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===Political philosophy===
{{Main|Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant}}
{{Liberalism sidebar}}
In ''Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch'',[Kant, Immanuel. ''[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm |date=6 April 2019 }}'' (1795)] Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace. They included a world of constitutional republics.[Kant, Immanuel. ''Perpetual Peace.'' Trans. Lewis White Beck (377).] His [[classical republicanism|classical republican]] theory was extended in the ''Science of Right'', the first part of the ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1797).[Manfred Riedel ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984] Kant believed that [[universal history]] leads to the ultimate world of republican states at peace, but his theory was not pragmatic. The process was described in "Perpetual Peace" as natural rather than rational:
{{quote|
The guarantee of perpetual peace is nothing less than that great artist, nature...In her mechanical course we see that her aim is to produce a harmony among men, against their will, and indeed through their discord. As a necessity working according to laws we do not know, we call it destiny. But, considering its designs in universal history, we call it "providence," inasmuch as we discern in it the profound wisdom of a higher cause which predetermines the course of nature and directs it to the objective final end of the human race.[''On History'', (ed. L.W. Beck, New York: Bobbs Merill, 1963, p. 106).]}}
Kant's political thought can be summarized as republican government and international organization. "In more characteristically Kantian terms, it is doctrine of the state based upon the law (''[[Rechtsstaat]]'') and of eternal peace. Indeed, in each of these formulations, both terms express the same idea: that of legal constitution or of 'peace through law'. Kant's political philosophy, being essentially a legal doctrine, rejects by definition the opposition between moral education and the play of passions as alternate foundations for social life. The state is defined as the union of men under law. The state is constituted by laws which are necessary a priori because they flow from the very concept of law. "A regime can be judged by no other criteria nor be assigned any other functions, than those proper to the lawful order as such." [History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–82, 603]
He opposed "democracy," which at his time meant [[direct democracy]], believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty. He stated, "...democracy is, properly speaking, necessarily a despotism, because it establishes an executive power in which 'all' decide for or even against one who does not agree; that is, 'all,' who are not quite all, decide, and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom."[Kant, Immanuel. ''Perpetual Peace.'' Trans. Lewis White Beck (352).] As with most writers at the time, he distinguished three forms of government i.e. democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy with [[mixed government]] as the most ideal form of it.
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