage&q=%22theologian%20blood%22%20the%20antichrist para. 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085438/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcVl57jzP2gC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=%22theologian+blood%22+the+antichrist#v=onepage&q=%22theologian%20blood%22%20the%20antichrist |date=3 August 2020 }}.] and was merely a sophisticated [[apologist]] for traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] faith.{{efn|Nietzsche wrote that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."[Friedrich Nietzsche (trans. [[Walter Arnold Kaufmann]]), ''The Portable Nietzsche'', 1976, p. 96.]}} Beyond his religious views, Kant has also been criticized for the [[racism]] presented in some of his lesser-known papers, such as "On the Use of Teleological Principles in Philosophy" and "On the Different Races of Man".[{{cite book |last1=Eze |first1=Emmanuel Chukwudi |title=Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-20339-1 |pages=103–131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwkRtAEACAAJ |access-date=15 June 2020 |language=en |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055821/https://books.google.com/books?id=BwkRtAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=Eze |first1=Emmanuel Chukwudi |title=Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-20136-6 |pages=39–48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BaguAEACAAJ |access-date=15 June 2020 |language=en |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055823/https://books.google.com/books?id=0BaguAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |last1=Bouie |first1=Jamelle |title=How the Enlightenment Created Modern Race Thinking and Why We Should Confront It |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/06/taking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html |website=Slate Magazine |access-date=15 June 2020 |language=en |date=5 June 2018 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615090940/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/06/taking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite journal |last1=BERNASCONI |first1=ROBERT |title=Defining Race Scientifically: A response to Michael Banton |journal=Ethnicities |date=2010 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=141–148 |doi=10.1177/14687968100100010802 |jstor=23890861 |s2cid=143925406 |issn=1468-7968}}] An advocate of scientific racism for much of his career, Kant's views on race changed significantly in the last decade of his life, and he ultimately rejected racial hierarchies and European [[colonialism]] in ''[[Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]'' (1795).[{{cite journal |last1=Kleingeld |first1=Pauline |title=Kant's Second Thoughts on Race |journal=The Philosophical Quarterly |date=October 2007 |volume=57 |issue=229 |page=573–592 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2768306/Kants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf |access-date=14 December 2020 |archive-date=16 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216193713/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2768306/Kants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf |url-status=live }}]
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history during his lifetime. These include the ''[[Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens|Universal Natural History]]'' (1755), the ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' (1788), the ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (1790), ''[[Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason]]'' (1793), and the ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1797).[{{Citation|last=Rohlf|first=Michael|title=Immanuel Kant|date=2020|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Spring 2020|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2020-05-27|archive-date=3 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903101055/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant/|url-status=live}}]
==Biography==
Kant's mother, Anna Regina Reuter[{{cite web| url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html| title=Cosmopolis| publisher=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de| date=23 April 2001| access-date=24 July 2009| archive-date=22 March 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html| url-status=live}}] (1697–1737), was born in [[Königsberg]] (since 1946 the city of [[Kaliningrad]], [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], [[Russia]]) to a father from [[Nuremberg]]. Her surname is sometimes erroneously given as Porter. Kant's father, Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746), was a German harness maker from [[Klaipėda|Memel]], at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now [[Klaipėda]], [[Lithuania]]). Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin.[Mortensen, Hans and Gertrud, ''Kants väterliche Ahnen und ihre Umwelt, Rede von 1952 in Jahrbuch der Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg'', Pr., Holzner-Verlag, Kitzingen, Main 1953, Vol. 3, p. 26.] While scholars of Kant's life long accepted the claim, there is no evidence that Kant's paternal line was Scottish and it is more likely that the Kants got their name from the village of Kantwaggen (today part of [[Priekulė, Lithuania|Priekulė]]) and were of [[Curonians|Curonian]] origin.[R.K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190-93.][Rosa Kohlheim, Volker Kohlheim, ''Duden – Familiennamen: Herkunft und Bedeutung von 20.000 Nachnamen'', Bibliographisches Institut & F.A. Brockhaus AG, Mannheim 2005, p. 365.] Kant was the fourth of nine children (four of whom reached adulthood).[{{cite web|last=Haupt|first=Viktor |url=http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20(de).pdf |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs - Von Petersburg bis Panama - Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |website=freunde-kants.com |language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 }}]
Kant was born on 22 April 1724 into a [[Prussia]]n [[Germans|German]] family of [[Lutheran]] [[Protestant]] faith in Königsberg, East Prussia. Baptized Emanuel, he later changed the spelling of his name to Immanuel[Kuehn 2001, p. 26.] after learning [[Hebrew]]. He was brought up in a [[Pietism|Pietist]] household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the [[Bible]].{{Citation needed |date=June 2017}} His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on [[Latin]] and religious instruction over mathematics and science.[Kuehn 2001, p. 47.] Kant maintained Christian ideals for some time, but struggled to reconcile the faith with his belief in science.[{{cite encyclopedia|last=Pomerleau|first=Wayne P.|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/kant-rel/|title=Immanuel Kant: Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2019-10-18|archive-date=27 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227180418/http://www.iep.utm.edu/kant-rel/|url-status=live}}] In his ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals]]'', he reveals a belief in immortality as the necessary condition of humanity's approach to the highest morality possible.[Metaphysics, p. 131][{{cite web|url=http://www.equip.org/article/immanuel-kant/|title=Immanuel Kant|publisher=Christian Research Institute|access-date=15 June 2017|archive-date=20 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620130216/http://www.equip.org/article/immanuel-kant/|url-status=live}}] However, as Kant was skeptical about some of the arguments used prior to him in defence of [[theism]] and maintained that human understanding is limited and can never attain knowledge about God or the [[soul]], various commentators have labelled him a philosophical [[agnostic]].["While this sounds skeptical, Kant is only agnostic about our knowledge of metaphysical objects such as God. And, as noted above, Kant's agnosticism leads to the conclusion that we can neither affirm nor deny claims made by traditional metaphysics." Andrew Fiala, [[John Meiklejohn|J.M.D. Meiklejohn]], ''Critique of Pure Reason'' – Introduction, p. xi.
][
{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity|year=2008|publisher=Harvest House Publishers|isbn=978-0-7369-2084-1|editor1=Ed Hindson|editor2=Ergun Caner|author=Edward J. Verstraete|title=The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics|page=[https://archive.org/details/popularencyclope0000unse_p8q4/page/82 82]|quote=It is in this sense that modern atheism rests heavily upon the skepticism of David Hume and the agnosticism of Immanuel Kant.|url=https://archive.org/details/popularencyclope0000unse_p8q4/page/82}}
][
{{cite book|title=I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist|year=2004|publisher=Crossway|isbn=978-1-58134-561-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/idonthaveenoughf00geis_0/page/59 59–60]|author1=Norman L. Geisler|author2=Frank Turek|chapter=Kant's Agnosticism: Should We Be Agnostic About It?|quote=Immanuel Kant's impact has been even more devastating to the Christian worldview than David Hume's. For if Kant's philosophy is right, then there is no way to know anything about the real world, even empirically verifiable things!|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/idonthaveenoughf00geis_0/page/59}}
][
{{cite book|title=Light of Truth and Fire of Love: A Theology of the Holy Spirit|year=1997|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4288-6|author=Gary D. Badcock|page=113|quote=Kant has no interest in prayer or worship, and is in fact agnostic when it comes to such classical theological questions as the doctrine of God or of the Holy Spirit.}}
][
{{cite book|title=Why I Am a Christian: Leading Thinkers Explain Why They Believe |year=2006|publisher=Baker Books|isbn=978-0-8010-6712-9|editor=Norman L. Geisler, Paul K. Hoffman|page=45|chapter=The Agnosticism of Immanuel Kant}}
][
{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Catholicism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7565-2|last=Flinn|first=Frank K. |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofca0000flin/page/10 10]|quote=Following Locke, the classic agnostic claims not to accept more propositions than are warranted by empirical evidence. In this sense an agnostic appeals to Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who claims in his Critique of Pure Reason that since God, freedom, immortality, and the soul can be both proved and disproved by theoretical reason, we ought to suspend judgement about them.|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofca0000flin/page/10}}
]
Kant apparently lived a very strict and disciplined life; it was said that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. He never married,[Kuehn, M. (2001). Kant: A biography. New York: Cambridge University Press. p 169] but seemed to have a rewarding social life — he was a popular teacher and a modestly successful author even before starting on his major philosophical works. He had a circle of friends with whom he frequently met, among them [[Joseph Green (merchant)|Joseph Green]], an English merchant in Königsberg.
Between 1750 and 1754 Kant worked as a tutor (''Hauslehrer'') in Judtschen[{{cite book|last=Vorländer|first=Karl|chapter-url=https://www.textlog.de/35594.html|chapter=Bei Pfarrer Andersch in Judtschen|title=Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk|year=1924|access-date=2019-10-18|language=de|archive-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018113221/https://www.textlog.de/35594.html|url-status=live}}] (now Veselovka, [[Russia]], approximately 20 km) and in Groß-Arnsdorf[{{cite book|last=Vorländer|first=Karl|chapter-url=https://www.textlog.de/35593.html|chapter=Bei Major von Hülsen in Arnsdorf|title=Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk|year=1924|access-date=2019-10-18|language=de|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801211934/https://www.textlog.de/35593.html|url-status=live}}] (now [[Jarnołtowo]] near [[Morąg]] (German: Mohrungen), [[Poland]], approximately 145 km).
Many myths grew up about Kant's personal mannerisms; these are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwait's introduction to his translation of ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]''.[
Kant, Immanuel. ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]''. Trans. John T. Goldthwait. University of California Press, 1961, 2003. {{ISBN|0-520-24078-2}}
]
===Young scholar===
Kant showed a great aptitude for study at an early age. He first attended the [[Collegium Fridericianum]] from which he graduated at the end of the summer of 1740. In 1740, aged 16, he enrolled at the [[University of Königsberg]], where he spent his whole career.[''The American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.] He studied the philosophy of [[Gottfried Leibniz]] and [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] under [[Martin Knutzen]] (Associate Professor of Logic and Metaphysics from 1734 until his death in 1751), a [[rationalism|rationalist]] who was also familiar with developments in British philosophy and science and introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of [[Isaac Newton]]. Knutzen dissuaded Kant from the theory of [[pre-established harmony]], which he regarded as "the pillow for the lazy mind".[{{cite book|title=What the Tortoise Taught Us: The Story of Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=[https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}] He also dissuaded Kant from [[idealism]], the idea that reality is purely mental, which most philosophers in the 18th century regarded in a negative light. The theory of [[transcendental idealism]] that Kant later included in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' was developed partially in opposition to traditional idealism.
His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted his studies. Kant left Königsberg shortly after August 1748[Kuehn 2001, p. 94.]—he would return there in August 1754.[Kuehn 2001, p. 98.] He became a private tutor in the towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. In 1749, he published his first philosophical work, ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]'' (written in 1745–47).[Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf "Thoughts on the true estimation..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 March 2016 }}.]
===Early work===
Kant is best known for his work in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics,[{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=0-19-513218-1 |year=2000 }}]}}[{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=A History of Modern Planetary Physics: Nebulous Earth|year=2014|isbn=978-0-521-44171-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}] The next year, he expanded this reasoning to the [[formation and evolution of the Solar System]] in his ''[[Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens]]''.[{{Cite journal|last=Richards|first=Paul|date=1974|title=Kant's Geography and Mental Maps|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|issue=61|pages=1–16|doi=10.2307/621596|jstor=621596}}][{{Cite journal|last=Elden|first=Stuart|date=2009|title=Reassessing Kant's geography|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=3–25|doi=10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|access-date=27 September 2019|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf|url-status=live}}] Geography was one of Kant's most popular lecturing topics and in 1802 a compilation by Friedrich Theodor Rink of Kant's lecturing notes, ''Physical Geography'', was released. After Kant became a professor in 1770, he expanded the topics of his lectures to include lectures on natural law, ethics and anthropology along with other topics.[{{cite journal|url=https://users.drew.edu/jlenz/br-kant-review.html|last=Russell|first=Bertrand|title=Review of Kant's ''Cosmogony''|journal=Mind|series=n.s.|volume=10|issue=39 (July 1901)|page=405|access-date=12 February 2019|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801211757/https://users.drew.edu/jlenz/br-kant-review.html|url-status=live}}] that the [[Milky Way]] was a [[galaxy|large disk of stars]], which he theorized formed from a much larger spinning gas cloud. He further suggested that other distant "nebulae" might be other galaxies. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy, for the first time extending it beyond the Solar System to galactic and intergalactic realms.[{{cite book|last=Gamow|first=George|title=One Two Three... Infinity|location=New York|publisher=Viking P.|date=1947|pages=300ff|title-link=One Two Three... Infinity}}] According to [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] (1867), Kant also made contributions to geology in his ''Universal Natural History''.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}
From then on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. ''[[The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures]]'', a work in logic, was published in 1762. Two more works appeared the following year: ''Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy'' and ''[[The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God]]''. By 1764, Kant had become a notable popular author, and wrote ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'';[Since he had written his last [[habilitation thesis]] 14 years earlier, a new habilitation thesis was required (see S.J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), ''Rethinking German Idealism'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24).] This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of [[subreption]], and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish.
The issue that vexed Kant was central to what 20th-century scholars called "the [[philosophy of mind]]". The flowering of the natural sciences had led to an understanding of how data reaches the brain. Sunlight falling on an object is reflected from its surface in a way that maps the surface features (color, texture, etc.). The reflected light reaches the human eye, passes through the cornea, is focused by the lens onto the retina where it forms an image similar to that formed by light passing through a pinhole into a [[camera obscura]]. The retinal cells send impulses through the [[optic nerve]] and then they form a mapping in the brain of the visual features of the object. The interior mapping is not the exterior object, and our belief that there is a meaningful relationship between the object and the mapping in the brain depends on a chain of reasoning that is not fully grounded. But the uncertainty aroused by these considerations, by optical illusions, misperceptions, delusions, etc., are not the end of the problems.
Kant saw that the mind could not function as an empty container that simply receives data from outside. Something must be giving order to the incoming data. Images of external objects must be kept in the same sequence in which they were received. This ordering occurs through the mind's intuition of time. The same considerations apply to the mind's function of constituting space for ordering mappings of visual and tactile signals arriving via the already described chains of physical causation.
It is often claimed that Kant was a late developer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.[Cf., for example, Susan Shell, ''The Embodiment of Reason'' (Chicago, 1996)]
===''Critique of Pure Reason''===
{{Main|Critique of Pure Reason}}
At age 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher, and much was expected of him. In correspondence with his ex-student and friend [[Markus Herz]], Kant admitted that, in the inaugural dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation between our sensible and intellectual faculties.[{{Cite book|last=Kuehn|first=Manfred|title=Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-521-78162-6|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=276}}] He needed to explain how we combine what is known as sensory knowledge with the other type of knowledge{{mdash}}i.e. reasoned knowledge{{mdash}}these two being related but having very different processes.
[[File:Painting of David Hume.jpg|thumb|Portrait of philosopher [[David Hume]]]]
Kant also credited [[David Hume]] with awakening him from a "dogmatic slumber" in which he had unquestioningly accepted the tenets of both religion and [[natural philosophy]].[{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|year=1952|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404 404]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}][Immanuel Kant, ''Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics'', p. 57 (Ak. 4:260)] Hume in his 1739 ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' had argued that we only know the mind through a subjective{{mdash}}essentially illusory{{mdash}}series of perceptions.[Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, ''Introducing Kant'' (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005).{{page needed|date=October 2011}} {{ISBN|1-84046-664-2}}]}}}} When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the ''Critique of Pure Reason''. Kant countered Hume's [[empiricism]] by claiming that some knowledge exists inherently in the mind, independent of experience.[{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|title=Man and His Gods|publisher=Grosset & Dunlap|year=1952|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/416 416]}}]
Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this ''Critique'' disappointed Kant's readers upon its initial publication.[{{Cite book|last=Dorrien|first=Gary|title=Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2012|isbn=978-0-470-67331-7|location=Malden, MA|pages=37}}] The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a convoluted style. It received few reviews, and these granted it no significance.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}} Kant's former student, [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] criticized it for placing reason as an entity worthy of criticism instead of considering the process of reasoning within the context of language and one's entire personality.[[[Frederick Copleston|Copleston, Frederick Charles]] (2003). ''The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant''. p. 146.] Similar to [[Christian Garve]] and [[Johann Georg Heinrich Feder]], he rejected Kant's position that space and time possessed a form that could be analyzed. Additionally, Garve and Feder also faulted Kant's Critique for not explaining differences in perception of sensations.[Sassen, Brigitte. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy''. 2000.] Its density made it, as Herder said in a letter to [[Johann Georg Hamann]], a "tough nut to crack", obscured by "all this heavy gossamer".[''Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik'', vol. III, ''Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit'' (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought.'' Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.] Its reception stood in stark contrast to the praise Kant had received for earlier works, such as his ''Prize Essay'' and shorter works that preceded the first Critique. These well-received and readable tracts include one on the [[1755 Lisbon earthquake|earthquake in Lisbon]] that was so popular that it was sold by the page.[Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought.'' Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987 pp. 28–29.] Prior to the change in course documented in the first Critique, his books had sold well.[Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought.'' Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987, p. 62.] Kant was disappointed with the first Critique's reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in 1783 as a summary of its main views. Shortly thereafter, Kant's friend Johann Friedrich Schultz (1739–1805) (professor of mathematics) published ''Erläuterungen über des Herrn Professor Kant Critik der reinen Vernunft'' (Königsberg, 1784), which was a brief but very accurate commentary on Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.
[[File:Immanuel Kant 3.jpg|thumb|Engraving of Immanuel Kant]]
Kant's reputation gradually rose through the latter portion of the 1780s, sparked by a series of important works: the 1784 essay, "[[What is Enlightenment?|Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]"; 1785's ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from 1786, ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]].'' But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source. In 1786, [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]] published a series of public letters on Kantian philosophy.[{{Cite book|last=Guyer|first=Paul|title=The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-521-82303-X|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=631}}] In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the [[Pantheism Dispute]]. [[Friedrich Jacobi]] had accused the recently deceased [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of [[Spinozism]]. Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend [[Moses Mendelssohn]], leading to a bitter public dispute among partisans. The [[scandal|controversy]] gradually escalated into a debate about the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason.
Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason'' could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. Reinhold's [[Letter (message)|letters]] were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.
===Later work===
Kant published a second edition of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' in 1787, heavily revising the first parts of the book. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in 1788's ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' (known as the second ''Critique'') and 1797's ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]''. The 1790 ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (the third ''Critique'') applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and [[teleology]]. It was in this critique where Kant wrote one of his most popular statements: "it is absurd to hope that another Newton will arise in the future who will make comprehensible to us the production of a blade of grass according to natural laws".[{{cite book|last=Wolfram|first=Stephen|title=A New Kind of Science|publisher=Wolfram Media, Inc.|year=2002|page=[https://archive.org/details/newkindofscience00wolf/page/861 861]|isbn=978-1-57955-008-0|url=https://archive.org/details/newkindofscience00wolf/page/861}}]
In 1792, Kant's attempt to publish the Second of the four Pieces of ''[[Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason]]'',[Werner S. Pluhar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=4 March 2020 }}''. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html?id=da8RrM-qkiwC Description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC |date=1 February 2020 }} & [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false Contents.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=4 March 2020 }} With an [https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15#v=onepage&q&f=false Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=3 August 2020 }} by Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,] in the journal ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', met with opposition from the King's [[censorship]] commission, which had been established that same year in the context of the [[French Revolution]].[Derrida, ''Vacant Chair'' p. 44.] This insubordination earned him a now famous reprimand from the King.[{{cite web|url=http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|title=Open letter by Kant denouncing Fichte's Philosophy|language=de|website=Korpora.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html|url-status=live}}] It was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions. In 1800, a student of Kant named Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) published a manual of logic for teachers called ''Logik'', which he had prepared at Kant's request. Jäsche prepared the ''Logik'' using a copy of a textbook in logic by [[Georg Friedrich Meier]] entitled ''Auszug aus der Vernunftlehre'', in which Kant had written copious notes and annotations. The ''Logik'' has been considered of fundamental importance to Kant's philosophy, and the understanding of it. The great 19th-century logician [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] remarked, in an incomplete review of [[Thomas Kingsmill Abbott]]'s English translation of the introduction to ''Logik'', that "Kant's whole philosophy turns upon his logic."[Peirce, C.S., ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'', v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant and his Refutation of Idealism' p. 15
] Also, [[Robert Schirokauer Hartman]] and Wolfgang Schwarz, wrote in the translators' introduction to their English translation of the ''Logik'', "Its importance lies not only in its significance for the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', the second part of which is a restatement of fundamental tenets of the ''Logic'', but in its position within the whole of Kant's work."[Kant, Immanuel, ''Logic'', G.B. Jäsche (ed), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (translators), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.]
===Death and burial===
Kant's health, long poor, worsened and he died at Königsberg on 12 February 1804, uttering "''Es ist gut'' (It is good)" before expiring.[Karl Vorländer, ''Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk'', Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332.] His unfinished final work was published as ''[[Opus Postumum]]''. Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike. However, [[Heinrich Heine]] noted the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to [[Maximilien Robespierre|Robespierre]] with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois. Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god."[{{cite web |url=http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf |title=Heine on Immanuel Kant |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf |url-status=live }}]
When his body was transferred to a new burial spot, his skull was measured during the exhumation and found to be larger than the average German male's with a "high and broad" forehead.[''Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche'', James Miller p. 284] His forehead has been an object of interest ever since it became well-known through his portraits: "In Döbler's portrait and in Kiefer's faithful if expressionistic reproduction of it — as well as in many of the other late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century portraits of Kant — the forehead is remarkably large and decidedly retreating. Was Kant's forehead shaped this way in these images because he was a philosopher, or, to follow the implications of Lavater's system, was he a philosopher because of the intellectual acuity manifested by his forehead? Kant and Johann Kaspar Lavater were correspondents on theological matters, and Lavater refers to Kant in his work "Physiognomic Fragments, for the Education of Human Knowledge and Love of People" (Leipzig & Winterthur, 1775–1778).[''Immanuel Kant and the Bo(a)rders of Art History'' Mark Cheetham, in The Subjects of Art History: Historical Objects in Contemporary Perspectives, p. 16]
[[File:Kant kaliningrad2.png|upright|thumb|Kant's tomb in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia]]
Kant's [[mausoleum]] adjoins the northeast corner of [[Königsberg Cathedral]] in [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. The mausoleum was constructed by the architect [[Friedrich Lahrs]] and was finished in 1924 in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a [[neo-Gothic]] chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location.
The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the [[Soviets]] after they conquered and annexed the city.[{{Cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|title=Resurrecting Königsberg: Russian City Looks to German Roots|last=Beyer|first=Susanne|date=2014-07-25|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=2018-02-03|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html|url-status=live}}] Today, many newlyweds bring flowers to the mausoleum. Artifacts previously owned by Kant, known as ''Kantiana'', were included in the [[Königsberg City Museum]]. However, the museum was destroyed during [[World War II]]. A replica of the statue of Kant that stood in German times in front of the main [[University of Königsberg]] building was donated by a German entity in the early 1990s and placed in the same grounds.
After the [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsion]] of [[Königsberg]]'s German population at the end of [[World War II]], the University of Königsberg where Kant taught was replaced by the Russian-language Kaliningrad State University, which appropriated the campus and surviving buildings. In 2005, the university was renamed [[Immanuel Kant State University of Russia]]. The name change was announced at a ceremony attended by President [[Vladimir Putin]] of Russia and Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] of Germany, and the university formed a Kant Society, dedicated to the study of [[Kantianism]].
In late November 2018, his tomb and statue were vandalized with paint by unknown assailants, who also scattered leaflets glorifying [[Ruthenia|Rus']] and denouncing Kant as a "traitor". The incident is apparently connected with a recent vote to rename [[Khrabrovo Airport]], where Kant was in the lead for a while, prompting Russian nationalist resentment.[{{cite news|last=Kishkovsky|first=Sophia|url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/kant-monument-splashed-with-pink-paint-in-russia|title=Kant monument splashed with pink paint in Kaliningrad|work=[[The Art Newspaper]]|date=28 November 2018|access-date=3 December 2018|archive-date=4 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204101908/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/kant-monument-splashed-with-pink-paint-in-russia|url-status=live}}]
==Philosophy==
{{main |Kantianism}}
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2017}}
In Kant's essay "[[What is Enlightenment?|Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]", he defined the Enlightenment as an age shaped by the [[Latin]] motto ''[[Sapere aude]]'' ("Dare to be wise"). Kant maintained that one ought to think autonomously, free of the dictates of external [[authority]]. His work reconciled many of the differences between the [[rationalism|rationalist]] and [[empiricism|empiricist]] traditions of the 18th century. He had a decisive impact on the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] and [[German Idealism|German Idealist]] philosophies of the 19th century. His work has also been a starting point for many 20th century philosophers.
Kant asserted that, because of the limitations of argumentation in the absence of irrefutable [[Evidence#Evidence in Problems|evidence]], no one could really know whether there is a God and an afterlife or not. For the sake of morality and as a ground for reason, Kant asserted, people are justified in believing in God, even though they could never know God's presence empirically.
{{quote|text=Thus the entire armament of reason, in the undertaking that one can call pure philosophy, is in fact directed only at the three problems that have been mentioned [God, the soul, and freedom]. These themselves, however, have in turn their more remote aim, namely, '''what is to be done''' if the will is free, if there is a God, and if there is a future world. Now since these concern our conduct in relation to the highest end, the ultimate aim of nature which provides for us wisely in the disposition of reason is properly directed only to what is moral.[''The Science of Right,'' Conclusion.] The presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was then a practical concern, for
{{quote|text=Morality in itself constitutes a system, but happiness does not, except insofar as it is distributed precisely in accordance with morality. This, however, is possible only in the intelligible world, under a wise author and regent. Reason sees itself as compelled either to assume such a thing, together with life in such a world, which we must regard as a future one, or else to regard the moral laws as empty figments of the brain ...[In the first edition of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' Kant refers to space as "no discursive or...general conception of the relation of things, but a pure intuition" and maintained that "We can only represent to ourselves one space". The "general notion of spaces...depends solely upon limitations" (Meikeljohn trans., A25). In the second edition of the CPR, Kant adds, "The original representation of space is an ''a priori'' intuition, not a concept" (Kemp Smith trans., B40). In regard to time, Kant states that "Time is not a discursive, or what is called a general concept, but a pure form of sensible intuition. Different times are but parts of one and the same time; and the representation which can be given only through a single object is intuition" (A31/B47). For the differences in the discursive use of reason according to concepts and its intuitive use through the construction of concepts, see ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (A719/B747 ff. and A837/B865). On "One and the same thing in space and time" and the mathematical construction of concepts, see A724/B752.] but are forms of sensibility that are ''a priori'' necessary conditions for any possible experience. Thus the objective order of nature and the causal necessity that operates within it depend on the mind's processes, the product of the rule-based activity that Kant called, "[[A priori and a posteriori|synthesis]]." There is much discussion among Kant scholars about the correct interpretation of this train of thought.
The 'two-world' interpretation regards Kant's position as a statement of epistemological limitation, that we are not able to transcend the bounds of our own mind, meaning that we cannot access the "[[thing-in-itself]]". However, Kant also speaks of the thing in itself or ''transcendental object'' as a product of the (human) understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility. Following this line of thought, some interpreters have argued that the thing in itself does not represent a separate ontological domain but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone{{spaced ndash}}this is known as the two-aspect view.
The notion of the "[[thing in itself]]" was much discussed by philosophers after Kant. It was argued that because the "thing in itself" was unknowable, its existence must not be assumed. Rather than arbitrarily switching to an account that was ungrounded in anything supposed to be the "real," as did the German Idealists, another group arose to ask how our (presumably reliable) accounts of a coherent and rule-abiding universe were actually grounded. This new kind of philosophy became known as [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|Phenomenology]], and its founder was [[Edmund Husserl]].
With regard to [[morality]], Kant argued that the source of the [[Goodness and value theory|good]] lies not in anything outside the [[human]] subject, either in [[nature]] or given by [[God]], but rather is only the good will itself. A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity{{spaced ndash}}understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others{{spaced ndash}}as an [[end in itself]] rather than (merely) as [[means (philosophy)|means]] to other ends the individual might hold. This necessitates practical self-reflection in which we universalize our reasons.
These ideas have largely framed or influenced all subsequent philosophical discussion and analysis. The specifics of Kant's account generated immediate and lasting controversy. Nevertheless, his theses{{spaced ndash}}that the [[mind]] itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to its [[knowledge]], that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, that philosophy involves self-critical activity, that morality is rooted in human freedom, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles{{spaced ndash}}have all had a lasting effect on subsequent philosophy.
===Theory of perception===
{{Main|Critique of Pure Reason}}
Kant defines his theory of perception in his influential 1781 work the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', which has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and [[epistemology]] in modern philosophy.[{{Cite web |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 May 2019 |archive-date=14 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ |url-status=live }}] Kant maintains that understanding of the external world had its foundations not merely in experience, but in both experience and ''a priori'' concepts, thus offering a ''non-empiricist critique of rationalist philosophy'', which is what has been referred to as his Copernican revolution.[{{cite web |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Kant%2c+Immanuel |title=Kant, Immanuel definition of Kant, Immanuel in the Free Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com |access-date=26 February 2014 |archive-date=2 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302135203/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Kant%2c+Immanuel |url-status=live }}]
Firstly, Kant [[Analytic–synthetic distinction|distinguishes between analytic and synthetic propositions]]:
# '''Analytic proposition''': a proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept; ''e.g.'', "All bachelors are unmarried," or, "All bodies take up space."
# '''Synthetic proposition''': a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept; ''e.g.'', "All bachelors are alone," or, "All bodies have weight."
An analytic proposition is true by nature of the meaning of the words in the sentence — we require no further knowledge than a grasp of the language to understand this proposition. On the other hand, a synthetic statement is one that tells us something about the world. The truth or falsehood of synthetic statements derives from something outside their linguistic content. In this instance, weight is not a necessary [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] of the body; until we are told the heaviness of the body we do not know that it has weight. In this case, experience of the body is required before its heaviness becomes clear. Before Kant's first Critique, empiricists (cf. Hume) and rationalists (cf. [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]]) assumed that all synthetic statements required experience to be known.
Kant contests this assumption by claiming that elementary mathematics, like arithmetic, is synthetic ''a priori'', in that its statements provide new knowledge not derived from experience. This becomes part of his over-all argument for [[transcendental idealism]]. That is, he argues that the possibility of experience depends on certain necessary conditions — which he calls ''a priori'' forms — and that these conditions structure and hold true of the world of experience. His main claims in the "[[Critique of Pure Reason#I. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements|Transcendental Aesthetic]]" are that mathematic judgments are synthetic ''a priori'' and that [[space]] and [[time]] are not derived from experience but rather are its preconditions.
Once we have grasped the functions of basic arithmetic, we do not need empirical experience to know that 100 + 100 = 200, and so it appears that arithmetic is analytic. However, that it is analytic can be disproved by considering the calculation 5 + 7 = 12: there is nothing in the numbers 5 and 7 by which the number 12 can be inferred.[{{cite book |last1=Kant |first1=Immanuel |title=Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52821/52821-h/52821-h.htm |access-date=22 March 2020 |at=§ 2 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801234756/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52821/52821-h/52821-h.htm |url-status=live }}] Thus "5 + 7" and "the cube root of 1,728" or "12" are not analytic because their reference is the same but their sense is not — the statement "5 + 7 = 12" tells us something new about the world. It is self-evident, and undeniably ''a priori'', but at the same time it is synthetic. Thus Kant argued that a proposition can be synthetic and ''a priori''.
Kant asserts that experience is based on the perception of external objects and ''a priori'' knowledge.[The German word ''Anschauung'', which Kant used, literally means 'looking at' and generally means what in philosophy in English is called "perception". However it sometimes is rendered as "intuition": not, however, with the vernacular meaning of an indescribable or mystical experience or sixth sense, but rather with the meaning of the direct perception or grasping of sensory phenomena. In this article, both terms, "perception" and "intuition" are used to stand for Kant's ''Anschauung''.] The external world, he writes, provides those things that we sense. But our mind processes this information and gives it order, allowing us to comprehend it. Our mind supplies the conditions of space and time to experience objects. According to the "transcendental unity of apperception", the concepts of the mind (Understanding) and perceptions or intuitions that garner information from phenomena (Sensibility) are synthesized by comprehension. Without concepts, perceptions are nondescript; without perceptions, concepts are meaningless. Thus the famous statement: "Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions [perceptions] without concepts are blind."[Immanuel Kant, ''Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics'', pp. 35–43.]
To begin with, Kant's distinction between the ''[[Empirical evidence|a posteriori]]'' being [[Contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] and particular knowledge, and the ''a priori'' being universal and necessary knowledge, must be kept in mind. If we merely connect two intuitions together in a perceiving subject, the knowledge is always subjective because it is derived ''a posteriori,'' when what is desired is for the knowledge to be objective, that is, for the two intuitions to refer to the object and hold good of it for anyone at any time, not just the perceiving subject in its current condition. What else is equivalent to objective knowledge besides the ''a priori'' (universal and necessary knowledge)? Before knowledge can be objective, it must be incorporated under an ''a priori'' category of ''understanding''.[[http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/texte.php?cle=66&groupe=Kant&langue=2 Deleuze on Kant] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114091656/http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/texte.php?cle=66&groupe=Kant&langue=2 |date=14 November 2007 }}, from where the definitions of ''a priori'' and ''a posteriori'' were obtained.]
For example, if a subject says, "The sun shines on the stone; the stone grows warm," all he perceives are phenomena. His judgment is contingent and holds no necessity. But if he says, "The sunshine causes the stone to warm," he subsumes the perception under the category of causality, which is not found in the perception, and necessarily synthesizes the concept sunshine with the concept heat, producing a necessarily universally true judgment.[Immanuel Kant, ''Critique of Judgment'', the Introduction to the Hackett edition.] In the context of transcendental schema the concept of transcendental reflection is of a great importance.[{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=What is Kant's Transcendental Reflection? |journal=Proceedings of the XXIII World Congress of Philosophy |year=2018 |volume=75 |pages=17–27 |doi=10.5840/wcp232018751730 |isbn=978-1-63435-038-9 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326377298 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326377298_What_is_Kant%27s_Transcendental_Reflection |url-status=live }}]
===Moral philosophy===
[[File:Immanuel Kant.jpg|thumb|Immanuel Kant]]
Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals]]'' (1785), ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' (1788), and ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1797).
In ''Groundwork'', Kant' tries to convert our everyday, obvious, rational[The distinction between rational and philosophical knowledge is given in the Preface to the ''Groundwork'', 1785.] knowledge of morality into philosophical knowledge. The latter two works used "practical reason", which is based only on things about which reason can tell us, and not deriving any principles from experience, to reach conclusions which can be applied to the world of experience (in the second part of ''The Metaphysics of Morals'').
Kant is known for his theory that there is a single [[moral obligation]], which he called the "[[Categorical Imperative]]", and is derived from the concept of [[duty]]. Kant defines the demands of moral law as "categorical imperatives". Categorical imperatives are principles that are intrinsically valid; they are good in and of themselves; they must be obeyed in all situations and circumstances, if our behavior is to observe the moral law. The Categorical Imperative provides a test against which moral statements can be assessed. Kant also stated that the moral means and ends can be applied to the categorical imperative, that rational beings can pursue certain "ends" using the appropriate "means". Ends based on physical needs or wants create [[hypothetical imperative]]s. The categorical imperative can only be based on something that is an "end in itself", that is, an end that is not a means to some other need, desire, or purpose.[Kant, ''Foundations'', p. 421.] Kant believed that the moral law is a principle of [[reason]] itself, and is not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy, but to act on the moral law which has no other motive than "worthiness to be happy".[Kant, ''Foundations'', p. 408.]
Unlike a hypothetical imperative, a categorical imperative is an unconditional obligation; it has the force of an obligation regardless of our will or desires[Kant, ''Foundations'', pp. 420–21.] In ''Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals'' (1785) Kant enumerated three formulations of the categorical imperative that he believed to be roughly equivalent.[Kant, ''Foundations'', p. 436.] In the same book, Kant stated:
:Act only according to that [[maxim (philosophy)|maxim]] whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.[{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |translator-first=James W. |translator-last=Ellington |orig-year=1785 |title=Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals |edition=3rd |publisher=Hackett |year=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/groundingformet000kant/page/30 30] |isbn=978-0-87220-166-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/groundingformet000kant/page/30 }}. It is standard to also reference the ''Akademie Ausgabe'' of Kant's works. The ''Groundwork'' occurs in the fourth volume. The above citation is taken from 4:421.]
According to Kant, one cannot make exceptions for oneself. The philosophical maxim on which one acts should always be considered to be a universal law without exception. One cannot allow oneself to do a particular action unless one thinks it appropriate that the reason for the action should become a universal law. For example, one should not steal, however dire the circumstances{{mdash}}because, by permitting oneself to steal, one makes stealing a universally acceptable act. This is the first formulation of the categorical imperative, often known as the universalizability principle.
Kant believed that, if an action is not done with the motive of duty, then it is without moral value. He thought that every action should have pure intention behind it; otherwise, it is meaningless. The final result is not the most important aspect of an action; rather, how the person feels while carrying out the action is the time when value is attached to the result.
In ''Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals'', Kant also posited the "counter-[[utilitarian]] idea that there is a difference between preferences and values, and that considerations of individual rights temper calculations of aggregate utility", a concept that is an axiom in economics:[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) ''Ecosystems and Well-being: A Framework for Assessment''. Washington DC: Island Press, p. 142.]
Everything has either a ''price'' or a ''dignity''. Whatever has a price can be replaced by something else as its equivalent; on the other hand, whatever is above all price, and therefore admits of no equivalent, has a dignity. But that which constitutes the condition under which alone something can be an end in itself does not have mere relative worth, i.e., price, but an intrinsic worth, i.e., a dignity. (p. 53, italics in original).
A phrase quoted by Kant, which is used to summarize the counter-utilitarian nature of his moral philosophy, is ''[[Fiat justitia, pereat mundus]]'', ("Let justice be done, though the world perish"), which he translates loosely as "Let justice reign even if all the rascals in the world should perish from it". This appears in his 1795 ''[[Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]'' ("''[[:de:Zum ewigen Frieden|Zum ewigen Frieden. Ein philosophischer Entwurf]]''"), Appendix 1.[{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/kant/append1.htm|title=Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch: Appendix 1|publisher=Constitution.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=2 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502223705/http://www.constitution.org/kant/append1.htm|url-status=live}}][{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LykHAAAAQAAJ&q=pereat+mundus+inauthor:Kant&pg=PA61|title=Project for a Perpetual Peace, p. 61|access-date=24 July 2009|year=1796|last1=Kant|first1=Immanuel|archive-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://books.google.com/books?id=LykHAAAAQAAJ&q=pereat+mundus+inauthor%3AKant&pg=PA61|url-status=live}}][{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/immanuelkantswe01kantgoog|quote=pereat mundus Kant.|title=Immanuel Kant's Werke, revidirte Gesammtausg |editor-last=Hartenstein|editor-first=G. |page=[https://archive.org/details/immanuelkantswe01kantgoog/page/n475 456]|access-date=24 July 2009|year=1838|last=Kant|first=Immanuel |language=de}}]
====First formulation====
[[File:Immanuel Kant (painted portrait).jpg|thumb|In his ''Metaphysics'', Immanuel Kant introduced the [[categorical imperative]]: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law."]]
The first formulation (Formula of Universal Law) of the moral imperative "requires that the maxims be chosen as though they should hold as universal [[natural law|laws of nature]]".[Kant, Foundations, p. 437.]
One interpretation of the first formulation is called the "universalizability test".["Kant and the German Enlightenment" in "History of Ethics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Vol. 3, pp. 95–96. MacMillan, 1973.] An agent's maxim, according to Kant, is his "subjective principle of human actions": that is, what the agent believes is his reason to act.[Kant, ''Foundations'', pp. 400, 429.] The universalisability test has five steps:
# Find the agent's maxim (i.e., an action paired with its motivation). Take, for example, the declaration "I will lie for personal benefit". Lying is the action; the motivation is to fulfill some sort of desire. Together, they form the maxim.
# Imagine a possible world in which everyone in a similar position to the real-world agent followed that maxim.
# Decide if contradictions or irrationalities would arise in the possible world as a result of following the maxim.
# If a contradiction or irrationality would arise, acting on that maxim is not allowed in the real world.
# If there is no contradiction, then acting on that maxim is permissible, and is sometimes required.
(For a modern parallel, see [[John Rawls]]' hypothetical situation, the [[original position]].)
====Second formulation====
The second formulation (or Formula of the End in Itself) holds that "the rational being, as by its nature an end and thus as an end in itself, must serve in every maxim as the condition restricting all merely relative and arbitrary ends".[Kant, ''Foundations'', pp. 437–38.]
==== Third formulation ====
The third formulation (i.e. Formula of Autonomy) is a synthesis of the first two and is the basis for the "complete determination of all maxims". It states "that all maxims which stem from autonomous legislation ought to harmonize with a possible realm of ends as with a realm of nature".[Kant, ''Foundations'', pp. 438–39. See also [[Kingdom of Ends]]] No one may elevate themselves above the universal law, therefore it is one's duty to follow the maxim(s).
====''Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason''====
{{Main|Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason}}
Commentators, starting in the 20th century, have tended to see Kant as having a strained relationship with religion, though this was not the prevalent view in the 19th century. [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], whose letters first made Kant famous, wrote "I believe that I may infer without reservation that the interest of religion, and of Christianity in particular, accords completely with the result of the Critique of Reason.".[Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Letters on the Kantian Philosophy (1786), 3rd Letter] [[Johann Schultz]], who wrote one of the first Kant commentaries, wrote "And does not this system itself cohere most splendidly with the Christian religion? Do not the divinity and beneficence of the latter become all the more evident?"[Johann Schultz, Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1784), 141.] This view continued throughout the 19th century, as noted by [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], who said "Kant's success is merely a theologian's success."["The Protestant pastor is the grandfather of German philosophy...German philosophy is at bottom – a cunning theology...Why the rejoicing heard through the German academic world – three-quarters composed of the sons of pastors and teachers-at the appearance of Kant? Why the Germans' conviction, which still find echo even today, that with Kant things were taking a turn of the better? Kant's success is merely a theologian's success". Nietzsche, The Antichrist, 10] The reason for these views was Kant's moral theology, and the widespread belief that his philosophy was the great antithesis to [[Spinozism]], which had been convulsing the European academy for much of the 18th century. Spinozism was widely seen as the cause of the [[Pantheism controversy]], and as a form of sophisticated pantheism or even atheism. As Kant's philosophy disregarded the possibility of arguing for God through pure reason alone, for the same reasons it also disregarded the possibility of arguing against God through pure reason alone. This, coupled with his moral philosophy (his argument that the existence of morality is a rational reason why God and an afterlife do and must exist), was the reason he was seen by many, at least through the end of the 19th century, as a great defender of religion in general and Christianity in particular.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}
Kant articulates his strongest criticisms of the organization and practices of religious organizations to those that encourage what he sees as a religion of counterfeit service to God.[Immanuel Kant. ''Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone'' (1793), Book IV, Part 1, Section 1, "The Christian religion as a natural religion."] Among the major targets of his criticism are external ritual, superstition and a hierarchical church order. He sees these as efforts to make oneself pleasing to God in ways other than conscientious adherence to the principle of moral rightness in choosing and acting upon one's maxims. Kant's criticisms on these matters, along with his rejection of certain theoretical proofs grounded in pure reason (particularly the [[ontological argument]]) for the existence of God and his philosophical commentary on some Christian doctrines, have resulted in interpretations that see Kant as hostile to religion in general and Christianity in particular (e.g., Walsh 1967). Nevertheless, other interpreters consider that Kant was trying to mark off defensible from indefensible Christian belief.[{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Pasternack|first1=Lawrence|last2=Rossi|first2=Philip|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|edition=Fall 2014|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=9 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/|url-status=live}}] Kant sees in [[Jesus Christ]] the affirmation of a "pure moral disposition of the heart" that "can make man well-pleasing to God".[For example Peter Byrne, who wrote about Kant's relationship with deism. Byrne, Peter (2007), ''Kant on God'', London: Ashgate, p. 159.] Other critics have argued that Kant's moral conception moves from deism to theism (as moral theism), for example Allen W. Wood[Wood, Allen W. (1970), ''Kant's moral religion'', London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.] and Merold Westphal.[Westphal, Merold (2010),''The Emerge of Modern Philosophy of Religion'', in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.] As for Kant's book ''[[Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason]]'',[Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii'', in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), ''Studii de istoria filosofiei universale'', volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy.]
====Idea of freedom====
In the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', Kant distinguishes between the transcendental idea of freedom, which as a psychological concept is "mainly empirical" and refers to "whether a faculty of beginning a series of successive things or states from itself is to be assumed"[Ibid. The concept of freedom is also handled in the third section of the ''Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals''; in the ''Critique of Practical Reason'' see § VII and § VIII.])
====Categories of freedom====
In the ''Critique of Practical Reason'', at the end of the second Main Part of the ''Analytics'',[5:65–67] Kant introduces the categories of freedom, in analogy with the categories of understanding their practical counterparts. Kant's categories of freedom apparently function primarily as conditions for the possibility for actions (i) to be free, (ii) to be understood as free and (iii) to be morally evaluated. For Kant, although actions as theoretical objects are constituted by means of the theoretical categories, actions as practical objects (objects of practical use of reason, and which can be good or bad) are constituted by means of the categories of freedom. Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such.[[[Susanne Bobzien]], 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in ''Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik'' Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220.]
===Aesthetic philosophy===
Kant discusses the subjective nature of aesthetic qualities and experiences in ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'' (1764). Kant's contribution to [[aesthetics|aesthetic theory]] is developed in the ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (1790) where he investigates the possibility and logical status of "judgments of taste." In the "Critique of Aesthetic Judgment," the first major division of the ''Critique of Judgment'', Kant used the term "aesthetic" in a manner that, according to Kant scholar W.H. Walsh, differs from its modern sense.[Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 4. Macmillan, 1973.] In the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', to note essential differences between judgments of taste, moral judgments, and scientific judgments, Kant abandoned the term "aesthetic" as "designating the critique of taste," noting that judgments of taste could never be "directed" by "laws ''a priori''."[Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A22/B36.] After [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten|A. G. Baumgarten]], who wrote ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58),[Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the ''Aesthetica'' unfinished (See also: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the ''Critique of Judgment'' he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten.] Kant was one of the first philosophers to develop and integrate aesthetic theory into a unified and comprehensive philosophical system, utilizing ideas that played an integral role throughout his philosophy.[German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.]
In the chapter "Analytic of the Beautiful" in the ''Critique of Judgment'', Kant states that beauty is not a property of an artwork or natural phenomenon, but is instead consciousness of the pleasure that attends the 'free play' of the imagination and the understanding. Even though it appears that we are using reason to decide what is beautiful, the judgment is not a cognitive judgment,[Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in ''Logic''.] "and is consequently not logical, but aesthetical" (§ 1). A pure judgement of taste is subjective since it refers to the emotional response of the subject and is based upon nothing but esteem for an object itself: it is a disinterested pleasure, and we feel that pure judgements of taste (i.e. judgements of beauty), lay claim to universal validity (§§ 20–22). It is important to note that this universal validity is not derived from a determinate concept of beauty but from ''common sense'' (§40). Kant also believed that a judgement of taste shares characteristics engaged in a moral judgement: both are disinterested, and we hold them to be universal. In the chapter "Analytic of the Sublime" Kant identifies the [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] as an aesthetic quality that, like beauty, is subjective, but unlike beauty refers to an indeterminate relationship between the faculties of the imagination and of reason, and shares the character of moral judgments in the use of reason. The feeling of the sublime, divided into two distinct modes (the mathematical and the dynamical sublime), describes two subjective moments that concern the relationship of the faculty of the imagination to reason. Some commentators[{{cite web |last=Clewis |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US |url-status=live }}] argue that Kant's critical philosophy contains a third kind of the sublime, the moral sublime, which is the aesthetic response to the moral law or a representation, and a development of the "noble" sublime in Kant's theory of 1764. The mathematical sublime results from the failure of the imagination to comprehend natural objects that appear boundless and formless, or appear "absolutely great" (§§ 23–25). This imaginative failure is then recuperated through the pleasure taken in reason's assertion of the concept of infinity. In this move the faculty of reason proves itself superior to our fallible sensible self (§§ 25–26). In the dynamical sublime there is the sense of annihilation of the sensible self as the imagination tries to comprehend a vast might. This power of nature threatens us but through the resistance of reason to such sensible annihilation, the subject feels a pleasure and a sense of the human moral vocation. This appreciation of moral feeling through exposure to the [[sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] helps to develop moral character.
Kant developed a theory of [[Humour|humor]] (§ 54) that has been interpreted as an "incongruity" theory. He illustrated his theory of humor by telling three narrative jokes in the ''Critique of Judgment''. He told many more jokes throughout his lectures and writings.[{{Cite book|last=Clewis|first=Robert|title=Kant's Humorous Writings: An Illustrated Guide|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2020|isbn=9781350112797|location=London}}]
Kant developed a distinction between an object of art as a material value subject to the conventions of society and the transcendental condition of the judgment of taste as a "refined" value in his ''Idea of A Universal History'' (1784). In the Fourth and Fifth Theses of that work he identified all art as the "fruits of unsociableness" due to men's "antagonism in society"[Kant, Immanuel. ''Idea for a Universal History''. Trans. Lewis White Beck (20, 22).] and, in the Seventh Thesis, asserted that while such material property is indicative of a civilized state, only the ideal of morality and the universalization of refined value through the improvement of the mind "belongs to culture".[Kant, Immanuel. ''Idea for a Universal History''. Trans. Lewis White Beck (26).]
===Political philosophy===
{{Main|Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant}}
{{Liberalism sidebar}}
In ''Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch'',[Kant, Immanuel. ''[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm |date=6 April 2019 }}'' (1795)] Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace. They included a world of constitutional republics.[Kant, Immanuel. ''Perpetual Peace.'' Trans. Lewis White Beck (377).] His [[classical republicanism|classical republican]] theory was extended in the ''Science of Right'', the first part of the ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1797).[Manfred Riedel ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984] Kant believed that [[universal history]] leads to the ultimate world of republican states at peace, but his theory was not pragmatic. The process was described in "Perpetual Peace" as natural rather than rational:
{{quote|
The guarantee of perpetual peace is nothing less than that great artist, nature...In her mechanical course we see that her aim is to produce a harmony among men, against their will, and indeed through their discord. As a necessity working according to laws we do not know, we call it destiny. But, considering its designs in universal history, we call it "providence," inasmuch as we discern in it the profound wisdom of a higher cause which predetermines the course of nature and directs it to the objective final end of the human race.[''On History'', (ed. L.W. Beck, New York: Bobbs Merill, 1963, p. 106).]}}
Kant's political thought can be summarized as republican government and international organization. "In more characteristically Kantian terms, it is doctrine of the state based upon the law (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') and of eternal peace. Indeed, in each of these formulations, both terms express the same idea: that of legal constitution or of 'peace through law'. Kant's political philosophy, being essentially a legal doctrine, rejects by definition the opposition between moral education and the play of passions as alternate foundations for social life. The state is defined as the union of men under law. The state is constituted by laws which are necessary a priori because they flow from the very concept of law. "A regime can be judged by no other criteria nor be assigned any other functions, than those proper to the lawful order as such." [History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–82, 603]
He opposed "democracy," which at his time meant [[direct democracy]], believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty. He stated, "...democracy is, properly speaking, necessarily a despotism, because it establishes an executive power in which 'all' decide for or even against one who does not agree; that is, 'all,' who are not quite all, decide, and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom."[Kant, Immanuel. ''Perpetual Peace.'' Trans. Lewis White Beck (352).] As with most writers at the time, he distinguished three forms of government i.e. democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy with [[mixed government]] as the most ideal form of it.
===Anthropology===
[[File:German 5 DM 1974 D Silver Coin Immanuel Kant.jpg|right|thumb|5 DM 1974 D silver coin commemorating the 250th birthday of Immanuel Kant in [[Königsberg]]]]
Kant lectured on [[History of anthropology|anthropology]], the study of human nature, for twenty-three and a half years.[{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Holly |title=Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils |url-access=limited |date=2006 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0-7914-6849-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21 7]}}] His ''[[Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View]]'' was published in 1798. (This was the subject of [[Michel Foucault]]'s secondary dissertation for his [[State doctorate]], ''[[Introduction to Kant's Anthropology]]''.) Kant's Lectures on Anthropology were published for the first time in 1997 in German.[Thomas Sturm, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen'' (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009).] ''Introduction to Kant's Anthropology'' was translated into English and published by the Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy series in 2006.[''Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View'', ed. Robert B. Louden, introduction by Manfred Kuehn, Cambridge University Press, 2006]
Kant was among the first people of his time to introduce anthropology as an intellectual area of study, long before the field gained popularity, and his texts are considered to have advanced the field. His point of view was to influence the works of later philosophers such as [[Martin Heidegger]] and [[Paul Ricoeur]].
Kant was also the first to suggest using a dimensionality approach to human diversity. He analyzed the nature of the [[Hippocrates]]-[[Galen]] four temperaments and plotted them in two dimensions: (1) "activation", or energetic aspect of behaviour, and (2) "orientation on emotionality".[{{cite book|year=1798|last1=Kant|first1=I.|title=Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view. trans. Mary Gregor). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974 (VII)}}] Cholerics were described as emotional and energetic; Phlegmatics as balanced and weak; Sanguines as balanced and energetic, and Melancholics as emotional and weak. These two dimensions reappeared in all subsequent models of temperament and personality traits.
Kant viewed anthropology in two broad categories: (1) the physiological approach, which he referred to as "what nature makes of the human being"; and (2) the pragmatic approach, which explored the things that a human "can and should make of himself."[{{cite journal|last1=Gregor|first1=Brian|title=Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. By Immanuel Kant. Translated and edited by Robert B. Louden.|volume=Heythrop}}]
====Racism====
Kant was one of the most notable Enlightenment thinkers to defend [[racism]], and some have claimed that he was one of the central figures in the birth of modern "scientific" racism. Where previous figures such as [[Carl Linnaeus]] and [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] had supposed only "empirical" observation for racism, Kant produced a full-blown theory of race. Using the [[Four Temperaments]] of ancient Greece, he proposed a hierarchy of four racial categories: white Europeans, yellow Asians, black Africans, and red Amerindians.[{{cite web |last1=Kant |first1=Immanuel |title=Kant on the Different Races of Man |url=https://blogs.umass.edu/afroam391g-shabazz/files/2010/01/Kant-on-the-Different-Races-of-Man1.pdf |website=UMass Amherst |access-date=15 June 2020 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801194450/https://blogs.umass.edu/afroam391g-shabazz/files/2010/01/Kant-on-the-Different-Races-of-Man1.pdf |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Charles W. |title=Black Rights/White Wrongs: The Critique of Racial Liberalism |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-024545-0 |pages=169–193 |url=https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190245412.001.0001/acprof-9780190245412 |access-date=15 June 2020 |archive-date=16 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616003829/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190245412.001.0001/acprof-9780190245412 |url-status=live }}]
Kant wrote that "[Whites] contain all the impulses of nature in affects and passions, all talents, all dispositions to culture and civilization and can as readily obey as govern. They are the only ones who always advance to perfection.” He describes South Asians as "educated to the highest degree but only in the arts and not in the sciences". He goes on that Hindustanis can never reach the level of abstract concepts and that a "great hindustani man" is one who has "gone far in the art of deception and has much money". He stated that the Hindus always stay the way they are and can never advance. About black Africans, Kant wrote that "they can be educated but only as servants, that is they allow themselves to be trained". He quotes David Hume as challenging anyone to "cite a [single] example in which a Negro has shown talents" and asserts that, among the "hundreds of thousands" of blacks transported during the [[Atlantic slave trade]], even among the freed "still not a single one was ever found who presented anything great in art or science or any other praiseworthy quality". To Kant, "the Negro can be disciplined and cultivated, but is never genuinely civilized. He falls of his own accord into savagery." Native Americans, Kant opined, "cannot be educated". He calls them unmotivated, lacking affect, passion and love, describing them as too weak for labor, unfit for any culture, and too [[Four temperaments|phlegmatic]] for diligence. He said the Native Americans are "far below the Negro, who undoubtedly holds the lowest of all remaining levels by which we designate the different races". Kant stated that "Americans and Blacks cannot govern themselves. They thus serve only for slaves."[{{cite web |title=Kant on the different human races (1777) |url=https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/ |website=Black Central Europe |access-date=16 June 2020 |language=en |date=4 February 2016 |archive-date=16 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616003834/https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/ |url-status=live }}]
Kant was an opponent of [[miscegenation]], believing that whites would be "degraded" and the "fusing of races" is undesireable, for "not every race adopts the morals and customs of the Europeans". He stated that "instead of assimilation, which was intended by the melting together of the various races, Nature has here made a law of just the opposite".[{{cite book |last1=Kant |first1=Immanuel |title=Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View |date=1798 |page=236}}] He believed that in the future all races would be extinguished, except that of the whites.[ In particular, he unambiguously rejected past views related to racial hierarchies and the diminished rights or moral status of non-whites in ''[[Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]'' (1795). This work also saw him providing extended arguments against European [[colonialism]], which he claimed was morally unjust and incompatible with the equal rights held by indigenous populations.][
==Influence==
Kant's influence on Western thought has been profound.][Prof. Oliver A. Johnson claims that, "With the possible exception of Plato's Republic, (Critique of Pure Reason) is the most important philosophical book ever written." Article on Kant within the collection "Great thinkers of the Western World", Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992.] Although the basic tenets of Kant's [[transcendental idealism]] (i.e. that space and time are 'a priori' forms of human perception rather than real properties, that human perception is entirely informed by "a priori" epistemic structures, and the claim that formal logic and transcendental logic coincide) have been falsified in modern science and logic,[{{Cite book|last=Strawson|first=Peter|title=Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"|id={{ASIN|0415040302|country=uk}}}}][{{Cite web|title=Einstein on Kant|url=https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|access-date=2020-09-02|website=www.pitt.edu|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.|url-status=live}}][{{Cite journal|last=Perrick|first=Michael|date=1985|title=Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths|journal=Mind|volume=94|issue=376|pages=596–598|doi=10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596|jstor=2254731|issn=0026-4423}}] and don't set any longer the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers, Kant is credited with having changed the framework within which modern philosophical inquiry has been carried at least up to the early nineteenth century. This shift consisted in several closely related innovations that, although highly contentious in themselves, have become important postmodern philosophy and in the social sciences broadly construed generally:
* The human subject seen as the centre of inquiry into human knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they exist independently of human perception or of how they are for us;[See Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", ''Metaphilosophy'' 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–88; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 Kant's System of Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 |date=14 April 2012 }}: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).]
* The notion that is possible to discover and systematically explore the inherent limits to our ability to know entirely "a priori";
* The notion of the "categorical imperative," an assertion that people are naturally endowed with the ability and obligation toward right reason and acting. Perhaps his most famous quote is drawn from the Critique of pure reason: "two things fill my mind with ever-increasing wonder and awe: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me" (der bestirnte Himmel über mir und das moralische Gesetz in mir.")
* The concept of "conditions of possibility", as in his notion of "the conditions of possible experience"{{spaced ndash}}that is that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, we must first understand these conditions;
* The theory that objective experience is actively constituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind;
* His notion of moral autonomy as central to humanity;
* His assertion of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as means.
Kant's ideas have been incorporated into a variety of schools of thought. These include [[German Idealism]], [[Marxism]], [[positivism]], [[phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[existentialism]], [[critical theory]], [[linguistic philosophy]], [[structuralism]], [[post-structuralism]], and [[deconstructionism]].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
===Historical influence===
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2016}}
During his own life, much critical attention was paid to his thought. He influenced [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], and [[Novalis]] during the 1780s and 1790s. The school of thinking known as [[German Idealism]] developed from his writings. The German Idealists Fichte and Schelling, for example, tried to bring traditional "metaphysically" laden notions like "the Absolute", "God", and "Being" into the scope of Kant's [[critical thought]].[There is much debate in the recent scholarship about the extent to which Fichte and Schelling actually overstep the boundaries of Kant's critical philosophy, thus entering the realm of dogmatic or pre-Critical philosophy. Beiser's ''German Idealism'' discusses some of these issues. Beiser, Frederick C. ''German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]], 2002.] In so doing, the German Idealists tried to reverse Kant's view that we cannot know what we cannot observe.
[[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Immanuel Kant in [[Kaliningrad]] ([[Königsberg]]), Russia. Replica by {{Interlanguage link multi|Harald Haacke|de}} of the original by [[Christian Daniel Rauch]] lost in 1945.]]
Hegel was one of Kant's first major critics. The main accusations Hegel charged Kant's philosophy with were formalism (or 'abstractism') and irrationality. In Hegel's view the entire project of setting a "transcendental subject" apart from nature, history, and society was fundamentally flawed,[{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}}] although parts of that very project could be put to good use in a new direction, that Hegel called the "absolute idealism". Similar concerns moved Hegel's criticisms to Kant's concept of moral autonomy, to which Hegel opposed an ethic focused on the "ethical life" of the community.[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences.'' trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right.'' Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right.'' trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967.] In a sense, Hegel's notion of "ethical life" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, [[Kantian ethics]]. And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "desires", by means of reason. Thus, in contrast to later critics like Nietzsche or Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's concerns.[Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume.]
Kant's thinking on religion was used in Britain to challenge the decline in religious faith in the nineteenth century. British Catholic writers, notably [[G.K. Chesterton]] and [[Hilaire Belloc]], followed this approach. [[Ronald Englefield]] debated this movement, and Kant's use of language.{{efn|See Englefield's article "Kant as Defender of the Faith in Nineteenth-century England", ''Question'', 12, 16–27 (London, Pemberton) reprinted in ''Critique of Pure Verbiage, Essays on Abuses of Language in Literary, Religious, and Philosophical Writings'', edited by G.A. Wells and D.R. Oppenheimer, Open Court, 1990.}} Criticisms of Kant were common in the realist views of the new positivism at that time.
[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] was strongly influenced by Kant's [[transcendental idealism]]. He, like [[G.E. Schulze]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe nor are they completely beyond our access. Ever since the first ''Critique of Pure Reason'' philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Many have argued, if such a thing exists beyond experience then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category 'causality' beyond the realm of experience.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} For Schopenhauer things in themselves do not exist outside the non-rational will. The world, as Schopenhauer would have it, is the striving and largely unconscious will. Michael Kelly, in the preface to his 1910 book ''Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism'', stated: "Of Kant it may be said that what is good and true in his philosophy would have been buried with him, were it not for Schopenhauer...."
With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's influence began to wane, though there was in Germany a movement that hailed a return to Kant in the 1860s, beginning with the publication of ''Kant und die Epigonen'' in 1865 by [[Otto Liebmann]]. His motto was "Back to Kant", and a re-examination of his ideas began (see [[Neo-Kantianism]]). During the turn of the 20th century there was an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as the [[Marburg School]], represented in the work of [[Hermann Cohen]], [[Paul Natorp]], [[Ernst Cassirer]],[Beck, Lewis White. "Neo-Kantianism". In ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 5–6. Macmillan, 1973. Article on Neo-Kantianism by a translator and scholar of Kant.] and anti-Neo-Kantian [[Nicolai Hartmann]].[Cerf, Walter. "Nicolai Hartmann". In ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 3–4. Macmillan, 1973. Nicolai was a realist who later rejected the idealism of Neo-Kantianism, his anti-Neo-Kantian views emerging with the publication of the second volume of ''Hegel'' (1929).]
Kant's notion of "Critique" has been quite influential. The Early German Romantics, especially [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] in his "Athenaeum Fragments", used Kant's self-reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry.[Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.] Also in [[Aesthetics]], [[Clement Greenberg]], in his classic essay "Modernist Painting", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as "immanent criticism", to justify the aims of [[Abstract Art|Abstract painting]], a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitiaton—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting.[Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.] French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]] was also greatly influenced by Kant's notion of "Critique" and wrote several pieces on Kant for a re-thinking of the Enlightenment as a form of "critical thought". He went so far as to classify his own philosophy as a "critical history of modernity, rooted in Kant".[See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology." Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence.]
Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']] knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through intuition.[For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22.] Kant's often brief remarks about [[mathematics]] influenced the mathematical school known as [[intuitionism]], a movement in [[philosophy of mathematics]] opposed to [[David Hilbert|Hilbert's]] [[formalism (mathematics)|formalism]], and [[Frege]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[logicism]].[[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992.]
===Influence on modern thinkers===
[[File:DBP - 250 Jahre Immanuel Kant - 90 Pfennig - 1974.jpg|thumb|West German postage stamp, 1974, commemorating the 250th anniversary of Kant's birth]]
With his ''[[Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]'', Kant is considered to have foreshadowed many of the ideas that have come to form the [[democratic peace theory]], one of the main controversies in [[political science]].[{{cite journal|last=Ray|first=James Lee |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |title=Does Democracy Cause Peace?|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm |archive-date=17 February 2008|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|year=1998|volume=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27}}]
Prominent recent Kantians include the British philosophers [[P.F. Strawson]],[Strawson, P.F., ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.] [[Onora O'Neill]],[{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|title=Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research|last=Aridi|first=Sara|date=March 14, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html|url-status=live}}] and [[Quassim Cassam]][Cassam, Q., "The Possibility of Knowledge" Oxford: 2009] and the American philosophers [[Wilfrid Sellars]][Sellars, Wilfrid, ''Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes.'' Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967] and [[Christine Korsgaard]].[Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends.'' Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-49644-6|0-521-49962-3}} ''Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''] Due to the influence of Strawson and Sellars, among others, there has been a renewed interest in Kant's view of the mind. Central to many debates in [[philosophy of psychology]] and [[cognitive science]] is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness.[[[Andrew Brook|Brook, Andrew]]. ''Kant and the Mind''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. See also, Meerbote, R. "Kant's [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|Functionalism]]". In: J.C. Smith, ed. ''Historical Foundations of Cognitive Science''. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1991. Brook has an article on Kant's View of the Mind in the [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/ Stanford Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709014732/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/ |date=9 July 2010 }}]
[[Jürgen Habermas]] and [[John Rawls]] are two significant political and moral philosophers whose work is strongly influenced by Kant's moral philosophy.[See Habermas, J. ''Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action.'' Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. ''Theory of Justice'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions''. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.] They argued against relativism,[Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Eds.): Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–48.] supporting the Kantian view that universality is essential to any viable moral philosophy. Jean-Francois Lyotard, however, emphasized the indeterminacy in the nature of thought and language and has engaged in debates with Habermas based on the effects this indeterminacy has on philosophical and political debates.[Rorty, R. (2984) Habermas and Lyotard on postmodernity. Praxis International (32–44)]
[[Mou Zongsan|Mou Zongsan's]] study of Kant has been cited as a highly crucial part in the development of Mou’s personal philosophy, namely [[New Confucianism]]. Widely regarded as the most influential Kant scholar in China, Mou's rigorous critique of Kant’s philosophy—having translated all three of Kant’s [[Critique of Pure Reason|critiques]]—served as an ardent attempt to reconcile Chinese and Western philosophy whilst increasing pressure to [[Westernization|westernize]] in China.[{{cite book |last1=Palmquist |first1=Stephen |title=Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm |url-access=limited |date=November 19, 2010 |publisher=De Gruyter, Inc. |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-3-11-022624-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43 25] |edition=1st}}][{{cite journal |last1=Wing‐Cheuk |first1=Chan |title=Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy |journal=Journal of Chinese Philosophy |date=February 21, 2006 |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x }}]
Kant's influence also has extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences, as in the sociology of [[Max Weber]], the psychology of [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Carl Gustav Jung]],[{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Whether jung was a kantian? |journal=Con-Textos Kantianos |year=2016 |issue=4 |pages=118–126 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.2550828 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian |url-status=live }}][{{cite journal |last1=Balanovskiy |first1=Valentin |title=Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology |journal=Estudos Kantianos |year=2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=357–390 |doi=10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323540339 |doi-access=free |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=20 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055820/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323540339_Kant_and_Jung_on_the_prospects_of_Scientific_Psychology |url-status=live }}] and the linguistics of [[Noam Chomsky]]. Kant's work on mathematics and synthetic ''a priori'' knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist [[Albert Einstein]] as an early influence on his intellectual development, which he later criticised heavily and rejected.[Issacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe." p. 20.] Because of the thoroughness of the Kantian paradigm shift, his influence extends to thinkers who neither specifically refer to his work nor use his terminology.
==Bibliography==
===List of major works===
* (1749) ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'')
* (March 1755) ''[[Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens]]'' (''Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels'')
* (April 1755) ''Brief Outline of Certain Meditations on Fire'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' ([[master's thesis]] under [[Johann Gottfried Teske]]))[The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, ''Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).][Eric Watkins (ed.), ''Kant and the Sciences'', Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27.][Martin Schonfeld, ''The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project'', Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.][Available [https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html |date=6 March 2016 }}.]
* (September 1755) ''A New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' ([[doctoral thesis]]))[The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100).][Available [https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html online at Bonner Kant-Korpus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131856/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html |date=6 March 2016 }}.]
* (1756) ''The Use in Natural Philosophy of Metaphysics Combined with Geometry, Part I: Physical Monadology'' (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophin naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviated as ''Monadologia Physica'' (thesis as a prerequisite of associate professorship))[Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).]
* (1762) ''[[The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'')
* (1763) ''[[The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'')
* (1763) ''Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy'' (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'')
* (1764) ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'' (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'')
* (1764) ''Essay on the Illness of the Head'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'')
* (1764) ''Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality'' (the ''Prize Essay'') (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'')
* (1766) ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')[Available [https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant online at Archive.org].]
* (1768) ''On the Ultimate Ground of the Differentiation of Regions in Space'' (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')[Immanuel Kant, [https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU "Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU |date=16 July 2018 }}.]
* (August 1770) ''Dissertation on the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World'' (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' (doctoral thesis))[The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189).][Available [https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123#v=onepage online at Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123#v=onepage |date=3 August 2020 }}.][English translation available [[:s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770|online at Wikisource]].][{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|title=The Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au|access-date=24 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/|archive-date=2 December 2008|df=dmy-all}}] (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')[{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|title=Immanuel Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft - 1. Auflage - Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm|url-status=live}}]
* (1783) ''[[Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics]]'' (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'')
* (1784) "[[What Is Enlightenment?|An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?]]" ("''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?''")[{{cite web|author=Frank-Christian Lilienweihs|url=http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|title=Immanuel Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?|publisher=Prometheusonline.de|date=10 June 1999|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm|url-status=live}}]
* (1784) "[[Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose]]" ("''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''")
* (1785) ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'')
* (1786) ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'')
* (1786) "[https://archive.org/details/KantOrientFerrerMarch2014 What does it mean to orient oneself in thinking?]" ("''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?''")
* (1786) ''Conjectural Beginning of Human History'' (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'')
* (1787) Second edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''[{{cite web|url=http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|title=Critique of Pure Reason|publisher=Hkbu.edu.hk|date=31 October 2003|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=27 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html|url-status=live}}] (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')[{{cite web|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|title=Immanuel Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft - 2. Auflage - Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|date=20 July 2009|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=26 December 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm|url-status=live}}]
* (1788) ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')[{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|title=Immanuel Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft - Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm|url-status=live}}]
* (1790) ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'')[[[s:The Critique of Judgment]]]
* (1793) ''[[Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason]]'' (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')[{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|title=Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793|publisher=Marxists.org|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm|url-status=live}}]
* (1793) ''On the Old Saw: That May be Right in Theory But It Won't Work in Practice'' ''(Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis)''
* (1795) ''[[Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch]]''[{{cite web|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|title=Immanuel Kant, "Perpetual Peace"|publisher=Mtholyoke.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|url-status=live}}] ("''Zum ewigen Frieden''")[{{cite web|url=http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|title=Immanuel Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)|publisher=Uni-kassel.de|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html|url-status=live}}]
* (1797) ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (''Metaphysik der Sitten''). First part is The Doctrine of Right, which has often been published separately as The Science of Right.
* (1798) ''[[Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View]]'' (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'')
* (1798) ''The Contest of Faculties''[{{cite web|url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|title=Kant, The Contest of Faculties|publisher=Chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=24 July 2009|archive-date=4 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/|url-status=live}}] (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')[{{cite web|author=Immanuel Kant|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|title=Immanuel Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten - Kapitel 1|publisher=Projekt Gutenberg-DE|access-date=24 July 2009|language=de|archive-date=9 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm|url-status=live}}]
* (1800) ''Logic'' (''Logik'')
* (1803) ''On Pedagogy'' (''Über Pädagogik'')[Available [http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803 online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803 |date=10 March 2016 }}.]
* (1804) ''Opus Postumum''
* (1817) ''Lectures on Philosophical Theology'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'' edited by K.H.L. Pölitz) [The English edition of A.W. Wood & G.M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) is based on Pölitz' second edition, 1830, of these lectures.][As noted by [[Allen W. Wood]] in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84.]
===Collected works in German===
[[Wilhelm Dilthey]] inaugurated the Academy edition (the ''Akademie-Ausgabe'' abbreviated as ''AA'' or ''Ak'') of Kant's writings (''Gesammelte Schriften'', [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften]], Berlin, 1902–38) in 1895,[Immanuel Kant, ''Notes and Fragments'', Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. xvi.] and served as its first editor. The volumes are grouped into four sections:
* I. Kant's published writings (vols. 1–9),
* II. Kant's correspondence (vols. 10–13),
* III. Kant's literary remains, or ''[[Nachlass]]'' (vols. 14–23), and
* IV. Student notes from Kant's lectures (vols. 24–29).
=== External Link: [https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/Kant/ ''Elektronische Edition der Gesammelten Werke Immanuel Kants'']. Volumes 1-23. ===
==See also==
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* ''[[Aenesidemus (book)|Aenesidemus]]''
* [[Agnosticism]]
* [[Arthur Schopenhauer's criticism of Immanuel Kant's schemata]]
* [[Kant Russian State University]]
* [[Kant's influence on Mou Zongsan]]
* [[Kantian fallacy]]
* [[List of liberal theorists]]
* ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]''
* ''[[On Vision and Colors]]''
* [[Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant]]
* [[Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy]]
}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
===Works cited===
* Kant, Immanuel. ''Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals''. Trans. Lewis White Beck, Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1969. Page numbers citing this work are Beck's marginal numbers that refer to the page numbers of the standard edition of ''Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften'' (Berlin, 1902–38).
* Kuehn, Manfred. ''Kant: a Biography.'' Cambridge University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-521-49704-3}}.
==Further reading==
{{further reading cleanup|date=February 2017}}
In Germany, one important contemporary interpreter of Kant and the movement of [[German Idealism]] he began is [[Dieter Henrich]], who has some work available in English. [[P.F. Strawson]]'s ''[[The Bounds of Sense]]'' (1966) played a significant role in determining the contemporary reception of Kant in England and America. More recent interpreters of note in the English-speaking world include [[Lewis White Beck]], [[Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)|Jonathan Bennett]], Henry Allison, [[Paul Guyer]], [[Christine Korsgaard]], Stephen Palmquist, [[Robert B. Pippin]], [[Roger Scruton]], [[Rudolf Makkreel]], and [[Béatrice Longuenesse]].
{{refbegin}}
'''General introductions to his thought'''
* [[C. D. Broad|Broad, C.D.]] ''Kant: An Introduction''. Cambridge University Press, 1978. {{ISBN|0-521-21755-5|0-521-29265-4}}
* [[Sebastian Gardner|Gardner, Sebastian]]. ''Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason''. [[Routledge]], 1999. {{ISBN|0-415-11909-X}}
* Martin, Gottfried. ''Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science''. [[Greenwood Press]], 1955 {{ISBN|978-0-8371-7154-8}} (elucidates Kant's most fundamental concepts in their historical context)
* Palmquist, Stephen. [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 ''Kant's System of Perspectives''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 |date=14 April 2012 }}'': an architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1993. {{ISBN|0-8191-8927-8}}
* [[T. K. Seung|Seung, T.K.]] 2007. ''Kant: a Guide for the Perplexed''. London: Continuum. {{ISBN|0-8264-8580-4}}
* Satyananda Giri. ''Kant''. Durham, CT: Strategic Publishing Group, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1-60911-686-6}}
* [[Roger Scruton|Scruton, Roger]]. ''Kant: a Very Short Introduction''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2001. {{ISBN|0-19-280199-6}} (provides a brief account of his life, and a lucid introduction to the three major critiques)
* Uleman, Jennifer. ''An Introduction to Kant's Moral Philosophy''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-521-13644-0}}
* Luchte, James. ''Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. [[Bloomsbury Publishing]], 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-9322-4}}
* [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]]. ''Kant's Critical Philosophy: The Doctrine of the Faculties''. The Athlone Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-485-11249-3}}
'''Biography and historical context'''
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bader |first=Ralph |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publications|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi= 10.4135/9781412965811.n161|isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=269–71 |chapter=Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804) }}
* [[Lewis White Beck|Beck, Lewis White]]. ''Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors.'' Harvard University Press, 1969. (a survey of Kant's intellectual background)
* [[Frederick C. Beiser|Beiser, Frederick C]]. ''The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte.'' Harvard University Press, 1987.
* Beiser, Frederick C. ''German Idealism: the Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.'' Harvard University Press, 2002
* [[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer, Ernst]]. ''Kant's Life and Thought.'' Translation of ''Kants Leben und Lehre''. Trans., Jame S. Haden, intr. Stephan Körner. New Haven, CT: [[Yale University Press]], 1981.
* [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|Chamberlain, Houston Stewart.]] ''Immanuel Kant{{spaced ndash}}a study and a comparison with [[Goethe]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], Bruno, [[Plato]] and [[Descartes]]'', the authorised translation from the German by [[Lord Redesdale]], with his 'Introduction', [[The Bodley Head]], London, 1914, (2 volumes).
* Gulyga, Arsenij. ''Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought''. Trans., Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.
* Johnson, G.R. (ed.). ''Kant on Swedenborg. Dreams of a Spirit-Seer and Other Writings''. Swedenborg Foundation, 2002. (new translation and analysis, many supplementary texts)
* [[Ulrich L. Lehner|Lehner, Ulrich L.]], [http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=73&pid=26413 Kants Vorsehungskonzept auf dem Hintergrund der deutschen Schulphilosophie und –theologie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923084623/http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=73&pid=26413 |date=23 September 2006 }} (Leiden: 2007) (Kant's concept of Providence and its background in German school philosophy and theology)
* Pinkard, Terry. ''German Philosophy, 1760–1860: the Legacy of Idealism.'' Cambridge, 2002.
* [[Robert B. Pippin|Pippin, Robert]]. ''Idealism as Modernism.'' Cambridge University Press, 1996.
* Sassen, Brigitte (ed.). ''Kant's Early Critics: the Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy'', Cambridge, 2000.
* Schabert, Joseph A. [https://archive.org/stream/americancatholic47philuoft#page/120/mode/2up ''"Kant's Influence on his Successors"''], ''The American Catholic Quarterly Review'', Vol. XLVII, January 1922.
'''Collections of essays'''
* Firestone, Chris L. and Palmquist, Stephen (eds.). ''Kant and the New Philosophy of Religion''. Notre Dame: Indiana University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-253-21800-4}}
* Förster, Eckart (ed.). ''Kant's Transcendental Deductions:. The Three 'Critiques' and the 'Opus Postumum' '' Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]], 1989. Includes an important essay by Dieter Henrich.
* [[Paul Guyer|Guyer, Paul]] (ed.). ''The Cambridge Companion to Kant'', Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1992. {{ISBN|0-521-36587-2|0-521-36768-9}}. Excellent collection of papers that covers most areas of Kant's thought.
* [[Jitendra Nath Mohanty|Mohanty, J.N.]] and Shahan, Robert W. (eds.). ''Essays on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Norman: [[University of Oklahoma Press]], 1982. {{ISBN|0-8061-1782-6}}
* Phillips, Dewi et al. (eds.). ''Kant and Kierkegaard on Religion.'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000, {{ISBN|0-312-23234-9}} Collection of essays about Kantian religion and its influence on Kierkegaardian and contemporary philosophy of religion.
* ''Proceedings of the International Kant Congresses.'' Several Congresses (numbered) edited by various publishers.
'''Theoretical philosophy'''
* [[Henry E. Allison|Allison, Henry]]. ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983, 2004. {{ISBN|0-300-03629-9|0-300-03002-9}} (a very influential defense of Kant's idealism, recently revised).
* [[Karl Ameriks|Ameriks, Karl]]. ''Kant's Theory of Mind: An Analysis of the Paralogisms of Pure Reason.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982 (one of the first detailed studies of the Dialectic in English).
* Banham, Gary. ''Kant's Transcendental Imagination''. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
* [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]]. ''Kant's Critical Philosophy''. Trans., Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. [[University of Minnesota Press]], 1984. {{ISBN|0-8166-1341-9|0-8166-1436-9}}
* Gram, Moltke S. ''The Transcendental Turn: The Foundation of Kant's Idealism.'' Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1984. {{ISBN|0-8130-0787-9}}
* Greenberg, Robert. ''Kant's Theory of A Priori Knowledge''. Penn State Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-271-02083-0}}
* [[Paul Guyer|Guyer, Paul]]. ''Kant and the Claims of Knowledge''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 (modern defense of the view that Kant's theoretical philosophy is a "patchwork" of ill-fitting arguments).
* [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger, Martin]]. ''Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics''. Trans., Richard Taft. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-253-21067-4}}
* [[Dieter Henrich|Henrich, Dieter]]. ''The Unity of Reason: Essays on Kant's Philosophy.'' Ed. with introduction by Richard L. Velkley; trans. Jeffrey Edwards ''et al''. Harvard University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-674-92905-5}}
* [[Norman Kemp Smith|Kemp Smith, Norman]]. ''A Commentary to Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason''. London: Macmillan, 1930 (influential commentary on the first Critique, recently reprinted).
* [[Patricia Kitcher|Kitcher, Patricia]]. ''Kant's Transcendental Psychology.'' New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 1990.
* [[Béatrice Longuenesse|Longuenesse, Béatrice]]. ''Kant and the Capacity to Judge.'' [[Princeton University Press]], 1998. {{ISBN|0-691-04348-5}}. (argues that the notion of judgment provides the key to understanding the overall argument of the first Critique)
* Melnick, Arthur. ''Kant's Analogies of Experience.'' Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]], 1973. (important study of Kant's Analogies, including his defense of the principle of causality)
* Paton, H.J. ''Kant's Metaphysic of Experience: a Commentary on the First Half of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft''. Two volumes. London: Macmillan, 1936. (extensive study of Kant's theoretical philosophy)
* [[Robert B. Pippin|Pippin, Robert B.]]. ''Kant's Theory of Form: An Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982. (influential examination of the formal character of Kant's work)
* [[Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]. ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Erster Band. Anhang. Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie''. F.A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1859 (In English: Arthur [[Schopenhauer]], New York: Dover Press, Volume I, Appendix, "[[Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy]]", {{ISBN|0-486-21761-2}})
* {{cite book | last = Schott | first = Robin May | title = Feminist interpretations of Immanuel Kant | publisher = Pennsylvania State University Press | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-271-01676-4 }}
* [[T. K. Seung|Seung, T.K.]] ''Kant's Transcendental Logic''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969.
* [[P. F. Strawson|Strawson, P.F]]. ''The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Routledge, 1989 (the work that revitalized the interest of contemporary analytic philosophers in Kant).
* Sturm, Thomas, ''Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen.'' Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009. {{ISBN|3-89785-608-5|978-3-89785-608-0}}. [http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/31397-kant-und-die-wissenschaften-vom-menschen/ review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211224310/http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/31397-kant-und-die-wissenschaften-vom-menschen/ |date=11 December 2013 }} (Treats Kant's anthropology and his views on psychology and history in relation to his philosophy of science.)
* Tonelli, Giorgio. ''Kant's Critique of Pure Reason within the Tradition of Modern Logic. A Commentary on its History.'' Hildesheim, Olms 1994
* Werkmeister, W.H., ''Kant: The Architectonic and Development of His Philosophy'', Open Court Publishing Co., La Salle, Ill.; 1980 {{ISBN|0-87548-345-3}} (it treats, as a whole, the architectonic and development of Kant's philosophy from 1755 through the ''Opus postumum''.)
* [[Robert Paul Wolff|Wolff, Robert Paul]]. ''Kant's Theory of Mental Activity: A Commentary on the Transcendental Analytic of the Critique of Pure Reason.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963. (detailed and influential commentary on the first part of the Critique of Pure Reason)
* [[Yirmiyahu Yovel|Yovel, Yirmiyahu]]. ''Kant and the Philosophy of History''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980. ([https://www.jstor.org/stable/2184944 review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104004529/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2184944 |date=4 January 2017 }})
'''Practical philosophy'''
* Allison, Henry. ''Kant's Theory of Freedom.'' Cambridge University Press 1990.
* Banham, Gary. ''Kant's Practical Philosophy: From Critique to Doctrine.'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
* Dorschel, Andreas. ''Die idealistische Kritik des Willens: Versuch über die Theorie der praktischen Subjektivität bei Kant und Hegel.'' Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1992 (Schriften zur Transzendentalphilosophie 10) {{ISBN|3-7873-1046-0}}.
* {{cite journal | last = Friedman | first = Michael | author-link = Michael Friedman (philosopher) | title = Kantian themes in contemporary philosophy | journal = [[Aristotelian Society#Publications|Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes]] | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 111–30 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8349.00038 | jstor = 4107015 | date = June 1998 }}
* [[Christine Korsgaard|Korsgaard, Christine M]]. ''The Sources of Normativity.'' Cambridge University Press, 1996.
* Michalson, Gordon E. ''Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration.'' Cambridge University Press, 1990.
* Michalson, Gordon E. ''Kant and the Problem of God.'' Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
* Paton, H.J. ''The Categorical Imperative: A Study in Kant's Moral Philosophy.'' [[University of Pennsylvania Press]] 1971.
* [[John Rawls|Rawls, John]]. ''Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy.'' Cambridge, 2000.
* [[T. K. Seung|Seung, T.K.]] ''Kant's Platonic Revolution in Moral and Political Philosophy.'' Johns Hopkins, 1994.
* Wolff, Robert Paul. ''The Autonomy of Reason: A Commentary on Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.'' New York: HarperCollins, 1974. {{ISBN|0-06-131792-6}}.
* [[Allen W. Wood|Wood, Allen]]. ''Kant's Ethical Thought.'' New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
'''Aesthetics'''
* Allison, Henry. ''Kant's Theory of Taste: A Reading of the Critique of Aesthetic Judgment''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
* Banham, Gary. ''Kant and the Ends of Aesthetics''. London and New York: Macmillan Press, 2000.
* Clewis, Robert. ''The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
* Crawford, Donald. ''Kant's Aesthetic Theory''. Wisconsin, 1974.
* Doran, Robert. ''The Theory of the Sublime from Longinus to Kant''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
* Guyer, Paul. ''Kant and the Claims of Taste''. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, 1979.
* Hammermeister, Kai. ''The German Aesthetic Tradition''. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
* ''Immanuel Kant'' entry in Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) ''[[Encyclopedia of Aesthetics]]''. New York, Oxford, [[Oxford University Press]].
* Kaplama, Erman. ''Cosmological Aesthetics through the Kantian Sublime and Nietzschean Dionysian''. Lanham: UPA, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.
* Makkreel, Rudolf, ''Imagination and Interpretation in Kant''. Chicago, 1990.
* McCloskey, Mary. ''Kant's Aesthetic''. SUNY, 1987.
* Schaper, Eva. ''Studies in Kant's Aesthetics''. Edinburgh, 1979.
* Zammito, John H. ''The Genesis of Kant's Critique of Judgment''. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1992.
* Zupancic, Alenka. ''Ethics of the Real: Kant and Lacan''. Verso, 2000.
'''Philosophy of religion'''
* Palmquist, Stephen. [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2 Kant's Critical Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204107/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp2/ |date=14 April 2012 }}: Volume Two of ''Kant's System of Perspectives''. Ashgate, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7546-1333-X}}
* Perez, Daniel Omar. "Religión, Política y Medicina en Kant: El Conflicto de las Proposiciones". Cinta de Moebio. ''Revista de Epistemologia de Ciencias Sociales'', v. 28, p. 91–103, 2007. [http://www.facso.uchile.cl/publicaciones/moebio/28/perez.pdf Uchile.cl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020014938/http://www.facso.uchile.cl/publicaciones/moebio/28/perez.pdf |date=20 October 2017 }} (Spanish)
'''Perpetual peace and international relations'''
* Sir [[Harry Hinsley]], ''Power and the Pursuit of Peace'', Cambridge University Press, 1962.
* [[Martin Wight]], [http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199273676.do ''Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant and Mazzini''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129025430/http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199273676.do |date=29 November 2014 }} ed. Gabriele Wight & Brian Porter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
* {{cite journal | last = Bennington | first = Geoffrey | author-link = Geoffrey Bennington | title = Kant's open secret | journal = [[Theory, Culture & Society]] | volume = 28 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 26–40 | doi = 10.1177/0263276411423036 | date = December 2011 | s2cid = 143513241 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/11cf/651a44e21ae70b42f0b03415d43ba40837af.pdf | access-date = 31 May 2020 | archive-date = 8 February 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200208035329/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/11cf/651a44e21ae70b42f0b03415d43ba40837af.pdf | url-status = live }}
'''Other works'''
* Botul, Jean-Baptiste. ''La vie sexuelle d'Emmanuel Kant''. Paris, Éd. Mille et une Nuits, 2008. {{ISBN|978-2-84205-424-3}}
* Caygill, Howard. ''A Kant Dictionary''. Oxford; Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Reference, 1995. {{ISBN|0-631-17534-2|0-631-17535-0}}
* [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida, Jacques]]. ''Mochlos; or, The Conflict of the Faculties''. Columbia University, 1980.
* Kelly, Michael. ''Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism'', London: [[Swan Sonnenschein]] 1910. [Reprinted 2010 [[Nabu Press]], {{ISBN|978-1-171-70795-0}}]
* Mosser, Kurt. ''Necessity and Possibility; The Logical Strategy of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason''. Catholic University of America Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-8132-1532-7}}
* White, Mark D. [http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Kantian-ethics-and-economics.php ''Kantian Ethics and Economics: Autonomy, Dignity, and Character''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116235308/http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Kantian-ethics-and-economics.php |date=16 November 2011 }}. Stanford University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-6894-8}}. ([http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Kantian-ethics-and-economics.php Reviewed in The Montreal Review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116235308/http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Kantian-ethics-and-economics.php |date=16 November 2011 }})
'''Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence'''
* {{cite journal | last = Assiter | first = Alison | author-link = Alison Assiter | title = Kant and Kierkegaard on freedom and evil | journal = Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement | volume = 72 | pages = 275–96 | doi = 10.1017/S1358246113000155 | date = July 2013 | bibcode = 1995kppp.book.....O }}
* {{cite journal | last = Bird | first = Graham | title = Kantian themes in contemporary philosophy | journal = [[Aristotelian Society#Publications|Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes]] | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 131–52 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8349.00039 | jstor = 4107015 | date = June 1998 }}
* Guyer, Paul. ''Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume''. Princeton University Press, 2008.
* Hanna, Robert, ''Kant and the Foundations of Analytic Philosophy''. Clarendon Press, 2004.
* Hanna, Robert, ''Kant, Science, and Human Nature''. Clarendon Press, 2006.
* Herman, Barbara. ''The Practice of Moral Judgement''. Harvard University Press, 1993.
* {{cite journal | last = Hill | first = Judith M. | title = Pornography and degradation | journal = [[Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy]] | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 39–54 | doi = 10.1111/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x | jstor = 3810015 | date = June 1987 }} (A Kantian approach to the issue of pornography and degradation.)
* Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends''. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-49644-6|0-521-49962-3}} (not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics)
* [[John McDowell|McDowell, John]]. ''Mind and World.'' Harvard University Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-674-57609-8}}. (offers a Kantian solution to a dilemma in contemporary epistemology regarding the relation between mind and world)
* {{cite journal | last = O'Neill | first = Onora | author-link = Onora O'Neill | title = Kant on duties regarding nonrational nature | journal = [[Aristotelian Society#Publications|Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes]] | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 211–28 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8349.00043 | jstor = 4107017 | date = June 1998 }}
* [[Derek Parfit|Parfit, Derek]]. ''On What Matters'' (2 vols.). New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-19-926592-3}}
* [[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]. ''[[The Stuff of Thought]]''. Viking Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-670-06327-7}}. (Chapter 4 "Cleaving the Air" discusses Kant's anticipation of modern cognitive science)
* [[Allen W. Wood|Wood, Allen W.]]. ''Kant's Ethical Thought''. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-521-64836-X}}. (comprehensive, in-depth study of Kant's ethics, with emphasis on formula of humanity as most accurate formulation of the categorical imperative)
* {{cite journal | last = Wood | first = Allen W. | author-link = Allen W. Wood | title = Kant on duties regarding nonrational nature | journal = [[Aristotelian Society#Publications|Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes]] | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 189–210 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8349.00042 | jstor = 4107017 | date = June 1998 }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q9312|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=Kantian|s=Author:Immanuel_Kant|species=no}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=Kant,+Immanuel|name=Immanuel Kant}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Immanuel Kant}}
* {{Librivox author|id=1312}}
* [http://www.kantpapers.org KantPapers], authors and papers database powered by PhilPapers, focused on Kant, and located at Cornell University
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/311398/Immanuel-Kant Immanuel Kant] at the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=k&word=KANT.IMMANUEL Immanuel Kant] in the Christian Cyclopedia
* [http://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/Kant/ Works by Immanuel Kant] at [[Duisburg-Essen University]]
* [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1/KSPglos.html Stephen Palmquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology]
* [http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/kant/index.htm Kant's Ethical Theory] – Kantian ethics explained, applied and evaluated
* [http://sites.wofford.edu/kaycd/deontology/ Notes on Utilitarianism] – A conveniently brief survey of Kant's Utilitarianism
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/ Immanuel Kant: An Overview]
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantaest/ Immanuel Kant: Aesthetics]
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [http://www.iep.utm.edu/k-logic/ Immanuel Kant: Logic]
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/ Immanuel Kant: Metaphysics]
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmind/ Immanuel Kant: Philosophy of Mind]
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [http://www.iep.utm.edu/rad-evil/ Immanuel Kant: Radical Evil]
* ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kant-rel/ Immanuel Kant: Philosophy of Religion]
* The ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/ Immanuel Kant]
* [[iarchive:KantEnglishIndexDanielFidelFerrer|''Kant in English: An Index'']] by Daniel Fidel Ferrer (2017).
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