key: cord-277395-72zu3mna
authors: Borghese, A.; Moioli, B.
title: Buffalo: Mediterranean Region
date: 2016-10-24
journal: Reference Module in Food Science
DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-100596-5.21232-8
sha: 
doc_id: 277395
cord_uid: 72zu3mna

The buffaloes reared in the Mediterranean region are the Asian buffalo or water buffalo, that is, Bubalus bubalis. This species includes two types: (1) the river type, with 50 chromosomes, with an adult male weighing between 450 and 1000 kg and with an annual milk production of 1000–3000 kg; and (2) the swamp type, with 48 chromosomes, with an adult male weighing between 325 and 450 kg and with an annual milk production of up to 600 kg. The river buffalo is reared mainly for milk, whereas the swamp buffalo is reared mainly for draught. Only 3% of the world buffalo population is reared in the Mediterranean region. Significant numbers of buffaloes are at present found only in Italy, Romania, Egypt, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iraq and Iran. In all these countries, buffaloes represent only a very small portion of total livestock, except in Egypt, where buffaloes are more numerous than cattle. Because of the strong market demand for buffalo cheese, the number of buffaloes has increased in Italy and there is a preference for buffalo dairy products compared to cows' milk products in a few countries. Major morphological differences between the buffalo populations of different countries include (1) the variable size, ranging between a minimum of 280 and 300 kg liveweight for adult females and males, respectively, in Egypt to a maximum of 900 and 1000 kg in Iraq, the most frequent weights being 600 and 800 kg; (2) the shape of the horns; and (3) the coat color, from dark gray and dark brown to black, showing white spots in some cases.

a dual-purpose line of buffaloes is maintained, and a maximum of 62% in Italy, where males have no market. In countries where the majority of buffaloes are reared in very small herds there are also a few bigger private, cooperative or state herds (Bulgaria, Egypt and Turkey) ( Figure 1 ).

The number of calves produced per cow per year varies from 0.5 in Egypt to 0.9 in Azerbaijan and Syria, with average of 0.7. The age at first calving averages 36 months. In Italy a good proportion of buffaloes calve at 28 months of age, whereas in Egypt and Syria a high number are 40 months or more at first calving.

In Mediterranean countries, all herds have their own bull except in the areas with very small herds (2-3 breedable buffaloes) in Romania, Bulgaria, Egypt and Turkey, where there are groups of bulls for breeding at village level.

Official milk recording for the productivity of buffaloes is performed in Egypt, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, the United Kingdom, Azerbaijan and Iran. Genetic evaluation of buffaloes is done in Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Egypt, Iran and Azerbaijan.

Choice of breeding bulls/heifers is made on the basis of: Where milk recording is not practiced, a better bull is judged on his appearance, size and strength. Natural breeding stations exist in Egypt and Bulgaria. Bulls in the breeding stations are provided by development programs of the government or other agencies. Due to difficulties in estrus detection and lack of organization, artificial insemination (AI) is still practiced only to a very limited extent for buffaloes in the Mediterranean region: in Italy for 2.5% of the buffaloes, in Egypt and Iran for 0.5% and in Romania for 0.1%. In the large cooperative and state farms in Bulgaria, AI is used on 80% of the buffaloes. In the other countries it is not used at all. The low use of AI has slowed down the implementation of national selection schemes for genetic improvement of milk productivity. Research trials conducted in Italy have indicated that artificial insemination is feasible and successful in buffaloes using the following technique to synchronize estrus and boost fertility. A progesterone-releasing intravaginal device (PRID) of silicon coils is inserted and left for 10 days; on the seventh day injections of 1000 IU of eCG (equine chorionic gonadotropin) and 15 mg of luprostiol (prostaglandin F 2a ) are given; artificial insemination is performed at 48, 72 and 96 h after removal of the PRID on day 10.

The most common housing system is that referred to as 'traditional,' consisting of keeping buffaloes indoors at night and confined in fenced areas during the day (Egypt, Turkey, Iraq, Syria); in the favorable season they are allowed to graze during the day (Romania, Turkey and on some farms in Italy). In the marshes in the southwest of Iran, buffaloes are kept outdoors on pasture throughout the year, whereas in the northern areas, around the Caspian Sea, they are kept in barns in winter. Lactating buffaloes are kept tied throughout the year in Bulgaria, Romania and Azerbaijan. In Italy, they are housed loose in paddocks all year, with the same modern systems used for dairy cows; one-third of Italian buffaloes are also put on pasture in spring. One-third of Iraqi buffaloes wallow in marshes all year, the water reaching a level halfway up their bodies. They swim far and wide to find food and when the water is high, they stand on platforms made of papyrus, reeds and mud; on these platforms the farmers sometimes build huts to house the buffaloes; these platforms can be pushed to different places in the marshes.

The length of lactation varies from 200 to 290 days, the most frequent being 260. Average lactation milk yield is 1600 kg. Italian buffaloes give the highest average yield (almost 2000 kg) (Figure 2) , while in Turkey, average yield is below 1000 kg. In the Iraqi marshes buffaloes produce no more than 700 kg in 180 days. The fat content of the milk throughout the lactation is over 8% in Italy, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Iraq, around 7% in Bulgaria, Romania and Egypt, and less than 7% in Iran.

The average daily milk yield of river buffaloes shows very wide variability, depending on the breed, the country and especially the management and feeding system. It can range from 3 to 4 kg day À1 for poorly fed animals (grazing and fed by products) to 15 kg day À1 in intensive management systems.

In the large commercial herds in Italy and Bulgaria, buffaloes are machine-milked, twice a day. In the smaller herds elsewhere in the Mediterranean, buffaloes are usually hand-milked, and often the calf is allowed to stand with its dam to assist letdown which otherwise may be slow.

Extensive management systems, as practiced in Europe and the Near East, include grazing in the favorable seasons. In all cases, green forage 'cut-and-carry'composed of legumes varying from country to countryconcentrates and by-products are the basic foodstuff. Green forage and hay are made mainly of lucerne (alfalfa) in Italy, Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey and Trifolium alexandrinum in Egypt. The most common by-products fed to buffaloes are brewers' grains in Italy and Bulgaria, sugarbeet pulp in Italy, Bulgaria and Iran, cotton waste in Egypt and Azerbaijan, tomato peel in Italy, apple-juice wastes in Iran, sugar cane wastes in Egypt and Iran, maize stalk and cobs in Iran, Egypt and Romania and straw everywhere.

In the Iraqi marshes, when the buffaloes return at night to the floating islands where they live, they are fed green forage cut by the farmer during the day; this forage is composed of reeds, papyrus, various water plants, and rice hulls when available. In Italy, dairy buffaloes are managed in the same intensive way as dairy cows, maintained in loose housing paddocks throughout the year. Maize silage and grass silage are the main feeds. Average yearly milk production for buffaloes in Italy is 2000 kg although 5% of recorded buffaloes yield more than 3000 kg. An example of feeding schedules for high-yielding buffaloes is given in Table 1 .

Similar high-energy diets (0.80-0.85 milk feed units (MFU) kg À1 dry matter) are used in Italy for particular selected genotypes where highest milk yield is desired because of the high prices for buffalo milk and because such diets increase milk protein (4.5-5.0%) and milk fat (8-9%) resulting in higher cheese yields.

Buffalo pathologies are similar to those described for cattle. Few diseases are peculiar to buffaloes. They tend to show more resistance to diseases than cattle, perhaps because of their adaptation to hot-humid climates. 

Parasitic infections, particularly in developing countries, are very common in buffaloes. They include: gastrointestinal helminths (Strongyloides, Toxocara, Moniezia, Mammomonogamus) and coccidia (Eimeria, Giardia, Cryptosporidium), liver parasites (Fasciola), tick parasites (Hyalomma, Sarcoptes) blood parasites (Theileria), all of which produce important economic losses in buffalo breeding.

Escherichia coli can cause gastroenteric pathologies in buffaloes, particularly in calves, associated with other bacteria (Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella) or with coccidia or verminosis or virosis. Respiratory diseases are caused by Pasteurella, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, E. coli, and can result in high mortality, if the animals are not treated with antibiotics. Pasteurella multicida is responsible for hemorrhagic septicemia, the most serious disease in buffaloes because of the high mortality particularly in tropical Asian countries; however, it can be controlled with antibiotics and vaccines. Tuberculosis, produced by Mycobacterium, is a serious zoonosis, which could be eradicated after tuberculin diagnosis. Brucellosis, caused by Brucella, is another zoonosis that needs to be eradicated after serological diagnosis. It can cause serious disease in the human population and reproductive disorders and infertility in buffaloes. Vaccination can be applied only in developing countries.

Leptospirosis is another zoonosis, produced by infection with Leptospira from water sources contaminated by rodents. Listeriosis, caused by Listeria, produces meningoencephalitis, abortion and septicemia: the source of the infection may be silage in the buffaloes' diet. Chlamydia, Rickettsia and Johne's disease (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis) are present even in developed countries also, and the evidence of mastitis incidence links them to dairy buffaloes.

Prophylaxis is very important to control some viral infections that could cause neonatal diarrhea (Rotavirus, Coronavirus), particularly in intensive systems. Bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), bovine diarrhea (BVD) and bovine herpesvirus (BHV) have all been diffused by animals in intensive buffalo farms. Buffaloes are also susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease.

Buffaloes are affected by fungal infections, tumors and reproductive disorders including prolapse of the uterus.

Compared to that of cattle, buffalo milk is richer in fat (6-9.5%) and protein (4-5%); it has a lower cholesterol content and higher tocopherol content. It is richer in calcium and phosphorus and has less sodium and potassium. Peroxidase activity is 2-4 times higher than in cows' milk so that it can be preserved longer; b-carotene is more completely transformed to retinol and therefore the milk looks whiter than cows' milk. The milk can be consumed in liquid form or processed into a wide range of products, either alone or mixed with milk from other livestock: fermented milks, butter, ghee, condensed and powdered milk, and cheeses are produced.

Many farms produce their own cheese and cream which they sell directly. Classifying the types of cheese according to water content, the following are typical:

Soft cheese (water content >45%): Karish, Mish and Domiati in Egypt; Madhfor in Iraq; Mozzarella in Italy

Semi-hard cheese (water content 40-45%): Beyaz peyneri in Turkey

Most of the cheeses produced in the Mediterranean area, including Mozzarella, belong to the acid-enzymatic category, meaning that acid coagulation prevails. The demand for high-quality in Bulgaria, Romania and Albania from either buffaloes', cows' or sheep's milk. In Egypt, rayat is produced from natural acidification of raw milk, after the removal of cream, with no addition of bacteria, and zabadi is produced industrially. Raha is the fermented milk of Iraq, produced either from whole or skim milk, and laban or khather are the fermented milks of Syria, all of which are often produced from buffaloes' milk. Creams Creams also show variable techniques of production. In Egypt, queshta mosakhana is the floating cream removed after boiling milk. Gaymar in Iraq is obtained both from spontaneous floating or from spinning, in which case it is then pasteurized. In Italy, cream from buffalo milk is obtained after spinning

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