key: cord-017429-3evwlfac
authors: Hubálek, Zdenek; Rudolf, Ivo
title: Vertebrates as Hosts and Reservoirs of Zoonotic Microbial Agents
date: 2010-11-10
journal: Microbial Zoonoses and Sapronoses
DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9657-9_7
sha: 
doc_id: 17429
cord_uid: 3evwlfac

This chapter presents a survey of zoonotic microorganisms that have been isolated from vertebrates (Vertebrata), and are potentially transmissible to humans. It is intended as an aid for microbiologists, zoologists and epidemiologists, making possible better orientation among hosts (and reservoirs) of zoonoses. A great number of sources have been used in this compilation, e.g. Davis et al. (1970), Kucheruk (1979, 1989), Karabatsos (1985–1995), Hubálek (1994), etc.

. M. dasycneme is bound to fishpond areas, its colonies are in tree hollows and in buildings. All three spp. feed on insects, and move up to 250-350 km. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus EBL2. BACTERIA: Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (M. myotis).

Southern Europe (including parts of central Europe -Hungary and Slovakia), North Africa and Asia. Feeds on insects. Movements short, up to 15 km. VIRUSES: Bunyavirus Keterah.

Eurasian species occurring in woodland, parkland, gardens and fishpond areas. Feeds on flying insects. Movements about 40-50 km. BACTERIA: Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia persica.

Occurs in sparsely forested areas, around buildings and occasionally in caves of western North America. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s.

Colonial species distributed in southern USA; roosts in caves, also mine tunnels, hollow trees, buildings, and migrates up to 70 km. FUNGI: Histoplasma capsulatum (reservoir and lessor, mainly caves in Florida).

Colonial species distributed in southern and central USA; roosts in caves. Migrate up to 70 km. FUNGI: Histoplasma capsulatum (reservoir and lessor, mainly caves in Tennessee).

Noctule Bat (Nyctalus noctula: Photo 7.12) A large Eurasian species, living in deciduous and mixed forests, and roosting in tree hollows (e.g., woodpecker holes), feeds on large insects. Migratory at least in the northern parts of its distribution range, with the movements up to 800-1,600 km. VIRUSES: Bunyavirus Keterah, Lyssavirus EBL1.

Serotine (Eptesicus serotinus: Photo 7.13) Eurasian and North-African species, common in towns and villages largely in lowlands. Hunts for insects in parkland, gardens, wooded farmland. Largely a sedentary species, but movements up to 80 km (maximum of 330 km recorded in Germany). VIRUSES: Lyssavirus EBL1 (reservoir), Bunyavirus Keterah.

A large, widely distributed and common American species. Roosts singly or in small clusters, in winter common in buildings. Feeds mainly on beetles, but also other insects. Some individuals migrate. VIRUSES: flaviviruses WN and Rio Bravo, Lyssavirus s.s. (often).

North Africa. BACTERIA: Coxiella burnetii (Morocco).

Eurasian species occurring in woodland, cliffs and, in northern Europe adapted to living also in cities. Feeds on insects, migratory (up to 900 km). VIRUSES: Lyssavirus EBL1.

The smallest Eurasian and North-African bat species (3-5 cm body and head, plus tail 2-3 cm; weight 4-9 g), almost ubiquitous and widespread, also common in cities where it roosts in buildings. In Europe, it often invades living rooms during August-September. Feeds on insects. Largely sedentary, but movements up to 770 km were recorded. VIRUSES: bunyavirusesŤahyňa (Tadjikistan) and Keterah, Lyssavirus EBL1. BACTERIA: Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia persica, Yersinia enterocolitica. FUNGI: Microsporum persicolor.

North-American species occurring in woodland and roosting in trees, occasionally in caves. Migrate south in autumn. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s. (Miniopterus schreibersii: Photo 7. 14)

The most widespread bat species: Eurasia, sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, New Guinea and northern Australia. A highly social species, often roosts in big numbers (hundreds to thousands) in caves, usually in karst areas. Feeds on moths, beetles and diptera. Frequent movements among roosting caves, up to 350 km recorded. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus Duvenhage, EBL1.

American species roosting in large colonies (sometimes thousands of individuals -Mexico, New Mexico, Texas) in caves and buildings, migratory (up to 1,280 km). Feeds largely on moths but also other insects. VIRUSES: Flavivirus Rio Bravo (reservoir), Lyssavirus s.s. (often). FUNGI: Histoplasma capsulatum (lessor).

African migratory species. VIRUSES: Flavivirus Dakar bat (M. condylurus, reservoir).

Sometimes the species of particular monkeys are not reported in the literature, and these "group records" are listed here. VIRUSES: alphaviruses Sindbis and ONN, flaviviruses YF, dengue (rarely), filoviruses Marburg and Ebola, Bunyavirus Oropouche, Herpesvirus simiae (monkeys of the Old Worldreservoir), Orthopoxvirus simiae, Tanapoxvirus. BACTERIA: Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enterica, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Corynebacterium ulcerans. FUNGI: Trichophyton simii, Microsporum nanum. PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma cruzi, Plasmodium knowlesi, P. simium, P. cynomolgi, Balantidium coli.

A large West-African prosimian, feeds mainly on insects and small vertebrates. VIRUSES: Flavivirus West Nile, F. YF.

A very small South-American monkey (the size of a squirrel). Feeds largely on insects. Often kept as a household pet in South America. VIRUSES: Alphavirus Mayaro, Flavivirus YF, Bunyavirus Oropouche, Lyssavirus genotype 7 (8 lethal human cases acquired from this source were described in Brazil 1991 Brazil -1998 . East-African species living mostly on the ground and feeding on tubers and small animals. VIRUSES: Alphavirus Chikungunya, Flavivirus YF. FUNGI: Trichophyton simii.

Ape living in African tropical forests, feeds on plants and animals, e.g. monkeys that are occasionally killed and eaten by chimps. VIRUSES: Filovirus Ebola, SIV ("simian immunodeficiency syndrome virus", ancestor of HIV-1, in the subspecies P. t. troglodytes). 

Australian wild dog living in dry bushland and semidesert. Hunts different mammals, birds, reptiles and insects, also feeds on carrion. BACTERIA: Rickettsia australis.

Steppe, semi-open and wetland ecosystems of south-eastern Europe, Asia and north Africa, often around towns and villages. Feeds mostly on carrion, also on some small animals including insects, and fruit. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s. (reservoir in many parts of south Asia, north Africa, Ethiopia). PROTOZOA: Leishmania infantum (reservoir).

North-American species, the size of a medium dog, living in open woodland, bushland or prairies -very adaptable. Omnivorous, feeding on rodents, rabbits, often on carrion (scavenger), but also vegetables. Occasionally can kill sheep or calves. Extensive home range (usually up to 15 km, occasionally 160 km recorded North-American, medium-sized (about that of a small dog) species living near wooded areas, closely to streams and lakes, rock cliffs, but also in urban areas. Rests in tree hollows, ground burrows or rock crevices. Activity is largely nocturnal. Omnivorous: feeds on fruit, nuts, grain, rodents, frogs, carrion of larger mammals, eggs, insects, crayfish and other invertebrates. Home range 1-3 km, but young animals disperse up to 50 km from the birth place (one record of 260 km). Raccoon was introduced into Europe for its fur and now is spreading in Germany 

Medium-sized mustelids living along streams, lakes and in wetlands (excellent swimmers). Mainly nocturnal and solitary species. They feed on small vertebrates (mammals, birds and their eggs, frogs and fish). Hunted or bred for valuable fur. The American Mink was introduced to Eurasia, where it has occasionally escaped from captivity (domesticated mink) and lives in the wild now. The population of European Mink has been reduced markedly and the species is endangered, while feral American Mink is expanding in Europe and is considered a pest. BACTERIA: Bacillus anthracis, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Pasteurella multocida, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.

A large "ornamental weasel" with light brown body and dark face mask. It occurs in prairies of midwestern US states, often close to prairie dog towns, feeding on prairie dogs and other small mammals and birds. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis. 

This Eurasian and NW African species lives along streams, fishponds, lakes and wetlands as largely an aquatic animal, but can travel several kilometres overland to reach another river. Feeds mainly on fish, also frogs, crayfish and other aquatic invertebrates, and vertebrate carrion. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s. BACTERIA: Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. 

Genet (Genetta genetta) African, south Asian and south-west European (Spain, France) nocturnal species living in moist, dark woods. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s.

South-Asian, medium sized (50-75 cm plus tail 50-60 cm; weight 3.5-5 kg) species. Lives mostly on trees, and feeds on small vertebrates, insects and fruit. It rests usually in tree hollows. VIRUSES: Coronavirus SARS (competent host).

African and south-Asian species (size 90-120 cm) living in the savannah ecosystem and around human habitation. Feeds on carrion, refuse and small vertebrates. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s. (also human cases). BACTERIA: Bacillus anthracis. PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

Fragmented distribution in Eurasia and North America in forest habitats (and scrub 

A large, tawny to grayish cat, living in rugged mountains, forests and swamps of western North America and in Central America. Feeds on deer, hares, rodents, and domestic animals. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis.

African steppe habitats (savannah). BACTERIA: Bacillus anthracis. PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

Family Bradypodidae

Large mammal (50-60 cm; weight about 4 kg) living in the South-American tropical forest ecosystem. Specialized feeding on leaves and fruit of the tree Cecropia lyratifolia. VIRUSES: Bunyavirus Oropouche. BACTERIA: Borrelia hermsii.

Medium-sized (40 cm plus tail 40 cm, weight 4-8 kg) American (including southern US states) mammal species occurring in bushland, woods and on cliffs. Largely insectivorous, less frequently feeds on fruit and avian eggs. The body is "armoured" -covered with a protective horny substance. Den is situated in deep burrows. BACTERIA: Borrelia hermsii. FUNGI: Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma cruzi.

African (Savannah) Elephant (Loxodonta africana: Photo 7.31) The largest terrestrial mammal (up to 7.5 m long, weight up to 6,000 kg). Distributed in sub-Saharan Africa in savannah with bushes and in woodland. Herbivorous (leaves, grasses, fruit). PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis: Photo 7.32) Medium-sized mammal (30-60 cm long; weight up to 4 kg), lives on rocks in southern Africa and Angola. Herbivorous and social (up to 100 individuals in a colony) species. PROTOZOA: Leishmania tropica.

Rodents are, together with domestic mammals (namely ruminants and carnivores), epidemiologically the most important group of vertebrates as a source of human zoonotic infections (Davis et al. 1970 , Kucheruk 1979 , 1989 , Blood et al. 2007 , Hubálek and Halouzka 1996 . Comparatively large (25-40 cm long plus tail 7-12 cm; weight about 1 kg) rodent, living in steppe habitat (dry upland prairies) of central and southern areas of USA, and forming extensive colonies ("towns") with deep burrows. Related to marmots in its bionomics. Eats plants (grasses), and occasionally insects (e.g. locusts). VIRUSES: Orthopoxvirus simiae (lesions) -via import of African rodents to USA in 2003. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis (reservoir), Francisella tularensis (interestingly, several infected captive prairie dogs from Texas imported Francisella t. tularensis, i.e. the highly virulent type A, as pets into the Czech Republic in 2002, but fortunately the spread of infection was controlled).

About 25 cm long rodent (with a bushy tail about 20 cm long) living in western North-American pastures, cornfields and rocky ridges. Builds long burrows, and eats plants, seeds, acorns, fruit, mushrooms, insects, and even small birds and eggs. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis. 

A smaller (c. 15 cm long) semidesert rodent similar to both squirrel and ground squirrel, living in southwestern parts of North America. Feeds on seeds, insects and even meat. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis (New Mexico). 

Open broad-leaved and pine woods in the whole eastern part of North America. Spends much time on the ground. Feeds mainly on nuts and other seeds, also bird eggs, mushrooms, phloem under bark of trees. Nests in tree holes or builds a twig and leaf nest in branches high above ground. VIRUSES: Orthobunyavirus LaCrosse and other viruses of the California group, Coltivirus CTF. BACTERIA: Leptospira grippotyphosa, Francisella tularensis, Borrelia burgdorferi s.s.

North-Eurasian species of flying nocturnal squirrel. Lives in mixed or deciduous forests, gregarious in winter. Feeds on seeds, nuts, insects, and avian eggs. Nests in tree holes or on tree branches. BACTERIA: Rickettsia prowazekii, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.

European Beaver (Castor fiber), Canadian Beaver (C. canadensis: Photo 7.41) A very big European and North-American rodent (c. 70 cm long, plus tail 25 cm, weight up to 30 kg). Bound to water ecosystem (streams, lakes and swamps with trees on banks). Feeds on aquatic vegetation, tree bark and small twigs. Builds a lodge in water or burrows into banks along streams. BACTERIA: Salmonella typhimurium, Francisella tularensis (C. canadensis -epizootics, but not in C. fiber). PROTOZOA: Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia lamblia.

South-American and Caribbean species. Feeds on seeds, other plant parts, and also arthropods. VIRUSES: Alphavirus VEE (Mucambo). PROTOZOA: Leishmania mexicana.

North-American species (size about 7 cm plus tail 8-10 cm), living solitarily in sagebrush, chaparral and pine stands. Herbivorous (mainly seeds). BACTERIA: Francisella tularensis.

Central-and South-African species with long legs living in deserts and semideserts, herbivorous. Hunted for the skin and meat. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis (human cases at contact). Small, mainly East-Asian (but C. migratorius also lives in the Balcans and Asia Minor) hamsters living mainly in grass steppe and brush habitats. They feed on seeds, and build burrow systems, where they store seeds for winter, and hibernate. BACTERIA: Rickettsia sibirica, Orientia tsutsugamushi (C. triton), Coxiella burnetii (C. migratorius), Listeria monocytogenes, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (C. barabensis), Leptospira spp., Borrelia persica (C. migratorius), Yersinia pestis (C. barabensis: China, C. migratorius: the Urals, Transcaucasia), Y. pseudotuberculosis (C. triton), Pasteurella multocida (C. triton, C. barabensis), Francisella tularensis (C. migratorius).

Distributed in steppes of Central Asia. Feeds on seeds, less on insects. Also in captivity as pet. BACTERIA: Rickettsia sibirica, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis. 

South-American species, called raton colilarge (in Spanish). VIRUSES: Hantavirus Andes (reservoir), Arenavirus Whitewater Arroyo.

Central-American species. VIRUSES: Hantavirus Choclo (reservoir).

South-American species (Argentina). VIRUSES: Hantavirus Lechiguana (reservoir).

South-American species (Argentina). VIRUSES: Hantavirus Lechiguana (reservoir). (Neotoma floridana, N. cinerea, N. fuscipes, N. albigula, N. micropus, respectively) Big North-American mouse-like species (about 20-22 cm, plus tail 15-20 cm). N. floridana lives in diverse habitats: rocky cliffs, swamps, gardens, or in semidesert. Builds nest houses from various material, and feeds on seeds, fruit and vegetables. 

This nocturnal, terrestrial species is abundant in grassland, clearings, marshy areas, second growth, and agricultural areas of South America. Its diet includes seeds, fruit, and green plant material. It makes short burrows in banks or under tree roots, leading to nests made of grasses and plants. VIRUSES: Hantavirus Calabazo, Arenavirus Guanarito.

Norway Lemming (Lemmus lemmus), Black-footed Lemming (L. sibiricus), Brown Lemming (L. trimucronatus) Scandinavian, north-Siberian and Canadian species, respectively, of higher mountain levels (tundra and sub-alpine meadows). Nests either in burrows or aboveground. They feed on vegetation. Overpopulation every 3-4 years, followed by emigration southwards. VIRUSES: Hantavirus Topografov (L. sibiricus reservoir). BACTERIA: Listeria monocytogenes (in L. trimucronatus), Leptospira grippotyphosa (L. sibiricus), Francisella tularensis (outbreaks in L. sibiricus, L. lemmus -waterborne cases of human tularaemia have been described from this source).

North-Palaearctic species -D. rubricatus and D. groenlandicus are Nearctic. VIRUSES: Bunyavirus SSH (D. rubricatus). BACTERIA: Listeria monocytogens (disease: D. groenlandicus), Francisella tularensis (disease: D. torquatus, D. groenlandicus).

Central-Asian and east-European species living in steppe habitats. Body size about 10 cm (tail absent), maximum weight 40 g. Herbivorous. BACTERIA: Rickettsia sibirica, Coxiella burnetii, Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis (epizootics in south Russia).

Eastern states of USA. Size about 11 cm, tail only 2-3 cm + weight 20-40 g. Habitat is arid scattered sagebrush. Feeds on green vegetation. BACTERIA: Francisella tularensis.

South-Asian species of steppe habitats. BACTERIA: Orientia tsutsugamushi, Yersinia pestis. FUNGI: Trichophyton simii. 

Central-Asian (Kazakhstan and Mongolia) and North-Asian species of high rocky mountains. Herbivorous; they store hay between stones. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis (Mongolia), Y. pseudotuberculosis (A. strelzowi).

A widespread Eurasian species living in deciduous and mixed forests, woods, coppices and parks. Builds a system of shallow runs and burrows in the soil. Mainly herbivorous (seeds, nuts, fruit, roots and bast), but occasionally feeds on invertebrates (mainly insects). Active also in winter. Eurasian, very widespread and abundant species. Lives in grassland (usually humid), moorland, also arable fields in colonies, builds extensive runs and burrows, and is active also in winter. Feeds on grasses and other vegetation (mainly green parts, but in winter also roots, bast etc.). Populations are cyclic, and during the overpopulation peak the voles serve as rich source of food for foxes and birds of prey 

Occurs in meadow habitats and woodland at high altitudes in Asia Minor and Caucasus. BACTERIA: Leptospira pomona, L. grippotyphosa, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Francisella tularensis.

North-American vole living in lowland moist habitats or in high grassland near streams or lakes, much less often in forests. It can swim, feeds on grasses, seeds, grain and bark. Population fluctuates considerably, with spikes every 3-4 years. BACTERIA: Francisella tularensis.

It only occurs in the westernmost part of North America in marshes (even with brackish water) and on wet meadows, but also on grassy hills. Feeds on green vegetation (grasses, sedges). VIRUSES: Alphavirus WEE.

Distributed in western North America in mountain areas. Feeds on grasses and other green vegetation. VIRUSES: Parechovirus Ljungan. Medium-sized (25-40 cm, tail 20-25 cm, the weight of adults 1-2.5 kg) water rodent occurring in North America and, since nineteenth century, has been introduced into Eurasia (first bred in captivity for the fur) where it has spread widely. Burrows in banks of streams, and in reed stands of fishponds, marshes and lakes it builds big houses (up to 1 m high). Feeds on aquatic vegetation, occasionally on water invertebrates (snails, mussels, etc.) or frogs and rarely fish. Seasonally it moves overland. In some countries (e.g. Russia) it is hunted for its fur. 

A species specialized for subterranean life in steppe, semidesert, desert and mountain habitats from Ukraine and Central Asia to west China. Feeds mainly on roots of herbs, but also on insects and worms. BACTERIA: Rickettsia sibirica, Coxiella burnetii, Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis.

A species specialized for subterranean life in mountainous meadow and steppe habitats in Asia Minor, Caucasus and Central Asia. Feeds mainly on roots of herbs. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis (Iran, Kurdistan). Synanthropic species with a cosmopolitan distribution. However, M. domesticus is distributed in western (partly also central) Europe and the Americas, while M. musculus in central and eastern Europe and in Asia. The dividing line between these two similar species goes across Europe from southern Sweden through Denmark, eastern Germany, western Czechland to Italy. Both species are associated with human habitation but in the summer some populations also live in fields. They feed on plant and animal remnants, seeds (grain -often considered a pest), small roots and insects. Epidemiologically very important rodent species. Many zoonotic and sapronotic agents have also been recorded in laboratory mice, which are bred forms of wild house mouse. VIRUSES: hantaviruses Puumala, Leakey, Seoul, Sin Nombre, arenaviruses LCM (reservoir) and Junin, Cardiovirus EMC, murine Orthopoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus bovis. BACTERIA: Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus: Photo 7.60) A synanthropic species with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. The Brown Rat has a shorter tail and ears than the Black Rat. The Brown Rat often lives in the cellars of urban buildings and farmyards near water (sewers etc.), and is extremely adaptable. Omnivorous -the animal component of the food (e.g., offal) is substantial, and it feeds commonly on rubbish, fodder for domestic animals (sometimes directly in the manger). It is found regularly in farm buildings and in slaughterhouses. Epidemiologically a very important rodent, especially at an enhanced population density when control by rat extermination is necessary. Many zoonotic agents have also been reported in the laboratory rat (which is, in fact, a bred albino form of the Brown Rat R. sumatrensis occurs in south-east Asia, feeds on stems and leaves of bamboo; C. badius is an Indian species. FUNGI: Penicillium marneffei (reservoir).

A guinea pig-like stocky rodent (body size 16-20 cm, tail very short), occurs in desert rocky habitats of north Africa (Maghreb), feeds on plants. PROTOZOA: Toxoplasma gondii (very first observed and described from this host in 1908 -but the gundis were from captivity). European, largely a woodland species but also occurs in orchards, gardens and scrub. Feeds on invertebrates, nestling birds (a good tree climber), small mammals, and in autumn on fruit (berries), nuts, and seeds. Hibernates in common nests. VIRUSES: Flavivirus TBE. BACTERIA: Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., B. spielmanii. FUNGI: Microsporum persicolor.

A small, nocturnal European dormouse, occurring in deciduous and coniferous woodland and coppices from lowland to mountains. Omnivorous, feeds on fruit, seeds, nuts and invertebrates. Hibernating. BACTERIA: Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. PROTOZOA: Babesia microti.

African herbivorous mammal with long spiny quills, digging burrows and occurring in bushland, farmland and arid rocky areas. BACTERIA: Borrelia duttonii, B. persica (reservoir).

Central and southern Asia, herbivorous. BACTERIA: Borrelia persica (reservoir). PROTOZOA: Leishmania infantum.

A big (about 50 cm long plus tail 20 cm; weight 5-12 kg) North-American species resembling African porcupine but it lives mostly on trees (or in bushland) and feeds on bark, twigs and buds. VIRUSES: Coltivirus CTF. BACTERIA: Rickettsia rickettsii, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis.

Living in rocky habitats in high mountains (the Andes) in Chile and Bolivia, feeds on roots, rootstocks, tubers and green plants. Bred for its excellent fur. BACTERIA: Listeria monocytogenes.

Originally a wild South-American herbivorous species living in open lowland. As domesticated animal, it serves as pet and an important laboratory animal. In South America also used for human food. BACTERIA: Chlamydophila caviae, Leptospira pomona, L. grippotyphosa, Leptospira spp., Yersinia pestis, Y. pseudotuberculosis. FUNGI: Trichophyton mentagrophytes. PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma cruzi (reservoir).

Mountainous areas of Argentina, also close to human habitation. Hunted for food. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis (human cases after contact).

Central-and South-American medium-sized rat-like rodent species in wooded habitats and scrub. VIRUSES: alphaviruses VEE (Mucambo) and EEE, bunyavirus group C, Arenavirus Machupo. PROTOZOA: Leishmania mexicana (competent host).

A common rat-like rodent of Central and South America. BACTERIA: Leptospira spp. (incl. L. icterohaemorrhagiae, L. pomona), Salmonella spp.

A caviomorph rodent living in South America (Brazil). PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma cruzi (reservoir), Leishmania braziliensis (competent host, possibly reservoir).

A huge South-American rodent (the largest rodent: 100-130 cm long; weight about 50 kg). Forest and grassland areas close to water. Feeds on aquatic plants. BACTERIA Eurasian and North-African wild species, also introduced into North America, common in deciduous humid forests (oak and beech) and visits neighbouring fields.

(bovine tuberculosis) -the latter two causing big epizootiological problems in North America, e.g. in the Greater Yelowstone Ecosystem (Wyoming), Bacillus anthracis.

Domestic and free-living birds may be involved in the circulation of zoonotic and sapronotic microorganisms in nature generally as:

(1) biological amplifying hosts of zoonotic microorganisms (the pathogen multiplies in/on the avian body) with an acute, chronic or latent infection, and in some cases as carriers shedding the agent for a prolonged period -such bird species may be characterized as a reservoir of infection when they ensure a long-term reproduction or survival of the agent, especially in the inter-epizootic periods; (2) "lessors" (Hubálek 1994) or "tenants" of some sapronotic microorganisms, by providing a substrate (droppings) suitable for reproduction of an agent. Such microbes are, e.g., fungi Cryptococcus neoformans or Histoplasma capsulatum. These fungi utilize uric acid, the main component of avian excreta. and other low-molecular nitrogen compounds in the bird droppings for their growth. Most often the lessors are bird species congregating in communal roosting sites where they produce considerable amounts of droppings.

In addition, some birds can host and disseminate ectoparasite vectors (ixodid ticks or fleas) infected with zoonotic agents such as tick-borne viruses (TBE, CCHF, Kemerovo viruses etc.) and bacteria (Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Anaplasma phagocytophilum).

Nevertheless, domestic and free-living birds have a substantially lower significance than mammals as a primary (direct) source of human infection. Therefore they are not given here as particular species, but mostly in blocks of avian groups and only some species are listed in more details. 

Communal breeding and roosting sites in caves, Central America. FUNGI: Histoplasma capsulatum (lessor).

VIRUSES: Alphavirus Sindbis. BACTERIA: Borrelia garinii, Mycobacterium xenopi (European blackbird).

Common North-American birds with communal roosting sites in woods and tree groves, often in urban parks. FUNGI: Histoplasma capsulatum (lessors).

Communal roosting sites in trees or in reeds, often in urban parks. 

VIRUSES: alphaviruses Sindbis (various passerines), EEE and WEE (mainly passerines), Semliki Forest, Mayaro, Ross River and Barmah Forest, flaviviruses JE (bitterns, passerines), WN (sporadically passerines, turtle dove etc.), SLE, MVE (cormorants), Bagaza, Rocio (passerines), Usutu, TBE (forest birds) and KFD, Orthobunyavirus Oropouche, orbiviruses Kemerovo (redstart) and Tribeč (chaffinch), Paramyxovirus NDV (cormorants in Canada).

BACTERIA: Chlamydophila psittaci (reservoir: wild birds of many species and orders), Staphylococcus aureus, Borrelia garinii (ground-foraging forest birds and sea birds), Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli, C. laridis, Salmonella enterica different serovars, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Y. enterocolitica, Pasteurella multocida.

FUNGI: Cryptococcus neoformans (some pet birds are "lessors").

PROTOZOA: Giardia lamblia, Toxoplasma gondii.

MICROSPORIDIA: Encephalitozoon hellem (parrots, water birds), E. intestinalis (water birds).

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Bacillus anthracis. Borrelia persica, Leptospira sejroe (reservoir)

Eurasian species living close to water (reed beds, meadows, ditches) and building typical spherical grassy nests woven in vegetation 40-80 cm above the ground while in winter it uses ground nests. Feeds on seeds and insects (30%). The population density is usually low, and the epidemiological role therefore decreased

VIRUSES: Flavivirus West Nile. BACTERIA: Yersinia pestis. PROTOZOA: Leishmania tropica, L. major

Rattus rattus: Photo 7.59)

BACTERIA: Rickettsia akari (reservoir), R. typhi, R. conorii, Orientia tsutsugamushi, Coxiella burnetii, Listeria monocytogenes, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Leptospira grippotyphosa, L. icterohaemorrhagiae, L. pomona, L. javanica, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., B. duttonii, Spirillum minus (reservoir), Streptobacillus moniliformis (reservoir), Burkholderia mallei, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia pestis, Y. pseudotuberculosis (reservoir), Francisella tularensis

Vesiculovirus VSV, Orthomyxovirus influenza A, Henipavirus Nipah, Cardiovirus EMC, Aphthovirus FMDV, Hepevirus hepatitis E, Herpesvirus suis 1 (reservoir), Parapoxvirus bovis 2. BACTERIA: Orientia tsutsugamushi, Chlamydophila abortus, Leptospira pomona (reservoir), L. australis, L. tarassovi, Listeria monocytogenes

African species of savannah, omnivorous. Male weights up to 150 kg

PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. BACTERIA: Bacillus anthracis. Family Camelidae Dromedary, Bactrian Camel (Camelus dromedarius, C. bactrianus) Origin of C. bactrianus is in Central Asia

BACTERIA: Mycobacterium bovis. Family Cervidae Elk (Moose) (Alces alces)

Lives in semi-open humid to marshy forests. Feeds on herbage, grasses, shoots, leaves, twigs and bark of trees, brushes and aquatic plants. Migrates or travels for long distances. BACTERIA: Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Bacillus anthracis (brucellosis, with abortus), Staphylococcus aureus, Brucella abortus (causing problems in the Greater Yelowstone Ecosystem

Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus anthracis, Fusobacterium necrophorum, Leptospira pomona, Pasteurella multocida, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Y. enterocolitica, Brucella abortus

Feeds on grasses, herbage, twigs of trees and shrubs. Reindeer live in great herds and migrate twice a year, up to hundreds of kilometres, whereas the Caribou migrates short distances (usually up and down mountains). BACTERIA: Brucella abortus, B. suis (biotype 4

Fallow Deer (Cervus

The original distribution area of this deer species is the Mediterranean and SW Asia, but since Middle Ages it has been introduced into central Europe -game reserves situated in deciduous forest and parkland. Feeds on leaves, herbage, shoots, grasses, acorns and chestnuts. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s. BACTERIA: Anaplasma phagocytophilum s.l., Bacillus anthracis, Pasteurella multocida

VIRUSES: Flavivirus LI, Lyssavirus s.s., Vesiculovirus VSV, Herpesvirus suis 1. BACTERIA: Anaplasma phagocytophilum s.l., Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus anthracis, Staphylococcus aureus, Leptospira grippotyphosa, L. pomona, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Pasteurella multocida, Brucella abortus

Cervus nippon)

Eastern Asiatic deer species of woodland and parkland, in the twentieth century introduced into Europe where it thrives in a number of game parks. Herbivorous (grasses, leaves, shoots). VIRUSES: Hepevirus hepatitis E. BACTERIA: Ehrlichia chaffeensis

Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus: Photo 7.71)

Feeds on grasses, herbage, leaves, shoots, bark, mushrooms and fruit. VIRUSES: Lyssavirus s.s., Vesiculovirus VSV, Herpesvirus suis 1. BACTERIA: Anaplasma phagocytophilum s.l., Listeria monocytogenes, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium tetani, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteritidis, S. typhimurium, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Y. enterocolitica, Brucella abortus, B. melitensis

A gazelle living in wetlands, largely in southern Africa. Herbivorous (aquatic plants). BACTERIA: Mycobacterium bovis

Gray (Bush) Duikker (Sylvicapra grimmia) Mammals of African savannah ecosystem

Feeds on grasses, herbage, and bark. Can move for longer trails. VIRUSES: Parapoxvirus ovis. BACTERIA: Brucella melitensis (biotype 3), B. abortus, Mycobacterium bovis, Dermatophilus congolensis. Goat (Capra hircus) VIRUSES: Flavivirus TBE (transmission to man by milk), Phlebovirus RVF, Nairovirus CCHF, Bunyavirus Bhanja, Orbivirus Tribeč, Lyssavirus s.s., Parapoxvirus ovis. BACTERIA: Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila abortus, Salmonella enterica, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Brucella melitensis (reservoir), Fusobacterium necrophorum, Listeria monocytogenes

Lyssavirus s.s., Parapoxvirus ovis, P. bovis 2. BACTERIA: Coxiella burnetii (competent host, reservoir), Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Chlamydophila abortus (enzootics of abortion), Leptospira interrogans, Listeria monocytogenes, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Campylobacter jejuni, C. foetus, Salmonella enterica, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Bacillus anthracis, Brucella melitensis (reservoir), Francisella tularensis, Pasteurella multocida

The original area of this European species is Corsica and Sardinia (mountain grasslands), but the mouflon has been introduced into other European countries where its herds live in many game reserves and on deer farms

African (Cape) Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

Huge (up to 170 cm high; male weights up to 900 kg) herbivorous mammal living in sub-Saharan African savannah

Bunyavirus Bhanja, Vesiculovirus VSV, orthomyxoviruses Thogoto and Dhori, Lyssavirus s.s., Aphthovirus FMDV, Orthopoxvirus bovis, Herpesvirus suis 1, Parapoxvirus bovis 1 and 2. BACTERIA: Rickettsia sibirica, Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila abortus, Leptospira tarassovi, L. hardjoe, L. interrogans, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium difficile, C. botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus zooepidemicus, Campylobacter jejuni, C. foetus, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (reservoir), Salmonella enterica, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Brucella abortus, Pasteurella multocida

Bison bison: Photo 7.72), European Bison (Bison bonasus: Photo 7.73)

Both species are gregarious, long living (up to 30 years) and herbivorous (mostly grazing on grasses, but also feeding on the leaves of trees, twigs and other vegetation)

Reptiles (Reptilia)

Ectothermic (poikilothermic) vertebrates. Their role as hosts of zoonotic agents is relatively very low. VIRUSES: alphaviruses WEE (snakes of three genera), VEE, and Mayaro (varan Ameiva ameiva, iguana Tropidurus torquatus

BACTERIA: Salmonella enterica -some serovars (snakes), Borrelia hermsii and related species (agama), B. lusitaniae (lizards), Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica (some serovars pathogenic for humans

PROTOZOA: Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense

Amphibians (Amphibia)

Ectothermic (poikilothermic) vertebrates. Their role as hosts of zoonotic agents is very low. VIRUSES: alphaviruses WEE (Rana pipiens) and Sindbis (Rana ridibunda

BACTERIA: Yersinia enterocolitica. FUNGI: Basidiobolus ranarum. PROTISTA: Rhinosporidium seeberi

BACTERIA: Neorickettsia sennetsu, Yersinia enterocolitica, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Vibrio cholerae