key: cord-022264-flf9o3nw authors: nan title: Cruise Geography date: 2009-11-16 journal: Cruise Operations Management DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7506-7835-3.50008-x sha: doc_id: 22264 cord_uid: flf9o3nw nan Cruise Geography By the end of the chapter the reader should be able to: ■ Consider geography from a cruise industry perspective ■ Evaluate the primary and secondary cruise sectors ■ Identify major cruise ports in each sector ■ Consider the attractions and features that are important in defining a cruise port and destination In a practical sense, cruise companies regard the world as a series of sectors that meet various market needs. For the largest brands, this outlook allows companies to configure operations to take account of: ■ Seasonality, weather patterns, and optimum conditions for cruising ■ Sales and marketing ■ Supply and servicing of ships This chapter considers the influence and effect of geography on the cruise industry. To start with, it is impossible to consider cruising without reflecting on the conditions that arise from the prevailing climate. Passenger comfort and safety are directly affected if a cruise ship sails in a particular part of an ocean or sea at a particular time of the year. This also holds true for destinations visited and shore activities that may be offered. To avoid potential discomfort for customers, cruise ships tend to steer clear of parts of the world where difficult sea conditions occur because of geography, climate, and seasonal variations (Burton, 1995) . Many stories are told of severe weather conditions in specific locations. For example, the Bay of Biscay, the Cape of Good Hope, the Bay of Bengal, and the North Atlantic have reputations suggesting they can provide extremes of weather for seafarers or navigators. Yet knowledge of weather patterns and records of tidal variations permit cruise operators to predict where ships can travel with a high degree of safety to enable virtually all the world's oceans and seas to be traversed and all coastal ports to be visited (see Figure 4 .1). Weather patterns are complex. They are influenced by many factors, including the sun's rays, the world's rotational axis (which tilts 23.5°from the perpendicular, thus creating seasonal variations), the land masses and oceans, currents, and the moon's gravitational pull (which creates tidal variations). southern and eastern Caribbean islands have fared less well than western Caribbean islands, because itineraries have switched from 2-week tours to shorter 4-or 7-day excursions (Burton, 1995) . Competition for the tourist dollar has led to a situation where port fees for many Caribbean islands are relatively inexpensive, at between US$4 to US$6 per customer. In this way, a vessel such as the Diamond Princess, with 2,500 customers, would pay approximately US$12,500 in port fees. In addition, cruise companies own some islands: Royal Caribbean has ownership of Coco Cay, Holland America owns Half Moon Cay, Disney Cruises owns Castaway Cay, Norwegian Cruise Lines owns Great Stirrup Cay, and Princess Cruises has an island called Princess Cay. The benefits of such ownership include generating revenue from shore-based activities and controlling costs associated with ports of call (a Cay, or Key as it is known in the United States, is a low island or reef of sand or coral). Some islands are less tranquil or accommodating to tourists than may be expected. Cuba, the largest of the Caribbean islands and located 145 km south of Florida, has a history of being opposed to the politics of the United States and this posture has inhibited US tourist trade growth. Other recent examples include political instability in Haiti (BBC News, 2004 ) that has had a detrimental effect on the island's economy and has negatively affected cruise visits. However, in general, the situation on the majority of these "island paradises" is calm and settled. The Cruise Line Industry Association (CLIA, 2005a) describes three specific parts to the Caribbeanthe eastern Caribbean and the Bahamas, the western Caribbean and the southern Caribbean. Selected destinations from these areas are described in this section. The Caribbean Tourism Organization (2005) is a trade organization that represents many of the Caribbean islands: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bonaire, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Cuba, Curacao, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe/St. Barts The islands of the Bahamas are close to the Caribbean but are not part of this region (Mancini, 2000) . However, the Bahamas' close proximity to both the South Florida Coast and the eastern Caribbean makes them a natural itinerary option for cruise planners, which means the islands are a frequent stop in Caribbean cruises. The combined Bahamas and eastern Caribbean area is relatively accessible from US ports such as Miami, Port Everglades, and Port Canaveral, as well as from San Juan in Puerto Rico. However, because of the cumulative distance involved for this type of itinerary, the duration for some cruises is likely to be in excess of 7 days. There is a diversity of ports in the region, including the aforementioned cays and islands that are privately owned by cruise companies (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2005) . Several ports are described below, followed by a table that presents information about population, language, and currency. In all cases, for this and subsequent tables relating to destinations that appear in this chapter, populations of the port or island community are approximate. Nassau and Freeport on New Providence Island are the primary ports of call in the Bahamas. In 2004, Nassau was the sixth most visited port in the world and Freeport was the sixteenth (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . The name Bahamas is a derivation of the Spanish "Baha Mar," or shallow sea, and there are approximately 700 islands in this popular self-styled "paradise archipelago" of sun, sea, and sand. The beaches are held in high regard, but the islands also offer a variety of attractions beyond miles of white or pink sand. The islands claim the world's third largest barrier reef and a diversity of sea life, including whales and dolphins. The Bahamas have a population of 302,000 (70% on New Providence Island) and relys on tourism for 50% of employment and gross domestic product (GDP), or the total amount of revenue generated from sales of products and services. San Juan, Puerto Rico is both a port of call (or destination) and a base port. This dual role makes the island the seventh most visited destination in the world, according to Wild and Dearing (2004a) . Puerto Rico is described as an "Island of Enchantment," with a broad range of multifaceted attractions including the archetypal tropical beach scene, diverse natural attractions, and a rich cultural heritage. Islanders came from a mix of cultures reflecting the scope of the island's origins, which includes African, Spanish, indigenous, and US influences. The population of Puerto Rico is just under 4 million. The currency is US dollars, and both English and Spanish are spoken (Puerto Rico Tourist Office, 2005) . St. Thomas and the island's port, Charlotte Amalie, are celebrated by shoppers. Over the years, the island has become a leading tax-free haven and this, combined with the natural allure of the scenery and the island attractions, creates a powerful draw (US Virgin Islands Tourism Authority, 2005) . As a result, the island is the eighth most frequented port in the world (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . Cruise visitors to the islands have easy access to a shopping mall next to the pier and can also enjoy water sports, such as snorkeling and scuba diving expeditions, and land based activities (Dervaes, 2003) . The term scuba is an acronym that stands for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus." Philipsburg is St. Maarten's port. With one half Dutch and the other half French (referred to as St. Martin) the island has two national identities and two personalities. The half of the island where most cruise ships call at Philipsburg is Dutch. The island is the ninth most visited port in the world according to Wild and Dearing's (2004a) survey. Visitors enjoy beach activities, water based excursions, and cultural experiences when visiting this island (Mancini, 2000) . This island is the eighteenth most visited port in the world by cruise passengers (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . Antigua is a verdant tropical island that boasts the historical attraction of Nelson's Dockyard, the eighteenth-century base for the British naval fleet (Mancini, 2000) . The island is popular for snorkeling and scuba diving, and is said to be one of the sunniest of the eastern Caribbean islands (Antigua Barbuda Tourist Information, 2005 The western Caribbean is convenient for cruises that depart from Florida or ports such as Houston, Galveston, and New Orleans (Mancini, 2000) . In addition, the itineraries for this region can be supplemented with Mexican destinations such as Cozumel (the third most visited port in the world George Town in Grand Cayman is the main port of call and is the fifth most visited port in the world (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . The islands are famous for the opportunity to swim with stingrays, although many other attractions and experiences are available. The islands have a reputation for spectacular diving around the coral reefs, which are generously endowed with marine life. Grand Cayman Island is also home to the world's first sea turtle farm, the spectacular limestone and coral formations known as Hell, and the popular Seven Mile Beach (Cayman Islands Department of Tourism, 2005). Jamaica is the Caribbean's second largest island, and Ocho Rios, Jamaica's port, is fifteenth in Wild and Dearing's survey (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . Jamaica has an array of natural wonders such Dunn's River Falls. Cruise passengers have the opportunity to climb the waterfall, take an expedition to the Blue Mountains, and go on an undersea tour or visits to caves (Visit Jamaica, 2005) . The options are very wide, reflecting the natural and cultural diversity of the island. Music, as epitomized by the late Bob Marley, plays a part in Jamaican culture. Jamaica is the home of reggae and boasts a rich historical heritage. This part of the Caribbean tends to be seen as more exotic because the islands are located close to Venezuela in South America and the itinerary usually requires using a home port from within the area, such as Barbados and Aruba. Many cruises to the southern Caribbean originate from San Juan in the eastern Caribbean and include a mixed itinerary of ports from both the eastern and southern Caribbean. This region enjoys the Caribbean's sunniest climate. Georgetown is the port for the island of Barbados which lies at the eastern edge of the southern Caribbean. The countryside has a softly rolling landscape, in contrast to some of the other volcanic islands that have been considered so far. Barbados has a strong British connection (Barbados Tourism Authority, 2005) and is a former colony (it gained full independence in 1966). Attractions include rum factory tours, touring the island, water sports, and visiting the many beautiful beaches. Willemstad is Curaçao's capital. Curaçao is the main island of the group of islands known as the Dutch Antilles. Curaçao has an unmistakable Dutch heritage, reflected in its style of architecture (Curaçao Tourist Board, 2005) . The island has a host of activities for cruise passengers, who may wish to visit the island's shops, the underwater park and Seaquarium, or the island's ostrich farm. There are many other islands in this area including Bonaire, Trinidad, and Tobago. Itineraries may also include Venezuelan ports such as La Guaira (for Caracas or Venezuela) and Cartagena. While the Caribbean has benefited from the changing pattern of cruising in the aftermath of 9/11, Europe and the Mediterranean (Figure 4 .3) are poised to develop exponentially as tensions concerning travel begin to ease (Wild and Dearing, 2004b) . Barcelona and Palma in Spain and Venice in Italy lead the rankings list of most visited ports in southern Europe, reflecting a trend for itineraries to be located more toward the west of the Mediterranean or the Adriatic (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . Southampton in the UK has emerged as a leading port for the northern region, being appropriately located to service a diversity of itineraries and, according to Wild and Dearing (2004c) , it is close to the types of facilities that allow effective service of passenger and cruise ship needs. This cruise region has a number of advantages. For US passengers it offers familiarity with the culture, the geography, and the attractions offered by the major cities (Mancini, 2000) . For European passengers it provides an easy departure from home ports. The countries and ports are, for the most part, highly sophisticated (Cruise Europe, 2005) and able to cope with the complex demands that accompany the arrival of the largest of cruise ships. A number of cruise brands, such as the Cunard Line and P&O Cruises in Southampton, have traditional roots in this region. Indeed, historically the UK is the home of cruising. The season for cruising in northern Europe is relatively short, but the ports are popular so traffic can be concentrated for the short cruising season (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . Wild and Dearing (2004c) note that the majority of passengers for this type of vacation are likely to be first, North American passengers; secondly, UK passengers; and thirdly, German passengers. When marketing cruises in Northern Europe, cruise companies can focus on the British Isles, the Baltic, Iceland, the Arctic and the North Cape, the Norwegian fjords, and Western Europe (Wild and Dearing, 2004b: 17) . The following describes key destinations from this area. Southampton is a city with a long maritime heritage. The city has experienced both growth and decline because of the historical development associated with shipping in general and the cruise industry in particular. It is currently experiencing growth. The port is well located for London, and it Cruise Geography has excellent transport links and the infrastructure to service cruise ship needs. The port provides a launch pad for ships to travel with or across the Atlantic, to the Mediterranean, to the ports of northern Europe. Because of this, it is listed by Wild and Dearing (2004c) as the first-ranked port in northern Europe. Helsinki is the capital of Finland. From a cruise perspective, the city is located in a strategically convenient part of the Baltic for itinerary planning. It is a bustling port with as many as 40 ferry departures daily at the height of season. The port is attractive and closely located to the city center (Cruise Europe, 2005) . Finland is different from other Scandinavian countries for two reasons. First, it has a different language that is more similar to Russian and Estonian than to the languages of the neighboring Scandinavian countries. Secondly, it shares a border with Russia, which has resulted in Finland possessing a different history and culture. With two thirds of the country covered by forest and one tenth made up of inland lakes, the Finnish Tourist Board emphasizes nature and the environment (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . The port is a secondary base port as well as a port of call, or destination. Copenhagen is the capital of Denmark, the smallest Scandinavian country, and, after Helsinki, it is the third most visited port in northern Europe (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . Copenhagen has a reputation for having lively nightclubs and bars and is a major cultural destination (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . It is the home of the Carlsberg brewery, which is both a tourist attraction and working production center, and the world famous Tivoli Gardens, which is Europe's oldest amusement center. Much is made of the figure of the Little Mermaid, a statue in the harbor area representing a character from Hans Christian Andersen's stories. The city was the recipient of the World Travel Award as Europe's leading cruise ship destination in 2004 (Cruise Europe, 2005). St. Petersburg in Russia has seen major growth in numbers of cruise passengers over the last five years and it was slated for 313 calls in 2004 compared to 263 in 2003. The city is said to be the most beautiful in Russia (Boniface and Cooper, 2005 Tallinn is a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) heritage site. It is the capital of Estonia and boasts what is said to be one of the few examples of an old city that has been kept intact. Tallinn has a history as a port that can be traced back to the tenth century, and evidence suggests there was a settlement on the site as long as 3,500 years ago. The city offers a number of attractions including parks, heritage buildings, palaces, and museums (Cruise Europe, 2005) . Tallinn is the fifth most visited port in northern Europe (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . Stockholm is the sixth leading northern European port (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . It is the capital of Sweden, a country that has the largest unspoiled wilderness in Europe (Bonifac and Cooper, 2005) . The city of Stockholm is located on a number of interconnected islands at one end of Lake Mälaren. The city offers a broad range of attractions such as museums, royal palaces, and heritage attractions. The city itself is attractive to visitors, with its narrow pedestrian streets, good shopping and restaurants. The northern European region may have a short season because of frequent inclement weather patterns from late autumn through to early spring, but the ports are popular and tourist-friendly. Whether a cruise is seeking the "land of the midnight sun" while cruising past the fjords of Norway or the northern lights of Aberdeen on the northeast coast of Scotland, passengers have many opportunities for memorable moments. In cruising terms, this region encompasses the eastern and western Mediterranean and provides access to a range of countries from a large number of ports. With long dry sunny summers, the Mediterranean climate is conducive to vacations (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . The region offers a great diversity of attractions, including historical sites, sophisticated cities, and beach playgrounds, all within relatively accessible cruising parameters (Mancini, 2000) . The distances between ports and attractions allow cruise planners to schedule itineraries in this region to take advantage of the best timing and economical fuel consumption and, in addition, to take advantage of high-caliber supply networks. The Mediterranean is popular with many cruise passengers. US passengers can take advantage of "grand-tour" approach to visiting Europe and facilitate border crossings, minimize language problems, and maintain a desired level of comfort. One drawback for US passengers can be the need to fly long distances to board the ship, although passengers are served by a multiplicity of arrival airports that provide easy access to base ports. Another factor that concerns some passengers is political unrest in countries and regions close to the Mediterranean. Passenger concerns about destinations are easily remedied by changing itineraries-a factor that has helped to generate the growth in popularity of cruising. UK and European passengers have relatively easy access to the Mediterranean. P&O Cruises, Cunard, Saga Cruises, and other cruise brands operate a variety of cruises that depart from the UK. Other cruises that depart from the Mediterranean are usually between 1 and 2 hours flying time away from local airports. The season in the Mediterranean is being reappraised to stretch the shoulder periods (the months between high and low seasons). Barcelona, in the western Mediterranean, is a Spanish city that has become the most visited port in the region (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . In addition to its status as a major base port, the city offers a broad range of attractions to make it a destination in its own right. The city is peppered with characterful architecture that was designed by Antonio Gaudí, and many tours visit his unfinished cathedral, the Sagrada Familia. The Ramblas provides a main walkway through the center of the city past the Barrio Gótico, the medieval core of old Barcelona (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . The port offers a contemporary setting for passengers to embark and disembark, with modern terminal facilities and network of services for passengers and cruise ships (Medcruise, 2005) . Palma is also a Spanish city in the western Mediterranean. The island of Majorca is one of the Balearic Islands located off the southern coast of Spain. The other principal Balearic Islands are Ibiza and Minorca, which are also ports of call for cruise ships. Majorca is well known as a holiday destination, and, in recent years, the port has become a popular fly, cruise, and stay product (Medcruise, 2005) . The island provides a variety of resorts and accommodation for this type of package. Palma, the capital of Majorca, is an attractive city that has a typical Spanish atmosphere, an impressive cathedral, a variety of shopping options, and close proximity to the beaches and other attractions. Venice is actually in the Adriatic Sea, not the Mediterranean. This northern Italian city has had a long and turbulent history, and seems to be continuously struggling against the ravages of nature and time. Yet, in its unique setting, with its canals and car-free environment, Venice is special. The vast scale of a Grand class cruise ship drifting past St. Mark's Square beside antiquities such as the Doges Palace and the Basilica presents an incongruous sight. As a sea-based trading center, Venice has a maritime culture and has always made a living from the sea. Its excellent terminal facilities provide a point of arrival and departure and easy access to this attractive destination (Medcruise, 2005) . Recently, proposals have been made to construct a tidal barrier to counter flooding problems caused by a combination of the city sinking into the lagoon (2 cm in 100 years) and rising tides (BBC News, 2003) . Naples is located in Italy, just to the south of Rome. The city is overshadowed by the ominous presence of Mount Vesuvius. This slumbering giant of a volcano provides a most impressive backdrop to Naples and is responsible for creating two of the area's attractions-the excavated Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The port gives easy access to the vast city, which can appear both lively and chaotic. This is the Mediterranean's fourth most visited port after Barcelona, Palma, and Venice (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . This unfamiliar Italian port provides the gateway into Rome. The city of Rome is a "must see" destination for travelers to Europe. The city boasts a veritable cornucopia of classical ruins and architectural gems, including the Forum, the Colosseum, the Vatican, and St. Peter's Square, all within a modern metropolitan setting. Getting from Civitavecchia to Rome usually involves a taxi or coach Cruise Operations Management journey, although the town also has a train station, which provides regular and easy connection. The port is a large sprawling area, and ships can be located quite far from the port gate. This distance can be traversed by a coach link or shuttle service, or taxi service, to the town center. Savona in Liguria, northern Italy, is the seventh most visited port in the Mediterranean area (Wild and Dearing, 2004c) . Costa Cruises, one of Carnival Corporation's cruise brands, has leased the modern terminal building in the city and makes good use of the facility to support its operations. Savona is in the heart of the Italian Riviera, a region of pretty seaside towns, spectacular coastlines, and a wide range of attractions. Livorno is a large, bustling port that services the surrounding region of Tuscany in Italy by providing a focal point for cargo, ferry, and cruise traffic. The cruise terminal is approximately a third of a mile from the city center. However, for many passengers that may be irrelevant because a key attraction is the city of Florence, which is approximately 55 miles (88 kilometers) from the port. The port also provides access to the beaches of the area, the famous wine region (Tuscany is well known for wines, including its famous Chianti), and many other attractive towns such as Pisa, Lucca, San Gimignano, Volterra, and Siena. Dubrovnik is a major Croatian city and port. Despite suffering heavy shelling during the Serb-Croat war in 1991 and 1992, this famous old walled city has been completely restored to enable visitors to experience its atmospheric street scenery. Dubrovnik offers contrasting experiences to visitors. The city holds much interest, with its ancient walled ramparts and fortresses, narrow pedestrian lanes, and historical town buildings. The surrounding countryside and coastline provide a rich mix of geography, culture, and leisure activities. Piraeus is a Greek port that may be seen by some as the Civitavecchia of Athens. Yet Piraeus has long been the gateway to Athens, and, as a result, it has a lively and bustling character. The harbor area is large and accommodates a diversity of shipping traffic, such as cruise ships, cargo vessels, and the ferries and hydrofoils that connect Athens and the mainland to the many outlying Greek islands. The 2004 Olympics led to considerable investment in the infrastructure of Athens and surrounding areas. Athens is another key destination for cruise passengers. The city has many treasures that attract visitors, including the Acropolis, the Parthenon, and the Agora, or marketplace (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . Athens can be reached from Piraeus by taxi, public bus, tour coach, and subway. Santorini is a Greek island in the Cycladic island group in the Aegean Sea, some 130 miles from Piraeus. The island offers spectacular scenery from its highest point, across the sweeping curvature of the crescent-shaped landmass out to sea. The island was originally a volcano, but when part of the Cruise Geography volcano collapsed into the sea the unique terrain was formed. Some claim that Santorini was the setting for the lost city of Atlantis. Rhodes, named after the phrase "The Island of Roses," is an attractive Greek Island where ancient history combines with the contemporary beach and sunshine holiday. Rhodes is also the name of the capital city, which today presents itself as a medieval old town with strong historical connections to the Knights of St. John. (The Knights of St. John was a religious and military order that was originally founded in seventh century BC to participate in war in the Holy Land.) Mykonos is another Greek island in the Aegean Sea. This small island, with a population of just 15,000, transforms during the summer, when 800,000 tourists inhabit the hotels, guesthouses, and tourist accommodation. Mykonos's charm is the appearance of the main town, with its winding back streets, white painted buildings, and beautiful island scenery. The Mediterranean possesses many special destinations and ports that are worth a visit. The attractiveness of this region, as well as the historical and cultural values, creates a strong lure for a broad range of cruise tourists. There are those who may have ancestral links to the area, others who seek learning and cultural enrichment, some who are attracted to the beauty of the scenery and countryside, and people who enjoy the climate. Invariably, there are many who seek a combination of these features. North America provides a number of embarkation points where US customers can join cruises and where overseas customers can join as fly-cruise passengers. In some cases these ports are home ports for US vessels and cruise companies. In addition, cruise itineraries can be constructed from US and Canadian ports to meet passengers' needs for cultural and geographical attractions. Irrespective of a cruise ship's flag or country of registration, because of the actions of US port health officials there are critical implications from the standpoint of port health for ships visiting US ports (which are examined in depth elsewhere) (Figure 4 .4). North America is the world's largest cruise market. As a result of concerns about security abroad, the number of cruise passengers joining from US ports has seen considerable growth. Of the top five cruise destinations in the world (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) , Miami and Port Everglades are as number 1 and 2, respectively, and Port Canaveral is number 4. All three ports are in Florida. Cruise companies have benefited by consolidating their operational support in the United States and creating economies of scale from supply networks for merged brands. In addition, cruise companies have become horizontally and vertically integrated in their operations. Within the cruise industry, horizontal integration is attained by using different brands strategically within a variety of market segments. Vertical integration is achieved by creating synergies and generating revenue from ownership of parallel operations such as shore excursions, travel agents, terminal operations, and so on. The following list provides a brief outline of the features of major North American ports. The port of Miami, on Dodge Island, is the busiest home port in the United States. As such, it provides a home base to Carnival Cruise Lines, Norwegian Cruise Line, Royal Caribbean International, Oceania Cruises, and Windjammer Barefoot Cruises. The port has state-of-the-art facilities and has eight terminals with designated berths that can be used flexibly depending on the type of shipping. In addition to hosting passengers who are embarking on cruises, the port also provides facilities for cruise passengers arriving in Miami, with many options for excursions. It can also host those arriving in the city a day or so before departure (Port of Miami, 2005) . While cruises can depart for many places, the main target is the Caribbean. Port Everglades is located close to Fort Lauderdale Airport, making for a relatively easy transfer for fly-cruise passengers who are primarily cruising to the Caribbean. Port Everglades, the number 2 port in the world, hosts many cruise brands, including Carnival, Celebrity, Costa, Crystal, Cunard, Holland America, Imperial Majesty, Mediterranean Shipping, Orient, Princess, Radisson Seven Seas, Regal, Royal Caribbean International, Royal Olympic, Seabourn, and Silverseas. The port provides a breadth of shore excusions (see Chapter 5) in the area (Port Everglades, 2005). Port Canaveral has six cruise terminals with another two under construction. The port is home to Carnival Cruise Lines, Disney Cruise Line, Royal Caribbean International, Sterling Casino Lines, San Cruz Casino, Holland America, and Norwegian Cruise Lines. The port is in what is known as Florida's Space Coast, and visitors can take the opportunity to tour the Kennedy Space Center or indulge in a range of other activities (Port Canaveral, 2005) . The port of Juneau provides access to the seasonal (May to September) attractions of Alaska. Juneau was a gold-rush town that became Alaska's capital. As a cruise destination, the city provides opportunities for exploring the area's mining heritage, participating in outdoor pursuits, visiting glaciers, whale watching, and even dog sledding. Glacier trips are available by helicopter. The city is more than simply a departure point for environmental pleasures, boasting an air of sophistication with its many art galleries and quality restaurants. Most of the major cruise brands that are marketed to US passengers sail to Juneau. Ketchikan is Alaska's southernmost city. Despite a high average rainfall, many outdoor pursuits are available, including kayaking, trekking, and visits to national parks, lakes, and forests. The city is a center for native culture, with an array of related museums and attractions. Los Angeles was the original home for the Love Boat television series that ran between 1977 and 1986. LA is famous for its many attractions, including Hollywood, Disneyland, and Universal Studios. The World Cruise Center in LA can manage a visit by the largest cruise ships (Cruise the West, 2005). Long Beach is fast approaching the scale of operation at neighboring port Los Angeles (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . Carnival Corporation has a terminal at this port, and many cruise brands use Long Beach as a departure and home port. Itineraries from this port can include Baja California, the Mexican Riviera, and Alaska. Tampa handles a quarter of the numbers of passengers that Miami does (Wild and Dearing, 2004a) . However, Tampa in Florida is expanding rapidly and attracts many of the leading cruise brands, including Carnival Cruise Line, Holland America Line, Royal Caribbean Cruise Line, and Celebrity Cruises. The port has a well developed, tourist-friendly, downtown waterfront area, and many excursions are available to augment the passenger experience. A host of other ports lie within this large area, including Vancouver, New Orleans, Galveston, Skagway (Alaska), New York, New Jersey, Boston, San Francisco, Galveston, Philadelphia, and Seattle. Competition is fierce and growth, combined with recent trends, means many ports are experiencing "boom" conditions (Mott, 2004) . Oceania, including Australasia (Australia, New Zealand, and Asia) and the islands of the Pacific, is a major expanse of sea and land. This cruise region offers great diversity from the culturally vibrant and exotic ports of Asia, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, India, Vietnam, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives, to the tropical islands of the Pacific, such as Tahiti, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Samoa, Tonga, and the Cook Islands. Australia offers the attractions of her cities of Sydney, Melbourne, and Freemantle and the uniqueness of the coast, the coastal resorts, and the countryside (Cruise Down Under, 2004) . New Zealand is still basking in the Lord of the Rings effect, which has followed the success of the movie trilogy. Publicity from feature films has frequently created heightened interest in travel destinations, and this has also been evident in the increased number of ships visiting the ports of Auckland and Wellington in New Zealand. This region is located in the southern hemisphere, so the seasons are a reversal of the pattern recognized in the northern hemisphere. As a result, the summer cruising season for Australia and the South Pacific extends from November to April (Mancini, 2000) . This vast geographical area is likely to experience continuous growth, with emerging economies such as China and India fuelling opportunities for new consumer markets and new, relatively accessible itineraries (Figure 4 .5). Sydney is probably the best-known city in Australia, although it is not the capital (which is Canberra). The city has a highly picturesque setting, with its harbor, the Sydney Opera House, and the Sydney Harbor Bridge, which were blatantly and successfully exposed to the world media during the Millennium New Year celebrations. Sydney has two cruise terminals-the Overseas Passenger Terminal at Circular Quay and the Wharf 8 Darling Harbor Passenger Terminal-that are in close proximity to the city's attractions (Sydney Ports, 2005) . Auckland is the largest city in New Zealand's northern island. It has an idyllic setting surrounded by islands and beautiful scenery. The city is both cosmopolitan and close to nature, with tours available to volcanic regions, rainforests, and beaches and the city's attractions within easy reach for passengers. The city has Polynesian and Maori culture, which is reflected in the people, the place names, the history, and the heritage of the area. Fiji is a group of 300 islands in the South Pacific with a population of approximately 893,000. The largest two, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, contain 80% of the country's population. The islands represent many peoples' vision of what tropical islands should be like. There are white beaches, coral reefs, and clear seas with a myriad variety of fish and sea-life, alongside rainforests and native villages. Contemporary Fiji also has attractive shopping facilities in the capital, Suva, along with modern hotels, a wide variety of restaurants, and nightlife for all types of tourists. New Caledonia is a French island that lies halfway between Australia and Fiji. The island, with its capital Noumea, is the third largest in the Pacific after New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. The French cultural influence, coupled with the influence of the Melanesian region in this part of the Pacific (Melanesia is the name given to the island group that New Caledonia is part of), creates an interesting backdrop for this island. The geography is a mix of tropical features, with attractive sandy beaches, a large lagoon that surrounds the region, mountains, and rain forests. Hong Kong was formerly a British protectorate, but it was returned to China in 1997. It retains a mix of Eastern and Western influences and a dynamism that reflects a city on the cutting edge of a changing world. The city promotes itself as a shopper's paradise, but, in reality, there is more to this energetic, self-styled "cruise capital" of Asia. To the Western tourist a visit to Hong Kong by cruise ship is a special opportunity to savor its unique blend of sights and sounds (Hong Kong Tourism, 2005) . The republic of Singapore is one main island surrounded by 63 smaller islets. It is an economically successful country, which is proud of its contemporary feel, its diverse culture, and its friendliness. Visitors can experience gardens, skyscrapers, the famous Raffles Hotel (home of the Singapore Sling), a strong sense of fashion, and a technologically aware community. The capsule descriptions of the aforementioned cruise regions are, of course, flawed because they only scrape the surface of the options for creating a cruise itinerary. Further research will undoubtedly reveal a plethora of destinations that are unmentioned in this chapter but, nonetheless, hold vital importance as part of a cruise itinerary. At the end of this chapter, the reader will find links that can help with such research. Some additional destinations are worth highlighting and have until now been omitted because of their geography. For instance, nothing is said about most of Africa and the islands off Africa, such as the Canaries, Mauritius, and the Seychelles. South America is also omitted, despite its obvious attractiveness and a wealth of interest in the continent. A few ports from these areas are mentioned here to draw attention to their potential. A number of primarily volcanic islands form part of cruise itineraries in the Northern Hemisphere. These are the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores. The Canary Islands of Tenerife, Lanzarote, Gran Canaria, and Fuertenventura are governed by Spain, although they fall outside the jurisdiction of the European Union (EU), which means that cruise ships with an EU registration can have the opportunity to sell duty-free alcohol. An EU-registered ship that has an itinerary made up of destinations or ports that are all EU member states would not be able to make such sales. Madeira and the Azores are Portuguese islands. The Canaries are relatively close to the coastline of North Africa and benefit from a temperate climate all year round. Madeira has a similar climate and is a popular cruise destination for passengers who enjoy the verdant scenery and charm of Funchal, the island's capital. The Azores offer a different type of destination. The islands have a quietness about them that reflects their remote setting. These islands were a convenient stopping point for trans-Atlantic crossings, but are now less frequented because the need for such a logistically convenient stopover is much reduced (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . This major Brazilian city conjures up images of Sugarloaf Mountain, with its world famous statue of Christ facing over Rio's population. Copacabana Beach and Ipanema Beach are also well known as playgrounds for locals and tourists alike. The city is representative of Brazilian exuberance, as seen in the everpresent music, the dancing, and festivals. Buenos Aires is the capital of Argentina. It is an optimistic and proud city with a much publicized past. Its architectural heritage is European, with influences from Britain, France, Italy, and Spain. Its museums, theaters, and art galleries reveal the cultural proclivities of the locals. Much is made of the links between the nation and the tango, a dance that embodies passion and drama (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . The Galapagos Islands are Ecuadorian islands in the Pacific. Despite being almost barren, these small islands are popular cruise destinations because they present an ecosystem that is unique. The water is cold, yet the islands lie on the equator so the mix of land and sea creatures is diverse. There are no natural predators, so the indigenous animals, including giant tortoises, marine iguanas, penguins, and sea lions, have no built-in fear of humans. The area is extremely sensitive, and cruise ships and passengers are managed with great care (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) to minimize environmental impacts. Cape Town is the capital of South Africa. The city is located in a place where cold and warm collide, because of sea currents from both the Atlantic and the Southern Oceans. Cape Town is a natural harbor that makes an excellent destination with a wealth of options for the cruise tourist, including the friendly locals, the dramatic scenery of Table Mountain , the famous regional vineyards, and the beaches. The Seychelles in the Indian Ocean are idyllic islands that are truly beautiful. The clean sandy beaches, clear seas, palm trees, and granite outcrops peppering the shores offer a relaxing port of call for cruise itineraries. The flora and fauna on these islands are unique because of their distance from the nearest landmass. Cruise tourists are most likely to visit Mahe, the main island. The Panama Canal is not really a destination in its own right, but it is vital as a link between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans and a fascinating experience for cruise passengers. The first ships used the canal in 1914. From then it was operated by the United States until 1999, when it was returned to the Panamanian government. It has three sets of locks to facilitate the different sea and water levels, and, on average, it takes about 8 to 10 hours for vessels to get from one side to the other. Ship dimensions must not exceed 32.3 meters in beam, draft 12 meters, and 294.1 meters long (depending on the type of ship). The Suez Canal started operations in 1869 to provide a link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Using this shortcut, ships could avoid the potentially dangerous and lengthy voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. Since that time, with occasional closures at time of war, the canal has become on of the world's most important trading routes (Boniface and Cooper, 2005) . The canal can allow vessels up to 150,000 GRT with a 15-meter draft to traverse the canal, although plans are under way to increase this limit to a 20-meter draft by 2010. This chapter provides a description of the major cruising sectors and a brief taste of a number of destinations. Considerably more can be said about all the destinations that are included, as well as those that are not. However, this is not possible in such a broad-based textbook, and it is recommended that readers undertake further research to examine key issues related to destinations and cruise sectors. Many good resources exist, including Web-based tourism sites, geography textbooks, and tourism guides. The cruise industry generates considerable business for destinations, but for some there is a cost. That cost may be in terms of the increase in people visiting particular destinations, the demands placed on the local population to "package" and thus taint the cultural experience, the possibility of pollution, or ecological impact. These issues can also be examined further with respect to the balance of the positive and negative impacts on destinations. The following two case studies are included to stimulate discussion and widen understanding about destinations. The first is the case of "Destination Southwest," a regional initiative that was introduced to increase cruise business to the southwest of England. The second examines the action taken by some cruise companies to purchase and operate private islands. Questions are included at the end of each case study. Resorts seeking to capitalize on the burgeoning cruise phenomenon could learn by examining the case of "Destination Southwest." This initiative, representing an alliance among eight ports throughout the southwest of England (Ilfracombe, Torbay, Dartmouth, Plymouth, Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance and the Isles of Scilly) was supported by a combination of European Regional Development Social Funds and match-funding from county and local councils, tourists bodies, and attractions such as the Eden Project, the National Maritime Museum in Cornwall, the National Trust, Britannia Royal Naval College, and the ports (a total of 21 public and private partners). The funds helped support a new partnership that aimed to develop and extend the number of cruise ship visits to ports within the region. Bob Harrison, an experienced professional with 30 years of industry experience, coordinated Destination Southwest at sea and ashore. He was appointed director of cruise operations. Harrison used his knowledge and contacts to gain access to senior managers involved with itinerary planning, and his insights into the experience and requirements of cruise passengers have been invaluable. He also recognized the difficulties that cruise executives face when planning itineraries and can orient his strategy accordingly. The £230,000 three-year project was launched in February 2002. Destination Southwest started by establishing an informative website, www.destinationsouthwest.co.uk. The website allowed visitors to click on the port name and get access to a lot of information, including a cruise calendar to identify which ships are calling and when, marine charts, town maps, suggested shore excursions, video clips of some attractions, 360-degree shots of the port area where passengers land, and distances and times between ports and attractions. This information, which helps the itinerary planner make decisions, was also replicated on a DVD to provide an easy-to-use reference in support of direct selling and to give away at exhibitions. Websites and DVDs were produced in German and English to appropriately target the US and German cruise markets. There were a few problems. Events such as the terrorist attack on New York, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the UK in 2003, and the emergence of SARS all affected purchasing decisions by potential cruise passengers. In many cases, people were ill informed about the implications of these critical incidents. Passengers to a port in Cornwall were overheard asking whether purchasing a woolly pullover might create a risk of catching foot-and-mouth disease. Cruise companies such as Holland America, Princess, Cunard, and Seabourne all liked the uniform packaged approach. The results of the project show an increase from 10 vessels calling into ports in the area in 2001, to 106 cruise ship calls in 2004. By all accounts, this is a dramatic increase. Some ports in this region offer berths where the ship can go alongside. Indeed, the busiest port, Falmouth, has such facilities. Harrison believes that passengers prefer as few tender operations as possible (where launches transport passengers from ship to shore). This despite the fact that many cruise brands include a tender operation as part of the total cruise experience. In his opinion, more than two tender operations in a cruise is too many, because passengers begin to object to the time delay, the potential discomfort if sea conditions are not calm, and queues that can form at either end of the operation because of security and logistical factors. The business generated by Destination Southwest includes 21 turnarounds. A turnaround port is one where the cruise starts and finishes. Dartmouth is reported to operate one turnaround while Falmouth has 20. The Falmouth turnarounds involve a ship called the Van Gogh, which has itineraries to the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands, and the Caribbean. Harrison describes recent research on passenger spending, which focused on Cork in southern Ireland. He quotes this Irish research because he believes that cruises based in Cork and those in the Destination Southwest program have much in common. This research identified that each passenger spends £197 and that crew members spend marginally less. There is, however, disagreement about spending levels, and some sources suggest that at times the crew can actually spend more than some passengers. This is explained by patterns in port manning. Minimum levels of crew must remain on board when the ship is in port to ensure safety. As a result, crew members cannot go ashore in every port but when they do go ashore they are more likely to spend greater amounts of money. Harrison estimates that cruise passenger spending in the southwest of England is £16.7 million, while crew spending is £1.7 million. That is a total of £18.4 million from a project with a £285,000 budget, which could equate to 438 jobs for the local community. When a cruise ship comes to Falmouth, the local department store, Marks and Spencer, takes on extra staff. The project has attracted high-profile vessels to the ports in the partnership and it is reasonable to highlight the benefit to the port's image. When the 'World ' was visiting Falmouth as part of her itinerary, there were 2,000 people standing on the headland to see the ship as she sailed out of the harbor. How was this level of success achieved? The website was seen to be important. The quality of information and the ease of use are fundamental. Destination Southwest possessed a tacit understanding of the cruise industry and its requirements. The project used business-to-business (B2B) marketing. Personal contacts that, developed relationships and encouraged visits to the area by decision makers were also important. Attendance at trade and travel conventions was of importance because it gave Destination Southwest a presence. Douglas Ward, the author of the Berlitz Guide to Cruising, was appointed as honorary president, and this link was also thought to be useful because of opportunities to enhance networking and raise the project's profile. The initiative has helped to develop the level of support for cruise tours, quality of welcome for cruise passengers, and overall focus for customer service. In Torbay, for example, shop-mobility trolleys were made available, and the mayor attended personally to welcome the passengers. In other ports, such as Plymouth and Falmouth, portable tourist information display units were available for passengers to consult. Local problems that negatively affect business include conflicting schedules from ferry operators competing for berths and limited under-keel clearance in port areas that inhibits ship mobility and access during certain tides and times. The project has helped lengthen the tourist season and has brought many people from the US, Europe, and the UK to the region. The potential for cruising is continually expanding. The Passenger Shipping Association states that there was a 37 percent increase in visits to the UK between 2003 and 2004 and identifies it as the fastest growing market in the world. The potential for the southwest of England is high. Even the weather, often regarded by some as a turn-off, is seen by many US passengers as an attractive experience. The local government office is impressed with the project and aims to extend it for a further two years. Levels of investment are low, however, and there is a constant struggle to persuade members to contribute. There are major benefits to acting in concert. Ports that do not act in competition can derive benefits through cooperation. Harrison says that cruising is for everyone, and the challenge is to inform those who do not recognize how it has changed. The preceding case study presented an account of how one region in a country created a plan to develop and sustain cruise tourism growth. 1. Consider the key actions and identify the critical elements that led to the outcome of this initiative. 2. What are the risks for this project and how can they be addressed with respect to the following? a. Internal competition between neighboring ports b. Ensuring the ports remain attractive as cruise destinations c. Securing finance to ensure that the project develops Private beaches, such as those owned or leased by cruise brands in the Caribbean or the Bahamas, are seen as a useful alternative to neighboring popular ports of call. Often the beaches are on Cays, the local name given to small islands, which is a derivative of the word Key (as in Key West). Cays are small, lowlying islands consisting mainly of coral and sand. Cruise lines such as Disney, Princess Cruises, Norwegian Cruise Line, Holland America Line, Costa Cruise Lines, Royal Caribbean International (which has two islands), and Radisson Seven Seas Cruises are all involved in this type of investment. But what are the advantages and are there any disadvantages in having a private beach port? Most of the islands are constrained by their location and facilities, thus requiring that the ship anchor off the coast, with passengers then ferried to the island jetty by tender. This transfer can add an exciting dimension to a cruise, although those with small children or with a disability may be inconvenienced. The notion of a private cay or beach can be attractive to passengers because of the implied romance or because the idea may signify to some a prestigious and unique benefit. The visit to the cay is often scheduled to include a morning arrival and late afternoon departure. This optimizes usage of the cay and allows the company to build in additional services such as barbeques, water sports, and organized games and activities. This in turn creates opportunities to generate revenue for the activities and for facilities. Kayaking, sailing, snorkeling, scuba diving, and a range of children's activities can be scheduled. In addition, some companies have scheduled special activities such as massages in private cabanas (Disney and Holland America) and "surf and turf " Olympics (Costa Cruises). Royal Caribbean has built a replica of a Spanish galleon and sunk a small airplane in the waters off its Bahamian island, 140-acre Coco Cay, for snorkeling tours and scuba divers. Services may be provided by the cruise company or subcontracted to local employees or contract providers. The services are under the quality assurance and control of cruise management with, in some cases, shipboard staff being used ashore to create a seamless service. In addition to this approach to developing their "products," cruise companies are also introducing "beach clubs" in popular destinations, which are managed and operated directly or as part of a contract by the cruise companies. Some observers are critical of this approach (Robertson, 2004) , noting that issues relating to the environment and the amount of waste generated by tourists, both on the ship and when visiting these fragile islands are important and in need of further examination. In addition, points are raised about the ethical position of cruise companies in relation to the playgrounds of the Caribbean and the Bahamas. Cruise companies generate large amounts of revenue from their islands by selling products and services but, it is claimed, in doing so, the direct contribution to locals trading in the Caribbean is being eroded (Robertson, 2004) . where tourists are sheltered from a local environment by barriers intended to protect the tourists and manage their experience (Boniface and Cooper, 2005: 453). Why is this so and what are the implications? Glossary Archipelago: A group of many islands. Duty-free: The status claimed when goods are sold without the need to Port fees: Levies charged per passenger for a cruise ship entering a destination port. SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome What are the primary cruising sectors? 2. What are the important factors that define a port or destination? 3. What part does weather play for cruise destinations? 4. What are the secondary and emerging cruise sectors? Additional Reading and Sources of Further Information Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Cruise Passengers Experience the Bahamas Exploratory research of tourist motivations and planning Venice launches antiflood project Worldwide destinations Caribbean-everything you want it to be Cayman Islands-close to home Bahamas and the Caribbean Selling the sea Life and learning in further education: constructing the circumstantial curriculum All about Hong Kong Cruising: A guide to the cruise line industry Cruising in the Mediterranean Home comforts. Lloyd's Cruise International Cruising from Port Canaveral Go to Puerto Rico Mitchell Beazley's family encyclopedia of nature Cruise ship tourism Sydney ports: first port, future port. Retrieved 27April 2005 Explore Jamaica Caribbean Stronghold. Lloyd's Cruise International (69) Growth culture. Lloyd's Cruise International High achievers. Lloyd's Cruise International