key: cord-256917-6h1ip37z authors: Habibi-Yangjeh, Aziz; Asadzadeh-Khaneghah, Soheila; Feizpoor, Solmaz; Rouhi, Afsar title: Review on heterogeneous photocatalytic disinfection of waterborne, airborne, and foodborne viruses: Can we win against pathogenic viruses? date: 2020-07-15 journal: J Colloid Interface Sci DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.07.047 sha: doc_id: 256917 cord_uid: 6h1ip37z Microbial pathogenic contaminations have world widely represented a serious health hazard to humans. Viruses, as a member of microbial contaminants, seriously threaten human health due to their high environmental resistance, having small sizes, and causing an extensive range of diseases. Therefore, selecting an appropriate technology to remove viral contaminants from the air, water, and foods is of prominent significance. Traditional methods for viral disinfection have not proven to be highly practical and effective because they need high energy resources and operational expenses. In recent years, semiconductor-based photocatalysis has attracted more attention in the field of microorganism inactivation due to its outstanding performance and mild reaction conditions. Therefore, this review primarily concentrates on the recent development in viral inactivation/disinfection by heterogeneous photocatalysts. Moreover, the photocatalytic viral inactivation of waterborne, airborne, and foodborne viruses is discussed. Given the appealing merits of heterogeneous photocatalytic disinfection of viruses, there is no doubt that this technology will be an impressively active research field and a source of comfort and confidence to humans in battling against viruses. Nowadays, microbial pathogenic contaminations with viruses, bacteria, and protozoa have become a growing environmental concern, because these pathogens threaten human health and cause dangerous infectious illnesses [1] [2] [3] . Among different kinds of microbial contaminations, viruses have proven as a global challenge due to their small-sized particles, difficult inactivation, high environmental endurance, and also because of an extensive range of illnesses and diseases caused by them [4, 5] . Viruses are extremely ubiquitous microorganisms failing to survive outside the host organisms. Moreover, their survival/disinfection is primarily subject to the host-virus dynamics [6] . Viral contaminants, associated with drinking water, breathing air, and food, have become a notable threat due to their adverse effects on the environment and human health. Foodborne, waterborne, and airborne pathogens inter the body through different modes of infection and cause over 15 million deaths around the world annually. Water-borne and foodborne outbreaks correlate with climatic changes and disturbances in the ecosystem. In addition to airborne transmission, these pathogens are also transmitted by direct surface contact [7, 8] . In particular, the risk of disease through exposure to the airborne and waterborne viruses is higher than those of other microbial pathogenic contaminants [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] . Infectious diseases caused by these viruses are the most widespread and common health risks. Spiraling worries about epidemic and pandemic viral diseases, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), swine influenza virus (H1N1), middle-east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and novel coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID- 19) , have drawn the attention of many scientists for viral treatments [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] . Accordingly, to treat the diseases caused by viruses, different methods have been utilized and many attempts have been allocated for disinfection of various viruses presented in the environment [24, 25] . For waterborne viruses, there is a diversity of disinfection processes like ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, membrane filtration, and chemical disinfectants (ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chlorine) [26] . In practice, however, these processes suffer from some limitations. The production of noxious byproducts has restricted the use of chemical disinfectants [27] . Membrane methods like nanofiltration and ultrafiltration, due to the small membrane pore sizes relative to the size of viruses, can eliminate viruses efficiently, although these methods are unaffordable and energy consuming [13] . In addition to the high expense of the UV method, some viruses show a high resistance to UV illumination [28, 29] . Further, conventional methods for airborne viral disinfection like UV light, thermal treatment, and non-thermal plasma are not highly practical and effective, because they require high energy resources and high operational expenses [30] . Therefore, an effective technology with eco-friendly features, high proficiency, low energy consumption, and affordable expense is required for inactivation of viruses. Over the past decades, we have witnessed extensive and unprecedented research in the field of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), which are judged to be the most encouraging method for the removal of pollutants, including organic, inorganic, and microbial contaminants, compared with traditional purification procedures [31, 32] . In the AOPs, highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) like • OH, • O 2 -, h + , and HO 2 • are produced, which have large oxidizing ability. These species can oxidize organic contaminants to CO 2 and inorganic ions, reduce inorganic contaminants to nontoxic ions, and inactivate microorganisms producing no noxious compounds [33, 34] . Of these AOPs, semiconductor-assisted photocatalysis is introduced to be the most desirable method due to its proven ability in the purification of an immense range of contaminants [35, 36] . Photocatalysis is an extremely effective and promising technology, because it requires only solar light (or artificial light) and a photoactive material. The heterogeneous photocatalytic procedure begins with the absorption of the utilized light with a higher amount of energy than the photocatalyst band gap, which transfers the valence band (VB) electrons into the conduction band (CB), leading to production of charge carriers (e -/h + pairs). The photoexcited charge carriers migrate to the surface of the photoactive material and take part in the reduction and oxidation (redox) reactions. The holes in VB and the electrons in CB can thermodynamically oxidize water molecules and reduce O 2 to produce ROS, respectively. Subsequently, the reactions of harmful microorganisms and environmental pollutants with these radicals result in disinfection and elimination of contaminants found in the environment, respectively [37] [38] [39] [40] . After viral inactivation on TiO 2 photocatalyst discovered by Sierka and Sjogren in 1994, heterogeneous photocatalysis has been given widespread recognition as an outstanding technology in the field of viral disinfection [41] . The ROS created by photocatalytic processes destroy the shell and/or capsid of viruses, resulting in release of genetic materials, minerals, and proteins inside viruses. Additionally, organic compounds presented in the structure of viruses could be completely mineralized, which causes their inactivation/disinfection. As shown in Fig. 1 , Zhang et al. suggested three mechanisms for viral disinfection in photocatalytic processes, which include physical damage of viruses, metal ion toxicity obtained from metal-including photocatalysts, and chemical oxidation by ROS generated over the photocatalysts [5] . These mechanisms are affected when the photocatalyst surface and the virus come into contact, which leads to an increase of the photocatalytic efficiency. The contact built up between the viral cells and the photocatalyst particles in suspension may supply an extended surface area for production of more ROS [42, 43] . It is witnessed that relevant publications in the field of viral inactivation through heterogeneous photocatalysis are increasing with time, confirming the rising popularity of the field. The photocatalytic disinfection of viruses mainly takes place by chemical oxidation initiated by ROS over heterogeneous photocatalysts. The disinfection mechanism includes decomposition of the cell wall and the cytoplasmic membrane as a result of the generation of ROS like • OH and H 2 O 2 [44] , through several steps as follows: 1) Electron/hole (e − /h + ) pairs are produced after excitation of the selected photocatalyst and transfer of charges to its surface. 2) The holes in VB react with surface adsorbed OH − or H 2 O species to generate hydroxyl radical ( • OH), which subsequently oxidize the chemicals presented in the virus (especially the shell and capsid) adsorbed on the photocatalyst surface. 3) The electrons in CB, after reaction with O 2 , produce highly efficient radicals ( • O 2 − , • OH, and • OOH), and then, the generated ROS initiates reactions, leading to destruction of the virus adsorbed on the photocatalyst surface. As stated, the diverse highly efficient species, produced on the photocatalyst surface, can oxidize viruses adsorbed on the photocatalyst surface, leading to their disinfection [45] . Figure 2 demonstrates the formation of e -/h + pairs, recombination step, generation of ROS, and viral disinfection. Finally, the photocatalytic disinfection efficiency of viruses is obtained using equation 1: Where N t and N 0 stand for concentrations at the time t and the initial time, respectively, and Q is the microorganism removal efficiency [46] . [ Fig. 2 The heterogeneous photocatalytic performance of viral disinfection principally pertains to the capability for retardation of e -/h + pairs from recombination and the ability to fully utilize sunlight. Regrettably, the photocatalytic ability of most semiconductors is trivial because of several disadvantages including poor capability for e -/h + separation, fast recombination of charges, and low utilization efficiency of solar light [47, 48] . Up to now, diverse photocatalysts such as g-C 3 N 4 , CuO, ZnO, TiO 2 , and Ag 3 PO 4 prepared with different morphologies, structures, and procedures have been used for the inactivation of viruses due to their nonhazardous nature and high stability [49] [50] [51] . Moreover, they are eco-friendly and are used in biomedical fields such as drug delivery systems, biological sensors, cell imaging, and the photodynamic therapy of cancer [52] . However, the practical and large scale utilization of the mentioned semiconductors in photocatalysis is normally hindered by the rapid recombination of charges, inadequate visible-light absorption, and a low specific surface area. In the past years, considerable efforts have been made to overcome the mentioned shortfalls and increase the photoactivity of sole semiconductors through extrinsic and intrinsic doping [53, 54] , surface modification [55] , sensitization [56] , and coupling with other semiconductors to form heterojunctions [57] . Therefore, by considering the actual state of the review, this study focuses on a survey of the photocatalytic inactivation of waterborne, airborne, and foodborne viruses using semiconductor-assisted photocatalysis and the perspective of this important research field to tackle issues related to the spread of different viruses worldwide. Thus, in the following sections, we will review the literature on photocatalytic viral inactivation for waterborne, airborne, and foodborne viruses. Waterborne pathogenic viruses (like enteroviruses, adenoviruses, noroviruses, and rotaviruses) are usually found in groundwater, surface water, and even treated drinking water, which could pose serious hazards to human health [58] [59] [60] . For this reason, most studies have been focused on the antiviral ability of various photocatalysts against waterborne viruses [61] [62] [63] . In 1994, Sierka Bacteriophage Qβ, as a model waterborne virus [64] . They concluded that UV illumination on TiO 2 suspension was more effective in virus disinfection than only UV illumination. Accordingly, after 2 min of irradiation, 3.5-log 10 Qβ disinfection was obtained by UV illumination on TiO 2 , while UV disinfected only 2-log 10 Qβ. In another research, Koizumi and Taya investigated the photocatalytic disinfection of phage MS2 over TiO 2 , in different situations [65] . It was observed that the considerable disinfection of MS2 occurred only with the presence of light and TiO 2 . Concerning the efficacy of pH on MS2 disinfection, the rate constant was determined to show an outstanding property with the maximal amount at pH 6.0 (9.1×10 −2 s −1 ). Noroviruses (NVs) are identified as major waterborne viruses, which cause outbreaks of gastroenteritis. Hence, in 2005, Kato et al. explicated methods to quantitatively specify NVs in wastewater and determine the probability of the inactivation procedure [66] . It was found that the UV-assisted TiO 2 system was effective in disinfection of viruses. In this study, the UV-assisted the photocatalytic disinfection of MS2 was carried out with the mixture of rutile and anatase-type TiO 2 upon black-light illumination [67] . As illustrated in Fig. 3 , due to the coexistence of two types of TiO 2 , they can be in close contact, which may facilitate the exchange of h + and eamong these phases with the balanced acceleration of reduction and oxidation rates. As a consequence, the quantum yield can increase production of ROS. In another research, Sang et al. inactivated rotavirus, astrovirus, and feline calicivirus using a TiO 2 film under visible light [68] . They displayed that under the activation of TiO 2 with visible light through a fluorescent white lamp, ⦁ OH and O 2species are generated in a significant amount. The authors inferred that virus disinfection over this photocatalyst may be related to the production of these ROS. They also underscored the potential and importance of the fabricated TiO 2 film in the future specific treatment of enteropathogenic viral infection. In another attempt, Li [77] . Although the SiO 2 -TiO 2 photocatalysts slightly decreased ⦁ OH generation, they presented excellent photocatalytic disinfection rates for MS2, due to the increased MS2 adsorption. These outcomes suggested that modifying TiO 2 surface to enhance adsorption of viruses is a major method in developing photocatalytic disinfection performance. In another research, Zuo et al. used Phi X174 and MS2 viruses as viral disinfection models [78] . They applied three disinfection procedures (UV, chlorine, and UV/TiO 2 ) to eliminate the abovementioned viruses. Based on the obtained results, the successful disinfection in the presence of the UV-assisted [ Fig. 6 ] In another attempt, some novel metal-free nanocomposites of oxygen-doped g-C 3 N 4 /hydrothermal carbonation carbon (denoted as O-g-C 3 N 4 /HTCC) microspheres were successfully constructed through a simple two-step method [13] . The optimum nanocomposite had strong visible-light absorption and showed outstanding virucidal efficacy for HAdV-2, which disinfected 5-log in 2 h of the light illumination. The boosted viral disinfection ability of the optimum nanocomposite was related to the Z-scheme mechanism for separation of charges, which significantly developed charge segregation (Fig. 7) . Furthermore, the Z-scheme mechanism simplified the generation of • OH, leading to the lethal rupture of the rigid capsid of HAdV-2. [ Fig. 7] The emission of airborne microorganisms through animal feeding operations has prompted growing worries in the field of epidemiology and health [80] . Airborne microorganisms may create negative immune reactivity in animals and trigger inflammatory respiratory dysfunction in humans. Moreover, several pathogenic species are suspected to be airborne transmittable species among farms [81, 82] . Although some UV-based inactivation procedures have been introduced for viral disinfections, these techniques often need long illumination periods or use of the recirculating mode due to their low photon energy. Vacuum UV (V-UV) was lately discovered to be a highly effective light source. In a research conducted by Kim and Jang [18] , the photocatalytic processes were investigated by V-UV with short illumination times to simultaneously disinfect MS2 as an airborne virus (nearly 90% disinfection efficiency at a VUV illumination time of 0.009 s) and remove the produced ozone toward an air inactivation system. In this study, the Pd-TiO 2 /VUV system demonstrated the ability for simultaneous MS2 disinfection and ozone elimination and the photocatalytic ability was efficient regardless of relative humidity. In another study carried out by Choi and Cho, novel visible-light-driven nanocomposites based on some metals (Mg, Fe, and Mn) deposited on TiO 2 were investigated for their antiviral ability against airborne viruses such as influenza H1N1 [86] . Under wavelengths higher than 410 nm supplied with fluorescent lamps, more than 99% of the virus was inactivated within half an hour. Thus, they concluded that the mentioned nanocomposites could be satisfactorily utilized to decrease viral transmission. Human norovirus (denoted as HuNoV) is the main cause of viral gastroenteritis [87, 88] . Hence, it is necessary to determine intervention procedures to decrease the danger of foodborne diseases. The inactivation yield of disinfection procedures is hard to investigate for vegetables and fruits, due to their irregular surface characteristics and inconsistent degree of pollution [89, 90] the Weibull model was used to explain the disinfection mechanism of MNV-1, which proved an excellent fit to the data. There are many studies which agree with the Weibull model, as a better fit than first-order models for kinetic analysis of disinfection processes. More importantly, the Weibull model has been extensively utilized because of its simplicity and flexibility [92, 93] . A good correlation was quantified between the viral disinfection and the steady-state concentration of • OH through a probe compound, indicating that the generated • OH was the main species for MNV-1 disinfection. It was found that UVC in the absence and presence of TiO 2 was more efficient for MNV-1 disinfection than UVA and UVB irradiations. Hence, the UVC/TiO 2 inactivation system can disinfect the virus found inside and on the surface of blueberries, which is an impressive alternative technique to common chlorine inactivation for decreasing the danger of HuNoV infection in various foods. Moreover, the viral disinfection procedure presented by this research group indicated that the use of SAM as an efficient simulated food for evaluation of the yield of disinfection procedures indicated favorable outcomes. As mentioned, HuNoV is the main cause of foodborne diseases, which can also associate with shellfish consumption [94] . Kim et al. injected MNV-1 inside SAM for virus internalization and specified the effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and UV-assisted TiO 2 [95] . The internalized MNV-1 decreased by 5.5-log 10 , when HHP was followed by the UV-assisted TiO 2 system, suggesting a synergistic disinfection effect. Moreover, as can be viewed in Fig. 8a , untreated MNV-1 particles were round with a 35-40 nm diameter, while the TEM image of the treated MNV-1 virus demonstrated considerable virus deformation due to a synergistic efficacy of the inactivation procedure. This suggested that the outer surface was degraded (Fig. 8b) . As a result, a hurdle strategy of the HHP-UV-assisted TiO 2 combined method proved efficient for internalized MNV-1 via a simulated food. [ Fig. 8] A summary of details about photocatalysts and operational parameters applied for viral disinfection is presented in Table 1 . Furthermore, we know that heterogeneous photocatalytic processes are non-selective technology for degradation of pollutants and inactivation of microorganisms. Up to now, a wide range of organic contaminants and microorganisms have been removed/inactivated over photoactive materials. Despite non-selectivity in viral disinfections, the most important issue is the lack of any research about heterogeneous photocatalytic disinfection of novel viruses. As a consequence, more scientific activities in the field of heterogeneous photocatalytic disinfection of new viruses should be stimulated to obtain more insights about the exact potential of this technology to tackle the diseases caused by these viruses. After designing and fabricating more efficient photocatalysts, these photoactive materials could be used for inactivation of waterborne viruses in water decontamination plants and fabrication of more effective filters to disinfect airborne viruses. Additionally, walls of infectious parts of hospitals can be covered with photoactive materials to sustainably disinfect/inactivate viruses adhered over them using the irradiations applied for lightning of these parts. Furthermore, on streets of cities, photoactive materials may be used to sustainably inactivate/disinfect viruses using solar energy, without using any compounds currently used for inactivation of viruses. [ Table 1 ] Given the fact that viruses are potential dangers to human health, their removal from water, air, and foods is of prominent concern for researchers worldwide. Luckily, semiconductor-based photocatalysis has indicated a potential alternative technology with valuable merits of the facility, Therefore, future scientific studies should be undertaken on the field of heterogeneous photocatalysis processes to gain more insights into the exact potential of this technology to tackle new viral diseases. Consequently, there is no doubt that the heterogeneous photocatalysis viral disinfection technology, with many appealing merits, will be an impressively active research field in the future to provide comfort and confidence to humans worldwide. Rh-SrTiO 3 Phage Qβ 3000 5 × 10 7 Vis 5-log in 120 min waterborne [107] ►Photocatalytic disinfection of waterborne, airborne, and foodborne viruses were reviewed. ►Promising potential of heterogeneous photocatalysis for viral disinfection were discussed. ►Compatibility of photocatalytic disinfection method with sustainable development was discussed. ►Future research headlines about photocatalytic disinfection of different viruses were highlighted. 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Impact of the oxide particle size Simple synthetic method toward solid supported C60 visible lightactivated photocatalysts Improving the visible light photoactivity of supported fullerene photocatalysts through the use of Selective inactivation of bacteriophage in the presence of bacteria by use of ground Rh-doped SrTiO 3 photocatalyst and visible light Yangjeh: Conceptualization; Writing -Review & Editing; Supervision Solmaz Feizpoor: Writing -Original Draft We are honestly thankful to the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili for the financial support of this study. We would also like to kindly appreciate Miss Hesane Habibi for her insightful comments on viruses.