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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Historical influence=== {{more citations needed section|date=July 2016}} During his own life, much critical attention was paid to his thought. He influenced [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], and [[Novalis]] during the 1780s and 1790s. The school of thinking known as [[German Idealism]] developed from his writings. The German Idealists Fichte and Schelling, for example, tried to bring traditional "metaphysically" laden notions like "the Absolute", "God", and "Being" into the scope of Kant's [[critical thought]].There is much debate in the recent scholarship about the extent to which Fichte and Schelling actually overstep the boundaries of Kant's critical philosophy, thus entering the realm of dogmatic or pre-Critical philosophy. Beiser's ''German Idealism'' discusses some of these issues. Beiser, Frederick C. ''German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]], 2002. In so doing, the German Idealists tried to reverse Kant's view that we cannot know what we cannot observe. [[File:Kant Kaliningrad.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Immanuel Kant in [[Kaliningrad]] ([[Königsberg]]), Russia. Replica by {{Interlanguage link multi|Harald Haacke|de}} of the original by [[Christian Daniel Rauch]] lost in 1945.]] Hegel was one of Kant's first major critics. The main accusations Hegel charged Kant's philosophy with were formalism (or 'abstractism') and irrationality. In Hegel's view the entire project of setting a "transcendental subject" apart from nature, history, and society was fundamentally flawed,{{Cite book|last=Hegel|first=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|title=Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline|year=1827|location=Heidelberg|pages=14–15}} although parts of that very project could be put to good use in a new direction, that Hegel called the "absolute idealism". Similar concerns moved Hegel's criticisms to Kant's concept of moral autonomy, to which Hegel opposed an ethic focused on the "ethical life" of the community.Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, ''Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences.'' trans. T.M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his ''Philosophy of Right.'' Hegel, ''Philosophy of Right.'' trans. T.M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967. In a sense, Hegel's notion of "ethical life" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, [[Kantian ethics]]. And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "desires", by means of reason. Thus, in contrast to later critics like Nietzsche or Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's concerns.Robert Pippin's ''Hegel's Idealism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's ''Science of Logic'' defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume. Kant's thinking on religion was used in Britain to challenge the decline in religious faith in the nineteenth century. British Catholic writers, notably [[G.K. Chesterton]] and [[Hilaire Belloc]], followed this approach. [[Ronald Englefield]] debated this movement, and Kant's use of language.{{efn|See Englefield's article "Kant as Defender of the Faith in Nineteenth-century England", ''Question'', 12, 16–27 (London, Pemberton) reprinted in ''Critique of Pure Verbiage, Essays on Abuses of Language in Literary, Religious, and Philosophical Writings'', edited by G.A. Wells and D.R. Oppenheimer, Open Court, 1990.}} Criticisms of Kant were common in the realist views of the new positivism at that time. [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] was strongly influenced by Kant's [[transcendental idealism]]. He, like [[G.E. Schulze]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe nor are they completely beyond our access. Ever since the first ''Critique of Pure Reason'' philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Many have argued, if such a thing exists beyond experience then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category 'causality' beyond the realm of experience.{{efn|For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see ''The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection'' in the revised edition of Henry Allison's ''Kant's Transcendental Idealism''.}} For Schopenhauer things in themselves do not exist outside the non-rational will. The world, as Schopenhauer would have it, is the striving and largely unconscious will. Michael Kelly, in the preface to his 1910 book ''Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's Criticism'', stated: "Of Kant it may be said that what is good and true in his philosophy would have been buried with him, were it not for Schopenhauer...." With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's influence began to wane, though there was in Germany a movement that hailed a return to Kant in the 1860s, beginning with the publication of ''Kant und die Epigonen'' in 1865 by [[Otto Liebmann]]. His motto was "Back to Kant", and a re-examination of his ideas began (see [[Neo-Kantianism]]). During the turn of the 20th century there was an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as the [[Marburg School]], represented in the work of [[Hermann Cohen]], [[Paul Natorp]], [[Ernst Cassirer]],Beck, Lewis White. "Neo-Kantianism". In ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 5–6. Macmillan, 1973. Article on Neo-Kantianism by a translator and scholar of Kant. and anti-Neo-Kantian [[Nicolai Hartmann]].Cerf, Walter. "Nicolai Hartmann". In ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Vol. 3–4. Macmillan, 1973. Nicolai was a realist who later rejected the idealism of Neo-Kantianism, his anti-Neo-Kantian views emerging with the publication of the second volume of ''Hegel'' (1929). Kant's notion of "Critique" has been quite influential. The Early German Romantics, especially [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] in his "Athenaeum Fragments", used Kant's self-reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry.Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in ''Philosophical Fragments''. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44. Also in [[Aesthetics]], [[Clement Greenberg]], in his classic essay "Modernist Painting", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as "immanent criticism", to justify the aims of [[Abstract Art|Abstract painting]], a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitiaton—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting.Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in ''The Philosophy of Art'', ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995. French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]] was also greatly influenced by Kant's notion of "Critique" and wrote several pieces on Kant for a re-thinking of the Enlightenment as a form of "critical thought". He went so far as to classify his own philosophy as a "critical history of modernity, rooted in Kant".See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology." Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence. Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of [[Synthetic a priori|synthetic ''a priori'']] knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through intuition.For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22. Kant's often brief remarks about [[mathematics]] influenced the mathematical school known as [[intuitionism]], a movement in [[philosophy of mathematics]] opposed to [[David Hilbert|Hilbert's]] [[formalism (mathematics)|formalism]], and [[Frege]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[logicism]].[[Stephan Körner|Körner, Stephan]], ''The Philosophy of Mathematics'', Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, ''Kant and the Exact Sciences'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992. Return to Immanuel Kant. 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