key: cord-033334-p7szd86k
authors: Mann, Jaclyn Kelly; Ndung'u, Thumbi
title: The potential of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and lysozyme as antiviral and immune-modulating agents in COVID-19
date: 2020-10-08
journal: nan
DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2020-0170
sha: 
doc_id: 33334
cord_uid: p7szd86k

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is spreading rapidly with no established effective treatments. While most cases are mild, others experience uncontrolled inflammatory responses with oxidative stress, dysregulation of iron and coagulation as features. Lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and lysozyme are abundant, safe antimicrobials that have wide antiviral as well as immunomodulatory properties. In particular, lactoferrin restores iron homeostasis and inhibits replication of SARS-CoV, which is closely related to SARS-CoV-2. Ovotransferrin has antiviral peptides and activities that are shared with lactoferrin. Both lactoferrin and lysozyme are ‘immune sensing’ as they may stimulate immune responses or resolve inflammation. Mechanisms by which these antimicrobials may treat or prevent COVID-19, as well as sources and forms of these, are reviewed.

of this review is to consider the potential of specific antimicrobial proteins that are abundant in nature to act as therapeutics in COVID-19 (as antivirals and/or counteracting the pathology) and to stimulate further research in this avenue. Recently it was reported that tear lactoferrin and lysozyme are relevant biomarkers of mucosal immune competence and that the levels of these predict the risk of acquiring upper respiratory tract infections [36] . Lactoferrin and lysozyme concentrations decrease with age [37, 38] , potentially increasing risk for respiratory infections. Lactoferrin and lysozyme are among the most abundant antimicrobials found in nature that are widely distributed in animal tissues and secretions [39] [40] [41] , and are considered among the most promising antimicrobials to become medicines for clinical use [42, 43] . They both act widely against bacteria, viruses and fungi, as well as having positive stimulatory effects on the immune system yet dampening the pathological effects of an overreacting immune system. Lactoferrin and lysozyme are found in markedly high concentrations in tears compared with any other body fluid, and lactoferrin is found in similarly high concentration in breast milk and colostrum -this indicates the important role of these proteins in defense [39, 44, 45] . However, the usual concentrations are only just adequate, and lower than normal levels in these secretions increase susceptibility to infection [44] . While SARS-CoV-2 is readily detected in throat swabs, nasal swabs, saliva and sputum, and in a third of patients in feces [46] [47] [48] , the virus is only infrequently detected in tears in a similar timeframe [49] [50] [51] . When detected in tears, this has been in patients that had conjunctivitis symptoms [49, 51] . A similar scenario is reported for SARS-CoV [52, 53] . The potential activity of lactoferrin and lysozyme against SARS-CoV-2 and against the immune-mediated pathology in COVID-19 (summarized in Figure 1 and Table 1 ) is considered. Since ovotransferrin is more abundantly available than lactoferrin and can substitute lactoferrin in many applications [54] , its potential as a COVID-19 therapeutic is also reviewed.

Lactoferrin sequesters free iron, removing a substrate required for bacterial growth; however, it also has antimicrobial effects independent of iron sequestration [39] . Lactoferrin is cationic (highly positively charged) and this enables interaction with various negatively charged microbial and viral surfaces, DNA, as well as with cell surfaces that are required for bacterial and viral adhesion or for early interactions required for viral entry [39] . Lactoferrin may also exert antiviral effects intracellularly [55] . Potent antiviral effects of both human and bovine lactoferrin have been shown against both enveloped and naked viruses such as cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus and hepatitis B and C virus among others, whether in the metal saturated or apo form [39, 66] . Bovine lactoferrin may have higher antiviral activity than human lactoferrin -they are highly similar and possess identical multifunctions [43] . Therefore, bovine lactoferrin is a good equivalent for human lactoferrin, especially since it is recognized by the European Food Safety Authority as a safe dietary supplement with medicinal properties and no contraindications [95] . Importantly, bovine lactoferrin inhibits SARS-CoV cell entry by binding to heparan sulphate proteoglycans (HSPGs) [56] . HSPGs on [72, 73] Intact and peptides Antibacterial Iron sequestration Direct interaction with bacterial surface [54, 74] Intact and peptides Antifungal Iron sequestration Direct interaction with fungal surface [75, 76] Intact Immune enhancement, immune restoration in immunosuppression model

Enhanced phagocytic activity as well as cytokine production of macrophages Enhanced intestinal immune responses: dendritic cell maturation, Th1/Th2 balance restored and humoral immunity promoted [77, 78] Peptides Anti-inflammatory Downregulates IL-6 and TNF-␣ and myeloperoxidase activity in peritonitis Binds to angiotensin II receptor type 1 to inhibit angiotensin II pro-inflammatory activity ACE inhibitory activity (antihypertensive) [79] [80] [81] [82] Intact Iron-binding activity* Sequestering free iron [83] Intact and peptides Antioxidant* Sequestering free iron Free radical scavenging [79, 84] Lysozyme Intact and peptides Antiviral Inhibits viral entry by binding to cell receptors or virus -cationic and hydrophobic nature is required rather than enzymatic activity Binds nucleic acids Inhibits virus-induced cell fusion Affects cell signaling, including NF-B pathway, to influence susceptibility to infection [85] [86] [87] [88] Intact and/or peptides Antibacterial Hydrolyzes cell wall of gram-positive bacteria (enzyme activity) Insert into and form pores in negatively charged bacterial membranes [40] † Specific anticoronavirus activity has been demonstrated: inhibits SARS-CoV cell entry by binding to HSPGs; inhibits entry and postentry steps of SARS-CoV-2 replication and elevates interferon-stimulated genes in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells. ‡ The action is of immune homeostasis -its action is appropriate in the context of the immune environment [67] .

*Iron sequestration has an antioxidant effect, and, in turn, these activities of lactoferrin/ovotransferrin have an anti-inflammatory effect -they limit immune pathology. ACE: Angiotensin-converting enzyme; AGE: Advanced glycation end product; AT1: AT1 is angiotensin II receptor type 1; CoV: Coronavirus; HSPG: Heparan sulphate proteoglycan; M2: Anti-inflammatory macrophages; SARS-CoV: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. interferon-stimulated genes in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells. ‡ The action is of immune homeostasis -its action is appropriate in the context of the immune environment [67] .

*Iron sequestration has an antioxidant effect, and, in turn, these activities of lactoferrin/ovotransferrin have an anti-inflammatory effect -they limit immune pathology. ACE: Angiotensin-converting enzyme; AGE: Advanced glycation end product; AT1: AT1 is angiotensin II receptor type 1; CoV: Coronavirus; HSPG: Heparan sulphate proteoglycan; M2: Anti-inflammatory macrophages; SARS-CoV: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus.

the cell surface provide an anchoring site on the cell surface and many viruses, including SARS-CoV, employ HSPGs for adhesion to susceptible cells. SARS-CoV-2 entry is highly similar to that of SARS-CoV [7] and was recently shown to be susceptible to lactoferrin-mediated inhibition of entry [57] . Lactoferrin inhibited both entry and postentry steps of SARS-CoV-2 replication, and elevated interferon-stimulated genes [57] . Besides its direct antimicrobial effect, through sequestering free iron and restoring iron homeostasis, lactoferrin reduces oxidative stress and inflammation, which is pertinent to the COVID-19 pathology. Lactoferrin counteracts iron dysregulation through sequestering free iron and restoring levels of various proteins (ferroportin, ceruloplasmin, transferrin receptor 1 and ferritin) that are altered during inflammation [70, 96] . Lactoferrin reduces intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species as well as reducing oxidative stress-induced apoptosis [63] , and short-term oral administration of bovine lactoferrin improves antioxidant capacity [64] . Importantly, lactoferrin can 'sense' the immune activation status and respond accordingly [67] . For example, in individuals with high baseline immune activation bovine lactoferrin downregulates IL-6 and TNF-α production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (after 7 days of 40 mg per day oral administration) while in those with low immune activation, bovine lactoferrin upregulated these cytokines [67] . Lactoferrin suppresses extracellular traps released by neutrophils during inflammation [68] , and has also been shown to stimulate pro-inflammatory macrophages (M1) to change to the anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2) type [43, 66] . Similarly, pasteurized whole cow's milk has been shown to polarize macrophages from M1 toward a proresolving M2 phenotype [97] . In addition, lactoferrin-derived peptides inhibit angiotensin II pro-inflammatory activity through binding to the angiotensin II receptor type 1 [69] , and lactoferrin as well as other peptides in cow's milk have an antithrombotic effect [71] . These effects of counteracting iron dysregulation, oxidative stress, neutrophil and macrophage-induced inflammation, RAS-induced inflammation and thrombosis are highly relevant to COVID-19. Further, lactoferrin shows potential benefit in Alzheimer's disease through decreasing amyloid-beta aggregation (which leads to inflammation and neuron degeneration) [43, 98] . This aggregation may be induced by microbes and this has been suggested for SARS-CoV-2 [99] -a potential neuroprotective role of lactoferrin in COVID-19 is a hypothesis requiring further investigation.

Oral administration of lactoferrin, usually bovine lactoferrin, in human and animal studies of various inflammatory disease states shows safety [43] . In animal studies, oral bovine lactoferrin was shown to decrease inflammation and myeloperoxidase (a marker of neutrophil infiltration) in inflammatory bowel disease [43, 100] . In animal models of sepsis, a single oral dose of lactoferrin prior to insult protected against progression of insult-induced systemic inflammatory responses [63] and when orally administered after sepsis-induced lung injury, bovine lactoferrin was an effective therapeutic [101] . Further showing positive effects of lactoferrin in lung pathology, oral doses of human or mouse lactoferrin reduced Mycobacterium tuberculosis-induced lung pathology in a mouse model [102] and aerosolized bovine lactoferrin administered in a mouse model of cystic fibrosis with a Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection resulted in decreased bacterial load, decreased infiltrated leukocytes and reduced iron overload [70] .

In human studies, lactoferrin decreased late onset sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants [103] , and oral bovine lactoferrin (250 mg/day for 3 months) decreased serum IL-6 and increased IL-10 as well as improved antioxidant activity in Alzheimer's disease [43, 104] . In pregnant women suffering from anemia and/or thrombophilia, 100 mg of bovine lactoferrin taken orally twice a day improved hematological parameters, including serum iron, serum ferritin, hemoglobin and IL-6 levels, more effectively than the standard of care [105] . Clinical effect has also been observed following lactoferrin administration in viral diseases. In hepatitis C-infected patients who responded to bovine lactoferrin monotherapy, when bovine lactoferrin was then combined with ribavirin and interferon, there was a sustained virologic response in 55% of individuals compared with a sustained virologic response in 18% of individuals who were treated with a combination of ribavirin and interferon alone [106] . Long-term oral consumption of bovine lactoferrin-containing products including yoghurt and milk (in the range of 100 to 500 mg lactoferrin per day) either reduces incidence or ameliorates symptoms of common viral infections, such as norovirus, likely though direct antiviral activity as well as the enhancement of systemic immunity (increased natural killer cell activity and Th1 cytokine responses) achieved by bovine lactoferrin consumption [107] . Importantly, Serrano et al., reported that a liposomal bovine lactoferrin nutritional syrup administered at 256-384 mg lactoferrin/day resolved symptoms of COVID-19 patients within 4-5 days and considering their 256 contacts who received half this daily dose, none developed symptoms of the infection [95] .

Ovotransferrin shares many of the same activities as human/bovine lactoferrin and is more abundant than the latter [54] . Ovotransferrin combines the iron transport and defense functions of mammalian serum transferrin and lactoferrin, respectively, and shares about 50% sequence homology with each protein [83] . However, the structural analogy between ovotransferrin and lactoferrin is much closer than the sequence homology [108] and similar clusters of positively charged residues responsible for antiviral activity are found in the N-lobes of these proteins [72] .

Ovotransferrin not only has antifungal activity [75] and a wide range of antibacterial activity through sequestration of iron and through binding to bacterial surfaces via cationic peptides [54, 74] , but the antiviral activity of intact ovotransferrin was greater than that of intact bovine lactoferrin when studying Marek's disease virus [72] . Peptides in ovotransferrin that have high sequence homology with these bovine lactoferrin and human lactoferrin peptides acting against herpes simplex virus, human cytomegalovirus and adenovirus, were shown to have double the antiviral activity compared with the bovine lactoferrin peptides [72] . Recently, it was also reported that ovotransferrin upregulates antiviral interferon I in virus-infected macrophages [73] .

Ovotransferrin has immunomodulatory, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and due to these properties it is being investigated as a therapeutic for cancer and cardiovascular disease [109, 110] . Ovotransferrin, as well as hydrolyzates, are able to scavenge free radicals, with higher activity than other known antioxidants such as ascorbate (vitamin C) -ovotransferrin showed protective effects against oxidative stress-induced DNA damage, that was occurring via reaction of iron with hydrogen peroxide, in human leukocytes [79, 84] . Specifically, 16 antioxidant peptides are derived from egg white hydrolyzate, where ovotransferrin peptides are in one of the most active fractions [111] . An ovotransferrin peptide attenuates TNF-α-induced inflammation and superoxide generation in endothelial cells [112] . Hydrolyzates of ovotransferrin, as well as other egg white peptides, have also shown potent ACE inhibitory activity [79, 80] and as is the case for bovine lactoferrin, an ovotransferrin peptide blocked angiotensin II effects via the angiotensin II receptor type 1 [81] , thereby reducing inflammation potentiated by RAS activation. In an animal model study of peritonitis, ingestion of 40 mg/kg feed of an ovotransferrin peptide significantly attenuated the inflammatory responses: serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and myeloperoxidase activity were significantly reduced [82] . As is the case for bovine lactoferrin, these described activities of ovotransferrin, are highly pertinent to COVID-19 pathology.

Lysozyme kills gram-positive bacteria through hydrolyzing the β-1,4 glycosidic bond between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid in the bacterial cell wall [40] . However, besides its enzymatic activity, it exerts antimicrobial effects through its cationic nature which enables it to bind to negatively charged surfaces (as in the case of lactoferrin), thereby expanding its activity well beyond that of gram-positive bacteria [40, 41, 89] . The immunomodulatory function of lysozyme has only recently been appreciated [40] . Although lysozyme acting on microbes within neutrophils and macrophages increases their proinflammatory response, when it is released extracellularly by these cells as well as epithelial cells, it limits inflammation: it decreases the oxidative burst and chemotaxis in neutrophils [92] , it significantly suppresses TNF-α and IL-6 production by macrophages [93] , it binds and decreases circulating levels of AGEs (which are pro-oxidative) as well as enhancing their renal excretion [30] , and exogenous lysozyme disrupts the ability of peptidoglycan to bind complement factors that act as anaphylotoxins [40] . Furthermore, when subjected to simulated gastrointestinal digestion, the hydrolyzate of hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) showed marked antioxidant and ACE-inhibitory activity [94] . As described earlier, the oxidative stress (including involvement of AGEs), inflammation induced by neutrophils and macrophages, the TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines, and an activated RAS system are features in ARDS and/or severe COVID-19. It is noteworthy that, as is the case for lactoferrin, lysozyme has a neuroprotective function in Alzheimer's disease through preventing amyloid-beta aggregation [113] , which may have implications for the neurological manifestations in severe COVID-19.

From mouse and porcine models it is clear that lysozyme plays an important role in limiting inflammation systemically, resulting in decreased immune-driven pathology [40, 114, 115] . Human clinical trials with lysozyme are limited [41, 116] , but have shown, mostly through oral administration of HEWL, antiviral effects against herpes (through oral administration of HEWL at 1 g/day [41, 117] ), measles [116, 118] and hepatitis (60-170 mg/day of lysozyme chloride for 4-24 weeks significantly reduced post-transfusion hepatitis incidence to 8% compared with 20% [119] ), successful treatment of gum infections (750 mg/day [41, 120] ) and skin ulcers [116, 121] , improvement of immune responses in cancer patients with immune suppression [41] , and rapid resolution of inflammatory foci and stabilization of lysozyme levels in serum and stool of premature infants with diseases following 50 mg/l supplementation in milk for 2-3 weeks [116, 122] . Human lysozyme in combination with bovine lactoferrin (0.2 g lysozyme and 1.5 g bovine lactoferrin per day) reduced enteric dysfunction in Malawian children [123] . No local or systemic unfavorable effects have been reported in these human trials.

Regarding the investigation of lysozyme in lung diseases, in Eastern Europe, HEWL has been used successfully in combination with antibiotics to treat bronchitis and pneumonia in humans with no respiratory or systemic toxicity [124, 125] . Administration of lysozyme through aerosols to treat pneumonia has been investigated in animal models [126, 127] . A 1% solution of aerosolized human lysozyme in hamsters with P. aeruginosa-induced pneumonia resulted in decreased lung histopathological changes, alveolar septal apoptosis, neutrophils and other leukocytes in the bronchiolar lavage fluid as well as increased activity of lysozyme in that fluid [126] . However, it should be noted that lysozyme impairs the ability of hyaluronan to prevent elastase injury to elastic fibers through binding of the lysozyme to the elastic fibers, and thus on inhalation of lysozyme in an animal model of emphysema, airspaces further increased [128] , which cautions against the inhalation route of administration of lysozyme in similar disease states.

Cow's milk is the most readily available source of lactoferrin, with an average concentration of 0.174 g/l in low heat pasteurized cow's milk (and 1.2 g/kg in semihard cheese produced from that milk) [129] , which is in good agreement with other studies [130] [131] [132] , though the range experienced (0.03-0.486 g/l) is dependent on several factors [133] . The concentration in colostrum is higher, but varies greatly between breeds and may be anything between 0.3 and 5 g/l, and is typically at the lower end of the range [134] [135] [136] . The degradation of bovine lactoferrin in milk with low heat pasteurization (72 • C for 5 s) is minimal [129, 137] , while ultrahigh temperature (UHT) processes significantly denature the protein [138] . Large-scale isolation of bovine lactoferrin is performed from cheese whey [139] where only 19% of the total bovine lactoferrin in milk is found [129] , and the cost of purified bovine lactoferrin remains high -hence methods to achieve large-scale production of lactoferrin are being developed [140, 141] . Bovine lactoferrin is sold in bulk powder form, capsules (typically 250-300 mg), liposomal syrups (32 mg/10 ml) or as a liposomal lactoferrin nebulizer [95, 123, 142] . The majority of bovine lactoferrin taken orally can be considered to survive gastric transit (62% for the apo form and 79% for the more stable iron-bound form [143] ) and thereafter enter the intestine from where it is absorbed into the circulation, but liposomalization or encapsulation has been shown to enhance availability and effect [144, 145] . It is also important to note that digestion with enzymes in the GI tract (pepsin, trypsin or chymotrypsin) yields lactoferrin fragments that are still able to bind iron [146] , and that fragments of lactoferrin have antimicrobial activity [39] , which may be stronger than that of the intact protein [59, 60] . Peptides of lactoferrin are considered promising antivirals, but isolation costs and stability pose challenges to reach the clinical phase [42] , thus, at present the whole intact protein or food products/supplements with high content of lactoferrin are more accessible. A hindrance for use in medicine is the classification of lactoferrin products (as well as egg white powder and lysozyme discussed below) as food supplements, where these are not intended to treat disease, there is no controlled system for reporting effectiveness, and the active ingredient is not always of the same quality or integrity [142] .

Ovotransferrin is abundant in hen egg white (12 g/l egg white) [147] . Methods to pasteurize egg whites use temperatures that minimize damage to heat sensitive proteins in the egg white, such as lysozyme and ovotransferrin [148] [149] [150] . Dried egg white powder, where 250 egg whites are equivalent to 1 kg powder, sold as a supplement is a compressed source of these proteins. Although 0.5-2.5% of children have an allergy to egg white, about 70% outgrow the allergy -nevertheless, many medicines and vaccines have ingredients derived from egg [151] . Iron-bound ovotransferrin is more resistant to gastrointestinal digestion [152, 153] , with iron-bound ovotransferrin well absorbed after ingestion [154] . Ovotransferrin is more readily digested by pepsin in the stomach compared with lysozyme [155] ; however, the bioactive peptides (antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and ACE-inhibitory) of ovotransferrin, as well as other egg white proteins, described earlier have mostly been produced by digestion that simulates that occurring in the GI tract [156] , and these peptides resist further digestion [157] and are readily transported into human intestinal cells [158] . Ovotransferrin does however lose iron-binding activity after hydrolysis [147] . Simpler protocols with better yield and purity as well as low cost, will enable the use of isolated egg white proteins such as ovotransferrin or their peptides as pharmaceuticals [79] , while presently the most readily available source is egg white powder.

Egg white is also the most readily available source of lysozyme (3.8 g/l egg white) [147] . Isolated HEWL is commercially available and is labeled as a food supplement by the European Commission. It is however available as lysozyme hydrochloride tablets (10, 30 or 90 mg), granules (10 or 20%) and syrup (0.5%) in Japan, and is prescribed by doctors to improve expectoration in bronchitis, bronchial asthma and bronchiectasis [159] . It is also sold as a food or pharmaceutical grade powder, and is widely used in the food industry as well as in pharmaceutical products (e.g., eye drops, wound healing creams, oral health products and over-the-counter drugs). Widerspread use is hindered somewhat by the isolation cost ($2.05/g) and there is significant effort being made around the world for commercial production of lysozyme, especially human lysozyme [160, 161] . Methods to produce human lysozyme, which has higher enzymatic activity than HEWL and is therefore preferred, are under development (e.g., using transgenic rice), although these have a higher production cost than for HEWL [160] . However, the antiviral and immunomodulatory effects do not derive from the enzymatic activity, and the most available form of lysozyme currently is HEWL, whether isolated or in egg white. Oral administration of HEWL results in systemic effects -after oral administration of 90-900 mg HEWL in human subjects peak plasma concentrations are reached within an hour (with overnight fasting increasing absorption by sevenfold) and return to undetectable levels after 2 days [159, 162] . While HEWL is fairly resistant to digestion in the stomach and partially resistant to digestion in the duodenum [155, 163] , enzymatic hydrolysis does produce antimicrobial fragments and broadens the antimicrobial spectrum [164] .

Susceptibility of proteins to proteolytic digestion is very strongly related to protein stability [165] , and polyols or their derivatives are commonly used to enhance protein stability in formulations [166] . An easily accessible and safe polyol may therefore be considered to improve stability of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and HEWL following ingestion, and here it is suggested that glycerol may be a particularly suitable supportive solvent for the powdered sources of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and HEWL. Glycerol is a low cost, readily available, sweet-tasting polyol, with excellent solvent and emulsifying properties, which is safe for ingestion and widely used in pharmaceutical applications (such as cough syrups) [167] [168] [169] . It is known to effectively stabilize proteins as well as refold denatured proteins [170, 171] , thereby restoring activities of enzymes that were inactivated by diverse processes [170] . In particular, glycerol was already shown to protect ovotransferrin and lysozyme when these proteins were subjected to stresses [150, 166] , and to partially restore the structure/activities of these proteins after denaturation [150, 172] . Other properties may add further benefit, including anti-inflammatory [173] and antiviral effects [174, 175] , as well as the ability to inhibit ACE activity and decrease angiotensin II [176] .

In view of the direct antiviral effects of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and lysozyme against a wide range of viruses (including SARS-CoV-2 for lactoferrin) and their antimicrobial effects against a wide range of bacteria and fungi that may cause secondary infections in COVID-19 patients [177] ; their immunomodulatory properties which stimulate antimicrobial responses yet promote resolution of inflammation, and in particular their previously shown beneficial effects in counteracting pathological neutrophil infiltration, macrophage activation, free iron overload, oxidative stress, AGE effects, excessive proinflammatory cytokine production (IL-6 and TNF-α in particular), and thrombus formation, which all feature in severe COVID-19; and their abundance and good safety profile -further testing of their potential role in prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection or prevention of severe COVID-19 is suggested. The main suggestion is to use these antimicrobials upon presentation of symptoms to prevent noncritical cases from progressing to critical cases, although they may also be considered as a preventative for those at high risk of infection where lower quantities could be taken as a means of lowering risk of infection. Since the number of SARS-CoV-2 infection cases is growing so rapidly, the most expedient way to achieve this is through oral administration, which is suitable in the case of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and lysozyme as these substances have systemic effects following ingestion. It is further suggested that, in the current circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic, good quality nonisolated forms of these (such as egg white powder, bovine colostrum powder and other nonultrahigh temperature milk products with appreciable lactoferrin content) should also be tested while ensuring the desired concentrations of each antimicrobial are met, especially in settings where the isolated forms may not be as readily accessible. In favor of this suggestion, studies using lactoferrin-containing milk or lactoferrin-supplemented yoghurt have shown clinical efficacy in viral diseases [107, 178] , pasteurized whole milk has shown the effect of switching macrophages from M1 to M2 [97] , several peptides in milk are antithrombotic [71] , and several peptides in egg white besides those in ovotransferrin show supportive antioxidant as well as ACE-inhibitory effects [79, 111] . However, in those individuals who are already critically ill and on ventilators, more care may need to be taken with the approach. Here, perhaps lactoferrin and lysozyme could be considered for intravenous administration or nebulization -a liposomal bovine lactoferrin nebulizer product is available. The accessibility and reasonable cost (in comparison to some of the other drugs -such as remdesivir and tocilizumab -under investigation to treat COVID-19) make these antimicrobials attractive as a therapeutic option and we therefore call for their rapid testing in clinical trials.

• Severe COVID-19 is reminiscent of hyperferritinemic syndrome.

• Ferritin contributes to the inflammation by directly activating macrophages, and free iron may be liberated from ferritin by free radicals. • Free iron reacts with oxygen or hydrogen peroxide to form free radicals, thereby driving oxidative stress and leading to tissue injury.

• There is no established effective treatment for COVID-19, and some treatment options being explored are unlikely to be widely available soon, especially in resource-limited settings. • An abundant and safe antimicrobial that could act via oral ingestion to lower the risk of infection or prevent mild cases from progressing to severe disease would be ideal. • Tear lactoferrin and lysozyme levels predict the risk of acquiring upper respiratory tract infections, and these antimicrobials are abundant in natural secretions. • Ovotransferrin is more abundant than lactoferrin and can substitute lactoferrin in many applications.

• Bovine lactoferrin has been shown to inhibit SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 cell entry.

• Lactoferrin restores iron homeostasis through sequestering free iron and modulating levels of proteins involved in controlling iron balance between blood and tissues. • Lactoferrin reduces oxidative stress and inflammation, and it is immune 'sensing' with its effect dependent on the environment. • Oral administration of lactoferrin in animal models and human studies of viral diseases, as well as various inflammatory disease states, shows beneficial effects and safety.

• Ovotransferrin has antiviral peptides that are conserved with those found in human and bovine lactoferrin, and ovotransferrin may have a more potent antiviral effect. • Ovotransferrin has immunomodulatory, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory activities.

• Lysozyme exhibits antiviral activity via its cationic peptides and has immunomodulatory, antioxidant and angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory properties. • Oral administration of lysozyme in animal models and human studies shows its ability to limit inflammation systemically, resulting in decreased immune-driven pathology.

• Lactoferrin is abundant in cow's milk, while ovotransferrin and lysozyme are abundant in hen egg white.

• High costs of isolation have limited widerspread use of purified forms of these antimicrobials.

• Isolation costs and stability pose challenges for bioactive peptides of these antimicrobials to reach the clinical phase. Future perspective • These antimicrobials could be used upon presentation of symptoms to prevent noncritical cases from progressing to critical cases, and lower quantities could be taken to lower risk of infection in those at high risk. • Good quality nonisolated forms of these should also be tested while ensuring the desired concentrations of each antimicrobial are met, especially in settings where the isolated forms may not be as readily accessible. • The accessibility and reasonable cost make these antimicrobials attractive as a therapeutic option and we therefore call for their rapid testing in clinical trials.

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Lysozyme in human body fluids

Consistent detection of 2019 novel coronavirus in saliva

Comparison of throat swabs and sputum specimens for viral nucleic acid detection in 52 cases of novel coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2) infected pneumonia (COVID-19)

Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in different types of clinical specimens

Characteristics of ocular findings of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Hubei province

Assessing viral shedding and infectivity of tears in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients

Evaluation of coronavirus in tears and conjunctival secretions of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection

Tears and conjunctival scrapings for coronavirus in patients with SARS

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in tears

PC2 ovotransferrin: characterization and alternative immunotherapeutic activity

The intracellular inhibition of HCV replication represents a novel mechanism of action by the innate immune lactoferrin protein

Inhibition of SARS pseudovirus cell entry by lactoferrin binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans

Bovine lactoferrin is shown to inhibit SARS coronavirus cell entry by binding to heparan sulphate proteoglycans, which the virus uses as an anchoring site on the cell surface

Morphological cell profiling of SARS-CoV-2 infection identifies drug repurposing candidates for COVID-19. bioRxiv (2020)

Bovine lactoferrin is shown to inhibit SARS coronavirus 2 replication in vitro, inhibiting both entry and postentry steps in replication

The protective effects of lactoferrin against murine norovirus infection through inhibition of both viral attachment and replication

Physicochemical and antibacterial properties of lactoferrin and its hydrolysate produced by heat treatment at acidic pH

Identification of the bactericidal domain of lactoferrin

La Force FM. Damage of the outer membrane of enteric gram negative bacteria by lactoferrin and transferrin

The antifungal activity of lactoferrin and its derived peptides: mechanisms of action and synergy with drugs against fungal pathogens

Lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator

Bovine lactoferrin supplementation supports immune and antioxidant status in healthy human males

Lactoferrin accelerates reconstitution of the humoral and cellular immune response during chemotherapy-induced immunosuppression and bone marrow transplant in mice

Human lactoferrin attenuates the proinflammatory response of neonatal monocyte-derived macrophages

Lactoferrin in a context of inflammation-induced pathology

Lactoferrin suppresses neutrophil extracellular traps release in inflammation

Antihypertensive effects of lactoferrin hydrolyzates: inhibition of angiotensin-and endothelin-converting enzymes

Lactoferrin, ovotransferrin & lysozyme in COVID-19 Review

Aerosolized bovine lactoferrin counteracts infection, inflammation and iron dysbalance in a cystic fibrosis mouse model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa chronic lung infection

Peptides affecting coagulation

Antiviral activity of ovotransferrin derived peptides

Ovotransferrin peptides that are conserved with peptides from bovine lactoferrin (which are also active against herpes simplex virus) were shown to be more potent than bovine lactoferrin peptides in their effect against Marek's disease virus

Antiviral effect of ovotransferrin in mouse peritoneal macrophages by up-regulating type I interferon expression

Ovotransferrin antimicrobial peptide (OTAP-92) kills bacteria through a membrane damage mechanism

Antifungal activity of ovotransferrin towards genus Candida

Interaction between lactoferrin and ovotransferrin and Candida cells

In vitro immune-enhancing activity of ovotransferrin from egg white via MAPK signaling pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages

Ovotransferrin enhances intestinal immune response in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice

Antioxidant, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity and other functional properties of egg white proteins and their derived peptides: a review

In vitro cytotoxic and ACE-inhibitory activities of promod 278P hydrolysate of ovotransferrin from chicken egg white

Egg white-derived antihypertensive peptide IRW (Ile-Arg-Trp) inhibits angiotensin II-stimulated migration of vascular smooth muscle cells via angiotensin type I receptor

The ovotransferrin-derived peptide IRW attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses

Antiviral activity of ovotransferrin discloses an evolutionary strategy for the defensive activities of lactoferrin

Antioxidant effects of ovotransferrin and its hydrolysates

Lysozyme association with nucleic acids

Inhibition of human immunodeficiency type 1 virus (HIV-1) life cycle by different egg white lysozymes

Structural and functional modeling of human lysozyme reveals a unique nonapeptide, HL9, with anti-HIV activity

Enhancement of anti-herpetic activity of glycyrrhizic acid by physiological proteins

Human lysozyme has fungicidal activity against nasal fungi

Dose-dependent effect of lysozyme upon Candida albicans biofilm

Human lysozyme possesses novel antimicrobial peptides within its N-terminal domain that target bacterial respiration

Modulation of neutrophil function by lysozyme. Potential negative feedback system of inflammation

Anti-inflammatory effect of lysozyme from hen egg white on mouse peritoneal macrophages

ACE inhibitory peptides and antioxidant peptides derived from in vitro digestion hydrolysate of hen egg white lysozyme

Liposomal lactoferrin as potential preventative and cure for COVID-19

The ferroportin-ceruloplasmin system and the mammalian iron homeostasis machine: regulatory pathways and the role of lactoferrin

Milk modulates macrophage polarization in vitro

Intranasal lactoferrin enhances alpha-secretase-dependent amyloid precursor protein processing via the ERK1/2-CREB and HIF-1 pathways in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Potential novel role of COVID-19 in Alzheimer's disease and preventative mitigation strategies

Oral administration of lactoferrin reduces colitis in rats via modulation of the immune system and correction of cytokine imbalance

Effect of bovine lactoferrin as a novel therapeutic agent in a rat model of sepsis-induced acute lung injury

Oral recombinant human or mouse lactoferrin reduces Mycobacterium tuberculosis TDM induced granulomatous lung pathology

Oral lactoferrin for the prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants

A pilot study on the effect of lactoferrin on Alzheimer's disease pathological sequelae: impact of the p-Akt/PTEN pathway

Lactoferrin: a natural glycoprotein involved in iron and inflammatory homeostasis

Effect of lactoferrin in patients with chronic hepatitis C: combination therapy with interferon and ribavirin

Lactoferrin for prevention of common viral infections

Crystal structure of hen apo-ovotransferrin. Both lobes adopt an open conformation upon loss of iron

The utility of ovotransferrin and ovotransferrin-derived peptides as possible candidates in the clinical treatment of cardiovascular disease

The golden egg: nutritional value, bioactivities, and emerging benefits for human health

The potential of egg white proteins, including lysozyme and ovotransferrin, and their bioactive peptides to be used in preventing/curing diseases is reviewed

Purification and characterization of antioxidant peptides from enzymatically hydrolyzed chicken egg white

Structure and activity study of egg protein ovotransferrin derived peptides (IRW and IQW) on endothelial inflammatory response and oxidative stress

Protective properties of lysozyme on β-amyloid pathology: implications for Alzheimer disease

Increased inflammation in lysozyme M-deficient mice in response to Micrococcus luteus and its peptidoglycan

Hen egg lysozyme attenuates inflammation and modulates local gene expression in a porcine model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis

Milk-derived proteins and peptides in clinical trials

On lysozyme therapy. I. Lysozyme tablets in treatment of some localized and generalized viral skin diseases

The antimicrobial effect of lysozyme on nasal mucosa

A random controlled study of the prophylactic effect of lysozyme chloride on post-transfusion hepatitis

Use of lysozyme in parodontopathy

Clinical trial of lysozyme treatment of crural ulcers in humans

Lysozyme in the feeding of premature infants with mixed pathology

Supplementation with lactoferrin and lysozyme ameliorates environmental enteric dysfunction: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial

Lysozyme in the overall treatment of children with an influenza infection and pneumonia

The characteristics of lysozyme and carbenicillin action on the clinico-immunological status of patients with chronic bronchitis

Aerosolized recombinant human lysozyme ameliorates Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced pneumonia in hamsters

Bioengineered lysozyme in combination therapies for Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection

The effect of lysozyme on elastase-mediated injury

Determination of bovine lactoferrin concentrations in cheese with specific monoclonal antibodies

Lactoferrin concentrations in milk from normal and subclinical mastitic cows

Detection of lactoferrin in bovine and goat milk by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Determination of lactoferrin and immunoglobulin G in animal milks by new immunosensors

Factors affecting the lactoferrin concentration in bovine milk

Composition and properties of bovine colostrum: a review

Comparison of lactoferrin content in colostrum between different cattle breeds

Separation of lactoferrin-A and -B from bovine colostrum

Heat stability of bovine lactoferrin at acidic pH

Effect of processing intensity on immunologically active bovine milk serum proteins

Studying lactoferrin N-glycosylation

Large-scale production of recombinant human lactoferrin from high-expression, marker-free transgenic cloned cows

Matrix-immobilized yeast for large-scale production of recombinant human lactoferrin

Physico-chemical properties influence the functions and efficacy of commercial bovine lactoferrins

Gastric digestion of bovine lactoferrin in vivo in adults

Formulation for oral delivery of lactoferrin based on bovine serum albumin and tannic acid multilayer microcapsules

Liposomalization of lactoferrin enhanced its anti-inflammatory effects via oral administration

Iron-binding fragments from the N-terminal and C-terminal regions of human lactoferrin

Egg white proteins and their potential use in food processing or as nutraceutical and pharmaceutical agents: a review

International egg pasteurization manual

Thermal stability of high concentration lysozyme across varying pH: a fourier transform infrared study

Polyols (glycerol and ethylene glycol) mediated amorphous aggregate inhibition and secondary structure restoration of metalloproteinase-conalbumin (ovotransferrin)

Current understanding of egg allergy

The effect of trypsin on bovine transferrin and lactoferrin

Resistance of metal complexes of conalbumin and transferrin to proteolysis and to thermal denaturation

Iron-ovotransferrin preparation does not interfere with ciprofloxacin absorption

In vitro digestions and IgE binding of proteins from white and whole hen's egg

Food-derived bioactive peptides in human health: challenges and opportunities

Purification and characterisation of angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides derived from enzymatic hydrolysate of ovotransferrin

Transport of antihypertensive peptide RVPSL, ovotransferrin 328-332, in human intestinal caco-2 cell monolayers

Concentration of egg white lysozyme in the serum of healthy subjects after oral administration

Recent advances for the production and recovery methods of lysozyme

What is new in lysozyme research and its application in food industry? A review

Studies on biotransformation of lysozyme. IV. Radioimmunoassay of lysozyme and its evaluation

Immunoreactivity of hen egg allergens: influence on in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of the presence of other egg white proteins and of egg yolk

Antimicrobial peptides released by enzymatic hydrolysis of hen egg white lysozyme

Probing protein stability and proteolytic resistance by loop scanning: a comprehensive mutational analysis

Effect of polyols on the conformational stability and biological activity of a model protein lysozyme

The effect of glycerol supplements on aerobic and anaerobic performance of athletes and sedentary subjects

In: The MAK-Collection Part I, MAK Value Documentations

Soothing properties of glycerol in cough syrups for acute cough due to common cold

Trehalose and glycerol stabilize and renature yeast inorganic pyrophosphatase inactivated by very high temperatures

Glycerol reverses the misfolding phenotype of the most common cystic fibrosis mutation

Correct protein folding in glycerol

Anti-irritant and anti-inflammatory effects of glycerol and xylitol in sodium lauryl sulphate-induced acute irritation

Virucidal effect of glycerol as used in donor skin preservation

Effect of glycerol on intracellular virus survival: implications for the clinical use of glycerol-preserved cadaver skin

Antihypertensive effect of a combination of uracil and glycerol derived from Lactobacillus plantarum strain TWK10-fermented soy milk

Co-infections: potentially lethal and unexplored in COVID-19

Influence of camel milk on the hepatitis C virus burden of infected patients

Acknowledgments E Allen is acknowledged for her valuable contribution in the form of discussions on this topic.

The authors have no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties.No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.