cord-004890-fob5lk2m	1995	Figure la shows a multiple-sequence alignment of nine proteins of the MIP family, namely: (a) the major intrinsic protein of the lens (MIP26) (Pisano & Chepelinsky, 1991) ; (b) soybean nodulin 26 (NOD26) (Sandal & Marcker, 1988) ; (c) glycerol facilitator (GLP) (Muramatsu & Mizuno, 1989) ; (d) Drosophila big brain (BIB) (Rao, Jan & Jan, 1990) ; (e) the vacuolar membrane pro-tein (7-TIP) (Maurel et al., 1993 ); (f) the frog aquaporin (FA-CHIP) (Abrami et al,, 1994) ; (g) the proximal tubule water channel (CHIP28k) (Zhang et al., 1993a) ; (h) the collecting duct water channel (WCH-CD1) (Fushimi et al., 1993) ; and (i) the erythrocyte water channel (CHIP28) (Preston & Agre, 1991) . In Fig. 3b , the CFPp marks and the PHD predictions delimit consistent segments which are generally once more too short to span the membrane as o~-helices. Since the structured transmembrane segments we predict are too short to be a-helices but have the correct length for [3-strands, we favor a [3-barrel fold for CHIP28.
cord-009804-4lozmf0h	2017	In Pasoh Forest Reserve (FR), which is located in a dry zone of Peninsular Malaysia and receives the lowest yearly rainfall amount among adjacent south-eastern tropical rainforests, relatively stable ET, which includes transpiration, interception evaporation, and soil evaporation, was observed even during the driest period, based on 7 years of continuous eddy covariance (EC) measurement (Kosugi, Takanashi, Tani, et al., 2012) . Our study of ET and water sources in the Pasoh FR comprised three objectives: (a) measure and calculate ET using the EC method over a 4-year period (2012-2015); (b) determine spatial and temporal patterns of water uptake and provenance, using water budget methods combining ET, precipitation, and soil moisture data; and (c) determine the provenance of water that is transpired at different times of the year by assessing the stable isotope signatures of water in precipitation, soils, plants, and streams.
cord-012419-tmcm4kxn	2020	In vitro assays demonstrated that BiSCaO Water eliminated more than 99.9% of influenza A (H1N1) and Feline calicivirus, Escherichia coli such as NBRC 3972 and O-157:H7, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus within 15 min. We compared BiSCaO Water with the other microbicidal reagents such as ethanol, BiSCaO, BiSCa(OH)(2) suspensions, povidone iodine, NaClO, BiSCaO dispersion and colloidal dispersion with respect to deodorization activity and microbicidal efficacy. The microbicidal activities of BiSCaO and BiSCa(OH) 2 (suspension) and NaClO against TC and CF were intermediate between that of BiSCaO Water and povidone iodine, and no CFU were detectable following treatment with high concentrations of 0.8 wt% (final 0.4 wt%). The microbicidal activities of BiSCaO and BiSCa(OH) 2 (suspension) and NaClO against TC and CF were intermediate between that of BiSCaO Water and povidone iodine, and no CFU were detectable following treatment with high concentrations of 0.8 wt% (final 0.4 wt%).
cord-014900-yw088jvf	2011	title: Effect of water deficit on biomass production and accumulation of secondary metabolites in roots of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Water use efficiency and the root-to-shoot ratio increased significantly in response to water deficit, indicating a high tolerance to drought. Weak water deficit did not decrease root biomass production, but significantly increased the production of glycyrrhizic acid (by 89%) and liquiritin (by 125%) in the roots. Although the responses of the metabolites to drought have been investigated in some medicinal plants [4, 10] , no reference concerning the effect of various water deficit levels on their production by lic orice roots is available. The present study aims to determine the effect of water deficit on gas exchange, biomass and secondary metabolites production in licorice plants. At 60-70% WC, the amounts of glycyrrhizic acid and liquiritin in plant roots were the highest among the studied four levels of soil water con ditions: the gain increased by 85.0 and 119.4%, respectively (Figs.
cord-016564-od9mf2f2	2009	More stringent constraints placed nowadays on water companies to provide high quality drinking water, increasing water resources scarcity in many areas of the planet, forcing water companies to work on marginal water bodies for supply, and the threat of hostile actions by political extremists and terrorist groups, that may willingly and deliberately cause contamination of an otherwise safe supply, are recent issues that have spurred demand for more efficient and comprehensive online water monitoring technologies. Monitoring requirements can be defined in relationship to: • Source water quality: (a) variability, in space and time (very low for groundwater, low for lakes, high for rivers); (b) vulnerability (type and location of possible contaminating activity), time-of-travel of the contaminant to the intake, effectiveness of barriers, control options after an alarm • Water treatment: process optimization options and response times, sampling frequency must allow adequate process control • Distribution systems: minimization of deterioration of water quality over time and distance, early detection of cross-connections and water losses In addition, it must be considered that online monitors could have different sensitivity and selectivity according to the matrix and range of concentrations analyzed.
cord-017003-3farxcc3	2010	Such a mixing process continues until the river water reaches the same density as the surrounding sea water, resulting in vertical circulation in the bays that is is several to ten times greater than the river flux (Unoki 1998) . The ecosystem model introduced here was developed to simulate the nutrient budget of an urban coastal zone. To quantify the nutrients budget, we applied our numerical model to Tokyo Bay. The computational domain was divided into 1km horizontal grids with 20 vertical layers. Fig. 3-13 shows the calculation results of an annual budget of nitrogen and phosphorus in Tokyo Bay. The annual budget is useful in understanding nutrient cycles. We have developed a water quality model to simulate both nutrient cycles and pathogens distributions, and coupled it with a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model of urban coastal areas. We applied this model to the Tokyo Bay and simulated water column temperatures, salinity, and nutrient concentrations that were closely linked with field observations.
cord-017620-p65lijyu	2005	title: Toxicity Evaluation and Human Health Risk Assessment of Surface and Ground Water Contaminated by Recycled Hazardous Waste Materials Presently, numerous federal agencies provide guidance on methods and approaches used to evaluate potential health effects and assess risks from contaminated source media, i.e., soil, air, and water. The systematic scientific approach of evaluating potential adverse health effects resulting from human exposure to hazardous agents or situations occur by the following steps: i) hazard identification; ii) dose-response (quantitative) assessment; iii) exposure assessment; iv) risk characterization [ 4] . If information concerning COPCs is not present in the drinking water and/or state and tribal water standards databases, or additional exposure pathways need to be included during the site assessment, then media-specific comparison values are available from the Soil Screening Guidance [16] , several USEPA regional offices, and individual state governments (Table 6 ).
cord-018166-savdgy0u	2006	Environmental virology may be defined as the study of viruses that can be transmitted through various environments (water, sewage, soil, air, or surfaces) or food and persist enough in these vehicles to represent a health threat. Since that time, other enteric viruses responsible for gastroenteritis and hepatitis have replaced enteroviruses as the main target for detection in the environment, although the near eradication of poliomyelitis from the globe calls for exhaustive studies on the occurrence of wild-type and vaccinal-type polioviruses in environmental samples. The possibility nowadays to detect the presence of human enteric viruses in different types of water samples and foodstuff, in particular shellfish samples, should be a valuable tool in the prevention of waterborne and food-borne diseases. These data suggest that temperature, and probably relative humidity, may be meaningful in the seasonal distribution of outbreaks of certain human enteric viruses (Enright, 1954) , due to the influence of these factors on virus persistence.
cord-018316-drjfwcdg	2017	4. To note the new challenges to public health presented by such current issues as the abuse of tobacco and mood-altering drugs, continuing toxic auto-emissions, the epidemic of HIV/AIDS, a decreased acceptance of MMR vaccinations, and the ready spread of infectious diseases by air travel. The success of urban living has depended in great part on governmental ability to maintain population health through the building of an adequate infrastructure to provide clean water and to dispose of waste, as well as the enactment of appropriate regulations to control the prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Diligent housewives adopted a few other simple changes in household management to preserve the health of their families, and Cambridge University insisted on a direct control of its food supply, The Great Plague The London "Plague" of 1665 CE was one in a series of European epidemics of bubonic plague dating back to the "Black Death." The Great Plague claimed at least 70,000 lives in central London, this being about a half of the population who had not fled from the city.
cord-022141-yxttl3gh	2014	Adaptation by the global community as a unit is vital to cope with the effects of increasing populations, global warming/climate change, the chemical, biological, and physical impacts on life-sustaining ecosystems, and competition for life sustaining and economically important natural resources. The chronic malnutrition that about 1 billion people suffered from in 2013 is likely to grow in number in some regions due to global warming/climate change because humans cannot adapt to less food if they are already at subsistence rations. As the global population increases and more people in developing and less developed nations have more disposable income, there will be a growing draw on natural resources other than water and food to service their industrial, agricultural, and manufacturing needs and wants. The effects of higher temperatures from global warming and climate change included what has been discussed in previous chapters of this book: heat, drought, sea level rise, coastal zones, typhoons, flooding, river runoff, water availability, ecosystem shifts, crop yields, fishing, aquaculture, livestock, health and poverty, and tourism.
cord-022147-istz1iql	2016	• Identifying illness associated with an exposure and verifying that the causative agent is waterborne • Detecting all cases, the causative agent, and the place of exposure • Determining the water source, mode of contamination, processes, or practices by which proliferation and/or survival of the etiological agent occurred • Implementing emergency measures to control the spread of the outbreak • Gathering information on the epidemiology of waterborne diseases and the etiology of the causative agents that can be used for education, training, and program planning, thereby impacting on the prevention of waterborne illness • Determining if the outbreak under investigation is part of a larger outbreak by immediately reporting to state/provincial/national epidemiologists In the instance of a bottled water outbreak, halting of distribution and sale of product and recall of product, some of which may already be in consumers'' homes, are necessary to prevent further illness.
cord-022663-n21jvt22	2019	Subsequently, advanced treated water must meet the requirements of the SDWA and National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and abide by nonregulatory water quality standards for aesthetics in the National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation MCLs. Specific regulations, policies, provisions, and/or guidance for potable reuse have been developed in 15 states: Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, and Washington (USEPA 2017 While several recent pilot and demonstration-scale studies have been conducted, two notable full-scale potable reuse facilities have provided water directly into the distribution system: Big Spring Colorado River Municipal Water District (1.6 mgd) in 2013 and Wichita Falls (5 mgd) in 2014, both of which are in Texas. A challenge for potable reuse monitoring is how to effectively characterize pathogens, chemical constituents, and emerging contaminants in advanced treated water in an appropriate time frame.
cord-022674-90g0461f	1989	Subsequent recovery of the adsorbed viruses can occur either by dissolving the filter material, if it is composed of alginate,"" or by exposing the adsorbent to a volume of eluant that is smaller than the original water sample and facilitates a reversal of the virus adsorption process. Of the many different types and configurations of virus adsorbents, those now preferred for use in recovering viruses from large volumes of water are wound cartridge filters*'' and pleated cartridge filter@ based on either glass fiber or nylon, including types that are positively charged, and columns of glass powder.26 Also of interest is the use of sheet filter material that has been modified in situ either by a precipitation of metal hydroxides within the filter ma-trix2" or by coating the filter with cationic 74 RESEARCHANDTECHNOLOGY Cultures of mammalian cells were prepared using a laminar-flow filtered air hood.
cord-022947-ruizhgwh	2006	These bacteria and other coliforms were used in the past as indicators of water-borne pathogens, that is, the presence of fecal contamination being correlated with the occurrence of pathogens, for which direct detection methods were not available. Total coliforms are the most universally used indicator group, but include bacteria, in addition to Escherichia coil, that are not specifically associated with fecal pollution, i.e., Klebsiella spp., Citrobacter spp., and Enterobacter spp. Finding an appropriate indicator for the presence of enteric viruses, i.e., poliovirus, coxsackievirus A, coxsackievirus B, and echovirus [50, 147] , in sea water, is a vexing problem, especially for those responsible for regulating the use of sewage-contamined sites, including fresh, estuarine, and marine water and sediment, and shellfish harvested from these waters. Correlations between the number of fecal bacterial pathogens and indicator bacteria and their respective bacteriophages in fresh and marine water have been reported [185] .
cord-023464-uklnrgt8	1993	The correlation between salmonella and coliform June 1993 bacteria or enterococci was unclear in a survey of two pools in the Australian wet-dry tropics (Townsend) , in an estuary of a river in Spain (Martinez-Manzanares et al.) , and in storm water runoff (O''Shea and Field). Developments in gene probe and immunoassay technologies are making these detection methods more accessible to routine water analysis laboratories (Atlas et al.; Kerr et al.; Sano et al.; Thorns et al.; and Yamamoto, K. Polymerase Chain Reaction-gene Probe Detection of Microorganisms by Using Filter-concentrated Samples Detection of Virulence Factors in Culturable Escherichia coli Isolates from Water Samples by DNA Probes and Recovery of Toxin-bearing Strains in Minimal Ortho-nitrophenolbeta-D-galactopyranoside-4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide Media Use of a Hydrophobic Grid-membrane Filter DNA Probe Method to Detect Listeria monocytogenes in Artifically-contaminated Foods
cord-025995-nxeg03xj	2013	Studies indicate that bacteria and viruses are not removed effectively from wastewaters during primary treatment [19] ; removal of viruses during secondary treatment (active sludge) is dependent largely on virus adsorption to solids. [40] with cores of sandy forest soil receiving poliovirus in sewage effluent at various pH levels between 5.5 and 9.0, virus retention was best at pH 5.5, and the release and migration of retained viruses by subsequent distilled water applications was lower from the cores that re ceived sewage effluent having lower pH values. [57] on virus survival and movement in a rapid-infiltration system for wastewater, the rate of inactivation of indigenous viruses was greater in the fall than in the winter, possibly due in part to the effects of higher temperatures in the former season.
cord-025998-1qawjquv	2012	The effects of increasing water use and scarcity on human health are discussed considering historical and contemporary incidence of diarrheal diseases in European and South Asian megacities, relationships between dams and on waterborne diseases in Asia and Africa, and intensive agriand aquaculture resulting in man-made ecotones, fragmented aquatic ecosystems, and pathogen mutations. It is emphasized that the comprehension of the multiple interactions among changes in environmental settings, land use, and human health requires a new synthesis of ecohydrology, biomedical sciences, and water management for surveillance and control of waterborne diseases in basin-based, transboundary health systems. • natural biological cycles in which humans can act as hosts of pathogenic microorganisms (protozoans, bacteria, etc.); • consequences of the management of aquatic resources (e.g., wetlands drainage or creation, aquaculture, and dam construction); • effects of water pollution (chemical, microbiological, radio active, and thermal) on man and on the physiology of individual organisms; and • the impact of global changes affecting climate and hydrolo gical cycles (e.g., habitat degradation, warming, increased rainfall, and storms).
cord-034138-uarxxalj	2020	Hence, the aim of this review is to discuss the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment, highlights the failure of the conventional methods in degrading pharmaceuticals and personal care products from the water matrices and why photocatalytic degradation processes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products via the use of various semiconductor photocatalyst immobilized either on other semiconductors, metal oxide or on different carbon sources such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, and graphene oxides has been able to degrade these organic pollutants to propose more alternative nanomaterial that is green, efficient, non-toxic, cheap and more effective with a short time for the photocatalytic degradation of different organic pollutants. To achieve a more rapid and efficient removal of PPCPs in WWTPs, there is a need to modify the photocatalytic process through immobilization of TiO 2 onto a suitable solid support such as activated carbon, molecular sieve, graphene, and minerals as a result of their ability to enrich the pollutants and improves their photocatalytic degradation rate due to its stability, mechanical resistance, high surface area and appropriate porosity [157, 158] .
cord-102315-ncjdsbn4	2020	It is currently believed that these masks and respirators cannot be cleaned with 70 to 75% alcohol-water solutions, as past wet/dry experiments show that filtration efficiency can drop by ~40% after the first such treatment. The mechanism seems to be the removal of water molecules adsorbed on the fiber surfaces, a hypothesis which is supported by two independent observations: (A) the filtering efficiency increases non-linearly with the weight loss during drying, and (B) filtration efficiency shows an abrupt recovery as the vacuum pressure drops from 13 to 6 mBar, the range physically attributable to the removal of adsorbed water. We report here the discovery that decontaminating polypropylene microfiber filters in a 70% v/v solution of ethanol and deionized (DI) water, using standard medical procedures including air drying, does not permanently damage the microfibers as has been suggested 3, 4, 7 . We describe the easily constructed experimental setup that we use for measuring filtration efficiency, present results with 70% v/v ethanol treatment and the effectiveness of vacuum drying on .
cord-247879-jdkikd29	2020	title: The Covid-19 pandemic''s effects on poor rural dwellers in sub-Saharan Africa: A case study of access to basic clean water, sanitary systems and hand-washing facilities In the present uncertain situation surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic, it is critical for the people to get access to clean and safe sustainable water for domestic and sanitation uses to guarantee public hygiene and better food and, hence, improve their health conditions (Hunter, et al., 2009). This paper therefore provides proven knowledge and valuable support for sustainable, hygienic, clean, safe water and good sanitary systems for the rural poor dwellers in the SSA to safeguard the people from unrestricted exposure to possible infection from the COVID-19 disease through water and sanitation systems, with the level of cases recorded as at 30th April shown in Table 1 .
cord-265268-5xu9hj2n	2016	title: Evaluation of Glass Wool Filters and Hollow-Fiber Ultrafiltration Concentration Methods for qPCR Detection of Human Adenoviruses and Polyomaviruses in River Water Here, we compared the recovery efficiencies of human adenoviruses (HAdVs) and human polyomaviruses (HPyVs) from 10-L river water samples seeded with raw human wastewater (100 and 10 mL) using hollow-fiber ultrafiltration (HFUF) and glass wool filter (GWF) methods. Little has been documented on the recovery efficiencies of HFUF and GWF methods for concentrating HAdVs and HPyVs markers from environmental water samples seeded with raw human wastewater. HFUF method recovered significantly higher concentration of HAdVs (P = 0.004; P = 0.003) and HPyVs (P = 0.01; P = 0.009) compared to GWF method for river water samples seeded with 100 and 10 mL of human wastewater, respectively.
cord-265504-yq9wsugy	2020	In this paper, we highlight the issues that characterize water services amid the COVID-19 pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and discuss avenues for improving water management during this pandemic and future infectious disease outbreaks. In response to the promotion of hand hygiene by the World Health Organization (WHO) and national public health agencies as a means to curbing the spread of COVID-19, Water Service Providers (WSP) in most developed countries have outlined drastic measures with the goal of ensuring continuous provision of essential water and sewerage services to all during this pandemic. Nevertheless, across many SSA countries where inequalities in access to safe water is pervasive [6] , there is a need to be worried in light of COVID-19 pandemic. Ensuring affordable access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is important to address the current COVID-19 and future pandemics.
cord-265715-u8rc48f4	2020	Although LIDs offer sustainable runoff management, these infrastructures can be considered a risk to public health due to the presence of pathogens in the runoff and human exposure to contaminated water held in and transported by LIDs. The objective of this study is to examine the disease burden from exposure to LIDs at the residential, neighbourhood, and municipal levels. The combinations of keywords used in this search included the following: "runoff"/"rainwater"/"surface water"/"stormwater"/"floods" and "low impact development"/"green infrastructure"/"water sensitive urban design" and "quantitative microbial risk assessment"/"public health risk"/" disease burden". This study establishes the conceptual foundation of the effects of LIDs on public health and presents a wider perspective of the disease burden from exposure to LIDs. The results revealed that the probability of GI illness exceeding the WHO and US EPA guidelines was highest for floodwater, followed by recreation in surface water, and non-potable exposures to harvested rainwater.
cord-267680-n1t7by3r	2020	Slow sand filter (SSF) characterized by slow flow rate (0.1–0.2 m(3)/h) and a biological layer over filter bed called schmutzdecke is fairly efficient in removal of coliform microorganisms such as Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella, Escherichia coli, total coliform and fecal coliform, fecal streptococci, bacteriophage, and MS2 virus from wastewater. However, some studies referred filter media as biofilter without confirming role of indigenous microorganisms or biofilm in removal of pollutants and pathogens. Other factors that were not included in the model such as net surface charge on the filter media and microbial surfaces; media properties (type, size, and depth); hydraulic loading rates; upstream chemical use (oxidants and/or coagulants); water quality variables; flow control; and backwashing and postbackwashing practices may also significantly influence pathogen removal efficiency of filter media.
cord-268999-6748c617	2014	Although there have been advances in both drinking water treatment technologies and source water protection strategies, waterborne disease outbreaks (WBDOs) due to viral pathogens still occur each year worldwide. Although there have been advances in both drinking water treatment technologies and source water protection strategies, waterborne disease outbreaks (WBDOs) due to viral pathogens still occur each year worldwide. The current review ( Figure 1 ) focuses on (1) the occurrence of viral pathogens of primary concern in various water sources; (2) virus-related WBDOS by water type reported worldwide over the past decade (from approximately 2000 to 2012); and (3) DW treatment options for the inactivation or removal of viruses. This paucity of available data for viruses in DW can most likely be attributed to the need for very large volumes (>100 to 6000 L) of water to be concentrated followed by subsequent recovery and detection of virus targets -a process that is challenging often Viral pathogens in water Gibson 51 Treatment options specific to removal/inactivation of viruses: -Many options available though implementation varies worldwide due to availability of technology.
cord-273291-75j2axjd	2020	title: System dynamics evaluation of household water use behavior and associated greenhouse gas emissions and environmental costs: A case study of Taipei city A system dynamic model was developed to investigate interactions between household water use behaviors (toilet flushing, clothes washing, bathing/showering, and cleaning) and associated greenhouse gas emissions and environmental costs. The environmental cost of GHG emissions associated with water use behavior was US$0.001/t, causing an 8% increase in water price. Taking Taipei city as a case study, the model captures more water use behaviors including toilet flushing, clothes washing, bathing/showering, and cleaning than previous studies. Taiwan''s Water Resources Agency [62] found that toilet flushing (27 %), clothes washing (21 %), and bathing/ showering (20 %) were the highest contributors to household water use (Fig. 4) . Taking Taipei city as a case study, the model captures different behaviors including toilet flushing, clothes washing, bathing/showering, and cleaning.
cord-279798-b5tduubu	2016	The objectives of this review were to calculate representative values of virus removal efficiency in wastewater treatment units based on published datasets, and to identify research topics that should be further addressed for improving implementation of the multiple-barrier system. In this review article, current guidelines for designing wastewater reclamation and reuse systems from the viewpoint of virus risk management are overviewed, and the efficiency of virus removal from wastewater by currently employed wastewater treatment units are shown by the results of meta-analysis. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2012) guideline explicitly notes that setting a tolerable virus concentration in reclaimed wastewater (virus limit) is not recommended for the following reasons: 1) viruses are well reduced by appropriate wastewater treatments, 2) identification and enumeration of viruses is time-and labor-consuming, 3) detection of infectious viruses in water is further labor-and time-consuming, 4) molecular-based virus detection does not always indicate the presence of infectious viruses, and 5) waterborne viral infections due to reclaimed water have not been documented.
cord-284498-54j6ys8s	2020	Some of the significant challenges and research opportunities are the development of standard techniques for the detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 in the water phase, assessment of favorable environments for its survival and decay in water; and development of effective strategies for elimination of the novel virus from water. Development of effective standard techniques for the detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 in water, assessment of the existing water purification technologies and development of novel advanced water treatment systems are major challenges and open research opportunities. Furthermore, careful surveillance of water and wastewater to be used as an early warning tool for such outbreaks in future, understanding the survival and decay mechanism of the novel virus in water and wastewater, analysis of potential pathways of SARS-CoV-2 into water bodies are other potential research opportunities for environmental researchers [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] .
cord-285620-oawrnmhy	2020	This review intends to provide a detailed summary of the recent advances in the fabrication of antibacterial and antiviral electrospun nanofibers and discuss their application efficiency as a water filtration membrane. The present work reviews previous studies on the production and application of electrospun nanofibers as antimicrobial water filtration membranes. The objectives of this review were to: (i) introduce the different procedures, which have been applied for incorporation of the various antimicrobial agents into electrospun nanofibers (ii) discuss the different antimicrobial tests used for proving antimicrobial activity of the fabricated electrospun water filters (iii) study the efficiency of the produced antimicrobial electrospun application in the water treatment industry. Based on the majority of researches studied in this review, blending and post-modification strategies are two commonly used techniques to incorporate biocide agents into nanofibers aiming for water disinfection application (Shalaby et al., 2018; He et al., 2018; Makaremi et al., 2016) .
cord-287711-gw8mgg4m	2017	Data from spiking studies quantifying the viral filtration performance of cellulosic filters are detailed, i.e., first, the virus reduction capacity of regenerated cellulose hollow fiber filters in the manufacturing process of blood products and, second, the efficiency of virus recovery/concentration from water samples by the viradel (virus adsorption–elution) method using charge modified, electropositive cellulosic filters or conventional electronegative cellulose ester microfilters. Data from spiking studies quantifying the viral filtration performance of cellulosic filters are detailed, i.e., first, the virus reduction capacity of regenerated cellulose hollow fiber filters in the manufacturing process of blood products and, second, the efficiency of virus recovery/concentration from water samples by the viradel (virus adsorption-elution) method using charge modified, electropositive cellulosic filters or conventional electronegative cellulose ester microfilters.
cord-287778-ewowkq8o	2013	Serum chemistry determinations and measurement of the sodium content of milk replacer and water used on the farm identified salt poisoning as the cause of the clinical signs. 1, 3 The current report describes acute and chronic salt toxicity in neonatal dairy calves on a Wisconsin dairy from November 2010 to February 2011 in which abnormally high concentrations of sodium were detected in sera collected from these animals and in the water in which a commercial milk replacer powder was being mixed. Two milk replacer samples from the first and last calves fed for each of 6 successive feedings after the farm visit were analyzed for total solids and sodium concentration. Additional sodium from the milk replacer powder (approximately 60 mEq/L), electrolyte powder (3% sodium), and 2 times the recommended lasalocid concentration fed to calves with no access to free-choice water likely contributed to the early onset of clinical signs and death.
cord-292000-uytnpn2f	2018	An overview will be given of the different types of microorganisms and their classification as well as the main processes they carry out in living cell such as metabolism, respiration, and microbial growth. BOD is a measure of the quantity of oxygen used by aerobic microorganisms (need molecular oxygen for living) in the oxidation of organic matter present in a given water sample at certain temperatures over a specific time period. The rate of oxygen consumption and therefore BOD is affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain kinds of microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic material in the water (Davis and Cornwell, 2012; Weiner and Matthews, 2003) . Disinfection: involves the addition of chemicals in order to kill or reduce the number of pathogenic organisms Softening plants utilize the same operational unit as filtration plants but use different chemicals in order to remove water hardness (Davis, 2010; Davis and Cornwell, 2012; Weiner and Matthews, 2003) .
cord-292031-weiwksh6	2015	Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a helpful tool to evaluate the scenarios for pathogen contamination that involve surveillance, detection methods, analysis and decision-making. Molecular techniques, such as nucleic acid amplification procedures, offer sensitive and analytical tools for detecting a variety of pathogens, including new emerging strains, present the possibility of automation, and real-time analysis to provide information for microbial risk assessment purposes [33] . Limitations of DNA based methods such as PCR include the inability to discriminate between viable from non-viable cells that both contain DNA, the low concentration of several pathogens in water such as Cryptosporidium, Giardia and viruses, and the lack of data to indicate the real infectious risk to a population. Oligonucleotide microarrays are a powerful genomic technology that is widely utilized to monitor gene expression under different cell growth conditions, detecting specific mutations in DNA sequences and characterizing microorganisms in environmental samples [76] .
cord-292604-x9amm87g	2019	Air pollution: Among the tropical regions, Southeast Asia reported the greatest increase in CO2 emissions leading to a decreased air quality followed by South Asia and South America, which has significantly impacted the climate and led to higher weather-related mortality and morbidity, infectious disease rates, and respiratory illnesses. Foodborne illnesses are defined by the WHO as diseases of infectious or toxic nature caused by the consumption of contaminated food or water. Foodborne diseases result in considerable morbidity and mortality, and contribute to significant costs in tropical countries. Foodborne parasitic diseases excluding enteric protozoa cause an estimated 23.2 million cases and 45,927 deaths annually resulting in an estimated 6.64 million DALYs. 5 Among these foodborne ascariasis and toxoplasmosis were common Tropical Health contributing to 12.3 and 10.3 million cases respectively. World Health Organization estimates of the global and regional disease burden of 11 foodborne parasitic diseases, 2010: a data synthesis
cord-294005-gjrj1gvr	2020	Findings from the study show that citizens are willing to participate in decision-making on water-related process through radio programs; public meetings; surveys or polls and telephone. In line with the Ghana National Water Policy that aims to ensure full participation of all stakeholders in decision-making on water-related issues in realization of the Ghana Water Vision for 2025 [which states ''''promoting an efficient and effective management system and environmentally sound development of all water resources in Ghana"], the study''s focus is timely and relevant. With regard to this study, at the district/community level, key variables that were adopted in the interview and focus group discussion (FGD) instruments included the following: level of involvement in decision making, governance processes and the effects on citizens'' participation. A majority of respondents agreed that GWCL uses the following mechanisms in making decisions on participation approaches in water governance issues, radio programs, public meetings, surveys or polls, and telephone.
cord-301181-s3cb1sq7	2020	The study discussed nanotechnology applicability in climate control and photosynthesis in the greenhouse farming, hydroponic systems, solar drying, fabrication of crop processing machine components, oxygen scavengers in crop packaging, and micro-organism stimulant in anaerobic digestion for agro biomass conversion. [38] [39] Therefore, most reviews on nanomaterials in agriculture focused on this area of seed science, precision farming, disease control in plants and animals, fertilizer application, nutrition and biosensors, feed development, the influence of polymeric nano-carriers in agricultural applications and metal-based nanoparticles interaction and transport in the soil and plants [2, [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] . One of these areas where nature can meet nanotechnology is in the controlled atmospheric greenhouse cooling where temperate crops can be grown in a tropical climate under a controlled climate of evaporative cooling or fogging as shown in The application of evaporative cooling technology utilizes water and cooling pads (porous media) of different materials to cool the air [51] [52] [53] [54] as shown in Fig. 4 .
cord-301767-1jv20em8	2018	Primarily, pathogens may contaminate produce ''on-field'' via various routes including; atmospheric deposition, uptake from contaminated soils and groundwater (Harris et al., 2003; Lynch et al., 2009; Mei Soon et al., 2012) , use of raw (or poorly treated) manure and compost, exposure to contaminated water (irrigation or flooding), transfer by insects, or by fecal contamination generated by livestock or wild Table 1 The most commonly implicated etiological agents in fresh produce borne illnesses (Brackett, 1994; Buck et al., 2003; Heaton and Jones, 2008; Jung et al., 2014; Callej on et al., 2015) . Epidemiological investigations of food poisoning outbreaks, experimental studies examining pathogen contamination of fruits and vegetables as well as observations of increased incidence of disease in areas practicing wastewater irrigation with little or no wastewater treatment indicate that contaminated irrigation water might indeed be a source of foodborne pathogens on fresh produce (Norman and Kabler, 1953; Hern andez et al., 1997; Steele and Odumeru, 2004) .
cord-301991-n87le8ix	2020	Because diatoms produce organic matter to a large extent that permits natural inbuilt capacity to withstand toxicity levels in water bodies, extended survival rate, short regeneration time than microalgae, fishes, and other micro invertebrates thus making them one of the best candidate for water quality monitoring, and excellent bioindicators of aquatic biological integrity [12, 13] . Isolation and identification of benthic diatoms are problematic in comparison with planktonic species due to difficulties in sample treatment, sampling, and microscopic observation though benthic diatoms play the main role as bioindicators in the aquatic ecosystem because they attached to the substratum with secreted mucilage from their cell wall [44, 45] . An outline of isolation of pure diatom species getting affected by the surrounding contaminants is challenging since they get heavily occupied with different interfering organisms, which pose a significant threat in obtaining axenic culture, as presented in Fig. 3 .
cord-302848-a246wl7f	2013	Maintaining or increasing ecosystem services into the future will require integrating adaptation strategies (actions that help human and natural systems accommodate changes) and mitigation strategies (actions that reduce anthropogenic influences on climate) ( Figure 1 ). In this chapter, we provide an overview of what will likely be some of the most effective and most important mitigation and adaptation strategies for addressing changes to the climate system stemming from increased GHG emissions. We discuss various ways in which mitigation and adaptation strategies can help reduce the magnitude and the impacts of the changes we are likely to experience, as well as improve human health and directly or indirectly affect ecosystem functions and services. Restoring or protecting some semblance of the natural river flow conditions necessary to support ecosystem function (called environmental flows) into the future is one of the most important climate change adaptation strategies for flowing waters.
cord-307549-1g6x5grl	2020	E-mail: james.fullick@nhs.net Keywords: COVID-19; pandemic; resource management; ventilator; water trap EditordWith the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), intensive care facilities have been rapidly overwhelmed across the UK and elsewhere. We write from a South Wales district general hospital that has moved patients into our recovery facility as an outreach ICU to discuss some of the challenges and potential solutions of the use of anaesthetic machines in long-term ventilation. One of the main issues we have encountered in ventilating these patients for durations outside the routine scope of anaesthetic machines is water condensation within the 22 mm tubing. A final water trap design was created using an HME filter with the filter material removed and connected in the middle of the expiratory limb of the circuit. A more complex design using a short in-line suction catheter (Fig 1d) was also proposed, however it requires more complex connections that increase the risk of disconnects, turbulent flow, or leaks.
cord-308342-ycdok8fc	2020	Collectively this evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 virus can survive 45 within water and the viral loads within untreated sewage effluent are likely high in countries 46 of high infection rates, a portion of which is viable virus, and therefore water contaminated 47 We note that adenoviruses are 122 known to be particularly resilient, and therefore likely to represent an upper estimate, but 123 also that our selected range is consistent with the 10 -3 value used elsewhere for assessing 124 viral risk in water systems (eg 14 ), including one assessment for SARS CoV-2 transmission 125 risk to wastewater workers 18 . Collectively this means that if a drinking water source 156 was to become infected with SARS-CoV-2 the standard virus removal and disinfection 157 approaches of ultraviolet exposure and chlorination may not reduce the virus below 158 detectable limits.
cord-309179-5hlatbqe	2008	Main difficulties to overcome for virus detection and characterisation in water samples encompass viral diversity, occurrence of low particle numbers, particularly in drinking water, and the technical challenges of virus assays. Nucleic acid amplification techniques are currently the most widely used methods for detection of viruses in 298 Environmental Biotechnology water, which also enable to gather information of the virus genotypes occurring in the environment, thus providing most relevant epidemiological information, particularly important for the implementation and follow-up of vaccination programmes [2, 3, 4 ] . Nevertheless, as stated above, no alternative to molecular detection analysis exists for highly health significant waterborne viruses such as human norovirus and hepatitis A virus. Development, evaluation, and standardization of a real-time TaqMan reverse transcription-PCR assay for quantification of hepatitis A virus in clinical and shellfish samples
cord-312161-egwo19oc	2011	Microbial water quality monitoring has undergone tremendous transition in recent years, with novel molecular tools beginning to offer rapid, high-throughput, sensitive and specific detection of a wide spectrum of microbial pathogens that challenge traditional culture-based techniques. High-density microarrays, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and pyrosequencing which are considered to be breakthrough technologies borne out of the ''molecular revolution'' are at present emerging rapidly as tools of pathogen detection and discovery. The limitations in detecting and identifying pathogens directly from environmental water samples by culture or microscopy can now be addressed by integrating concentration techniques with molecular tools to provide sensitive, specific and quantitative data on any pathogens of interest. Pyrosequencing technology is revolutionizing the study of microbial ecology as well as direct metagenomic detection Detection of pathogens in water Aw and Rose 425 High levels of several classes of resistance genes in bacterial communities exposed to antibiotic were identified.
cord-312431-de7zhswl	2013	These results indicate the potential of viruses in the water samples especially from the lower catchment areas of the Umgeni River to infect human hosts throughout the year. It is well recognised that monitoring the presence of enteric viruses could be challenging due to the relatively low level of infectious viral particles towards the respective host species and small viral particle size existing in environmental waters, thus making it essential to start with a large water sample volume and concentrate it to several orders of magnitude [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] . The present study was conducted to optimise procedures to extract and enumerate indigenous virus-like particles (VLPs) and to determine the community structures and infectivity of these viruses from river water. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to reveal the association amongst the bacteriophages, VLPs and the physical and chemical water quality variables, which were measured from the same sites and seasons in concurrent studies performed in this laboratory [46] , with a view to defining the significant variables accountable for the observed spatial and temporal distribution of the communities.
cord-312528-erl8jftp	2020	Surface water improvements associated with the COVID-19 economic slowdown illustrate environmental resiliency and societal control over urban water quality. Under an economic slowdown scenario, headwaters hundreds of kilometers away from urban areas will experience reduced deposition from nonpoint sources of pollution (regionally produced nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and other gaseous pollutants). For example, given the reduction in nitrogen dioxide concentrations observed over Eastern China, Europe, the Northeastern United States, and India ( Fig. 1) , this is where urban surface water quality may start showing signs of temporary recovery. Given the frequent occurrence of urban water crises, it is critical to document how COVID-19 pandemic response management affects natural processes and surface water quality in the short term. The current challenge, though, is that economic sectors and industries that contribute to pollution (e.g., energy, consumer, pharmaceutical, and other industries) receive little incentive to promote urban water quality beyond what the law requires.
cord-315198-v4ay9kwg	2020	Additionally, the frequent use of contaminated water for bathing, nasal irrigation, swimming, and ablution can be a risk factor in contracting infectious agents such as the brain-eating amoebae and possibly SARS-CoV-2. For example, the observation of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis due to brain-eating amoebae (i.e., Naegleria fowleri) is mostly unnoticed, especially in rural areas and disadvantaged communities, and is known to be associated with nasal irrigation for cleansing, ritual ablution, bathing, and swimming. Thus, the contamination of human waste as well as human wastewater into drinking water supplies highlights a major risk factor in contracting infectious agents such as brain-eating amoeba and possibly COVID-19, especially for developing countries. The use of simple tap water filters in households prior to ablution or nasal irrigation ( Figure 1E ,F) can be effective in eradicating microbial contaminants.
cord-319297-h6ulh3y7	2020	27, 28, 37, 38 Evidence from a study on bacterial load during orthodontic procedures comparing bracket debonding followed by enamel clean-up with high-speed handpiece and water cooling versus standard orthodontic care involving archwire and/or ligature change, and replacing procedures, highlighted the increased pathogenic state of aerosols produced by the former, with a mean difference of 49.2 (95% CI, 19.4-79.0) in total CFUs. 31 This highlights the exposure hazards of orthodontists related to certain orthodontic procedures in practice and draws attention to additional prophylactic measures to be selectively taken within the dental operating office.
cord-320055-6ycp8m89	1985	These bacteria and other coliforms were used in the past as indicators of water-borne pathogens, that is, the presence of fecal contamination being correlated with the occurrence of pathogens, for which direct detection methods were not available. Total coliforms are the most universally used indicator group, but include bacteria, in addition to Escherichia coil, that are not specifically associated with fecal pollution, i.e., Klebsiella spp., Citrobacter spp., and Enterobacter spp. Finding an appropriate indicator for the presence of enteric viruses, i.e., poliovirus, coxsackievirus A, coxsackievirus B, and echovirus [50, 147] , in sea water, is a vexing problem, especially for those responsible for regulating the use of sewage-contamined sites, including fresh, estuarine, and marine water and sediment, and shellfish harvested from these waters. Correlations between the number of fecal bacterial pathogens and indicator bacteria and their respective bacteriophages in fresh and marine water have been reported [185] .
cord-322120-wtu04r2j	2020	Systematic reviews of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) evaluations, conducted to identify the health effects of interventions designed to reduce enteric pathogen exposure, have generally found improved WaSH to be protective against diarrhea, 24 soil-transmitted helminthiasis, 25 and malnutrition. A systematic review of the effects of sanitation interventions on fecal−oral transmission pathways identified the following approaches used: enteric pathogens or indicator bacteria in environmental samples (drinking water, hands, sentinel toys, food, household and latrine surfaces, and soil); the presence or abundance of flies; and observations of human and animal feces. 68 There are a number of factors to consider when measuring enteric pathogen prevalence in the environment, including environmental sampling strategies, the use of indicators as proxies for enteric pathogens, differentiating between human and animal sources of contamination, detection limits, and selecting which specific pathogens to target.
cord-323683-9h9mld6x	2013	The removal of viruses from sludges has only relatively recently attracted serious attention (Cliver, 1975; Berg, 1978; Osborn and Hattingh, 1978) but for effluents, various procedures have been adopted for some time, particularly disinfection with chlorine, a treatment now under critical review. Although many different enteric viruses are likely to be present in wastewater, the risks of transmission of infection via contaminated water in developed countries by various routes (Fig. 1 ) is thought to be slight although probably increasing, but elsewhere the risks may be very great indeed (WHO, 1976) . 4. The methods available for the inactivation of viruses in effluent differ little in principle from those applied to potable water, but are distinct from the disinfection of viruses contaminating, laboratory or medical equipment, where highly toxic chemicals like detergents, phenols, formaldehyde or permanganate may be used (Spalding et al 1977) .
cord-327865-xxov2x33	2011	As part of the text and to face the requirements for poor rural and urban areas and water-scarce regions, basic sanitation, wastewater treatment, and water reuse alternatives are described with emphasis on their constraints and limitations for developing countries. In addition, in the developed countries, the term sanitation applies not only to the installation of sewers but also to the full implementation of systems for the safe disposal and reuse of treated wastewater, sludge, and septage. In addition, they offer the following benefits (Lenghton et al., 2005; Correlje and Schuetze, 2008) : (1) they allow investments to be made stepwise, in line with available funds, local development, and population growth; (2) they are used in smaller areas of service that are easier to manage; (3) they allow the use of different technologies to provide services to different socioeconomic groups; and (4) they facilitate the reuse of water on-site.
cord-329397-t951n4dv	2020	Recently performed studies showed that mutual phage interactions with bacterial hosts are responsible for conversion from organic to inorganic carbon in water environments [51] . However, there is a greater chance for disruption of the nitrogen cycle in water through the use of aquaculture drugs, and phage lytic activity towards nitrifying bacteria should be studied more precisely in terms of possibility, not a real threat. However, there is a greater chance for disruption of the nitrogen cycle in water through the use of aquaculture drugs, and phage lytic activity towards nitrifying bacteria should be studied more precisely in terms of possibility, not a real threat. Thus, prophylactic use of phages could work in three different ways: (a) through direct lytic activity, (b) as immunomodulators in fish tanks through interactions in mucus, and (c) due to phenotypic changes in bacteria that lead to lower bacterial virulence.
cord-330779-mso2zfom	2020	Hence, it is proposed that governments in Africa must put measures like improved WASH facilities and public awareness campaigns, suburbanization of wastewater treatment facilities, utilizing low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems, legally backed policy interventions, and Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS). Overall, since most of the people living in Africa, especially those dwelling in rural and peri-urban settlements depend on surface and groundwater resources for their domestic water supply, the risk of contracting COVID-19 through SARS-CoV-2 contaminated water is very high and thus, the sources and routes of community spread of the virus, which is currently being reported must be critically re-examined. Since most of the people living in Africa, especially those dwelling in rural and peri-urban settlements depend on surface and groundwater resources for their domestic water supply, the risk of contracting COVID-19 through SARS-CoV-2 contaminated water from wastewater systems is very high.
cord-330813-43l9m0yh	2020	These results suggest that the insoluble powder was CaCO3 generated by an interaction between Ca 2+ ions in BiSCaO Water and CO2 in the air, and that the BiSCaO suspension, dispersion, and colloidal dispersion contained insoluble CaO and/or Ca(OH)2 in the form of micro-/nano-particles or precipitates that provide hydroxyl ions (OH -) to maintain the alkaline pH. Although the CFU/mL for TC and CF following treatment with undiluted (final two-fold diluted) BiSCaO Water and 0.4 (final 0.2 wt.%) BiSCaO suspension, dispersion, and colloidal dispersion exhibited high disinfection activities (>5 log decreases in CFU/mL), a small part of TC (>1000 CFU/mL) and CF (>100 CFU/mL) remained viable (Figure 7) . Although the CFU/mL for TC and CF following treatment with undiluted (final two-fold diluted) BiSCaO Water and 0.4 (final 0.2 wt.%) BiSCaO suspension, dispersion, and colloidal dispersion exhibited high disinfection activities (>5 log decreases in CFU/mL), a small part of TC (>1000 CFU/mL) and CF (>100 CFU/mL) remained viable (Figure 7) .
cord-333269-nntcac2k	2020	Following a communications plan and using a spokesperson, water utilities should focus on simple messages that use basic terminology. Depending on the utility''s employee structure, any employee could be a point of contact for customers and the community, so sharing information with the entire team helps ensure consistent messaging. In cases where a utility shares broader city platforms for social media, it could be helpful to work with the city communications team to promote water utility activities, for example, showcasing how utility operations protect public health. For any online COVID-19 messaging, link directly to the utility''s Consumer Confidence Report, reinforcing the emphasis on water quality and showing where customers can go to find more information or speak with someone if they have questions. Beyond consistently providing safe and reliable service, water utilities can build and reinforce public trust through their communications efforts.
cord-334369-xgw7o5gd	2020	Livestock, in particular young calves, are very vulnerable to cryptosporidiosis and a recent modelling study estimated the global load of Cryptosporidium parasites in livestock manure to be in the region of 3.2 × 10 23 oocysts per year, with cattle being the predominant source [10] . Therefore, improving our understanding of environmental transmission routes of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and oocyst survival is important in assessing and mitigating against disease risk and is essential for a One Health approach to tackle human and animal cryptosporidiosis. In addition, applying methods on farm to minimise the environmental contamination with faeces containing infective Cryptosporidium oocysts will also help to minimise risk to other animals and to people through protection of the environment and water catchments (Figure 2 ). Treatment of livestock and human faecal waste to reduce viability of Cryptosporidium oocysts would help to minimise contamination of the environment with infectious parasites and protect human and animal health.
cord-336378-7f2fizfr	2020	In this study, we performed first-principles calculations suggesting that water molecules once in contact with the graphene oxide (GO) layer interact with its functional groups, therefore, developing an electric field induced by the heterostructure formation. The combination of GO sharp edged structure and surface charge when dispersed into nonionic polymers was found to be efficient in antiviral activity [10] ; thus, aerosols consisting of water droplets with a dimension in the range from 100 nm to 1 µm that cannot be stopped mechanically by the pores of filter fibers could be removed, for example, by the electrostatic interaction with GO based polymer fibers, making the face masks more efficient [11] . More on the theoretical side, our setup follows those reported in the literature; density functional theory based methodologies are used to predict interfacial electric field within (mono)layers in van der Waals heterostructures to evaluate (among the others) the photocatalytic performance enhancement [16, 17] , and the storage of alkali atoms (batteries) [18] , while similar approaches are exploited to compute properties of metal/oxide interfaces in terms of workfunction variation and charge distribution between heterostructure components [19] .
cord-337218-risqto89	2013	107 ) sums up what he calls the hazards of human progress this way: ''''Each time history repeats itself, the price goes up.'''' Indeed, as the second decade of the 21st century begins, humans are ecosystem engineers on a planetary scale, and our global civilization threatens the life-sustaining capacity of all of Earth''s environmental ''''spheres'''': But with nearly 7 billion people occupying or using resources from every place on Earth, humans are overwhelming the ability of other life-forms to make a living and depleting the planet''s natural wealth. Chemicals -as varied as prescription drugs flowing out of sewage plants, pesticides, heavy metals, and cancer-causing by-products of countless manufacturing processes -now lace the world''s water, soil, and air and the bodies of all living things, including humans. The list of chemicals'' effects on living things is so long that chemical pollution equals humans'' environmental impact in most people''s minds, yet it is just one form of biotic impoverishment.
cord-338285-7rrq3o7n	2020	I point out that our efforts to control the spread of COVID-19 will increase the water demand and worsen the water quality, leading to additional challenges in water planning and management. In view of the impacts of COVID-19 and other global-scale phenomena influencing water resources (e.g., global climate change), I highlight the urgent need for interdisciplinary collaborations among researchers studying water and new strategies to address water issues. Therefore, mitigating or controlling the spread of COVID-19 is highly challenging in these regions, as it necessitates identifying, accessing, and supplying significant quantity of additional water resources all around (not to mention the social-distancing). For instance, use of more water (and also soap and disinfectants) to wash one''s hands to control the spread of COVID-19 will increase the quantity of wastewater, with perhaps even poorer quality, coming from homes, workplaces, and other public places.
cord-340497-8l3gw6sk	2020	This way, inside the greenhouses, farmers can develop and maintain the desired microclimate and create a more predictable environment that enhances the final plant yield, achieving higher quality and reduced water consumption compared to open field crops. Greenhouses is a type of farming that can provide the option to connect with renewable energy resources in order to increase the sustainability of such systems and the energy efficiency of the various treatments that are necessary for mass food production (Manos and Xydis, 2019) . Indoor vertical farming is an innovative type of closed plant production system that provides the opportunity of a controlled-environment agriculture, which can be controlled according to the crop regardless of the weather conditions. In addition to the hydroponic systems that recirculate the nutrient solution and benefit greenhouse cultivations, vertical farms use systems that condense and collect the water that is transpired by plants at the cooling panel of the air conditioners and continuously recycle and reuse it for irrigation.
cord-344208-5mbn6b9x	2003	This study evaluated removal of live emerging waterborne pathogens by pilot‐scale conventional treatment with alum coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. The objective of this research was to evaluate the removal of several emerging waterborne pathogens by using pilot-scale conventional treatment with alum coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. Six pilot-scale challenge experiments were performed to investigate the effects of various filtration conditions on the removal of live waterborne pathogens by alum coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and rapid-rate granular media filtration. Nevertheless, the pathogen characteristics listed in Table 1 play a role in determining the physical and chemical characteristics of the floc parAlthough many studies have focused on the effects of particle size on particle removal in clean bed filters, little research has been conducted to determine the breakthrough rates of different-sized particles. The other tests indicated that settled water pumping had no effect on turbidity removal through filtration provided that the sedimentation basin was cleaned out one day prior to a challenge experiment.
cord-345347-wrgg8met	2020	A pan-European, multi-actor approach was adapted in the context of seven rural or mixed rural/urban Action Labs (also known as Living Labs) to determine barriers and factors that hinder the uptake of BMPs and MMs to protect drinking water sources from nitrates and PPPs and that have an impact on farmers'' decision making and strategies. The main environmental policy instruments related to water that are to be considered here are: Directive (WFD) and sets groundwater quality standards, introducing measures to prevent or limit inputs of pollutants into groundwater (European Parliament and Council, 2006) ; and, For EU agriculture policies, the cross-compliance requirements (set of minimum agricultural production standards) and the measures included in the Rural Development Plans are those that define the framework for the farmers, in order to benefit from EU subsidies. The first step in the analysis of the uptake of BMPs and MMs to prevent the pollution of drinking water sources from agriculture was to match the wealth of information from previous European projects that assess mitigation measures with the local knowledge of the farming systems and the focus issues in the seven Action Labs.
cord-346595-96zg8q0b	2020	This special issue (SI) of Environmental Science and Pollution Research (ESPR) includes a collection of 18 peer-reviewed articles relating to water quality and toxicity risk assessments, ecosystem protection, groundwater contamination assessment, soil and sediment remediation technologies, water treatment technologies, climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies, and control of carbon intensity that were formally presented at the 4th International Conference on Water Resources and Environment (WRE 2018) , the 5th International Conference on Water Resources and Environment (WRE 2019), and the 1st International Conference on Advances in Civil and Ecological Engineering Research (ACEER 2019). & Lee and Lin (2019) provide relationships between integrated vulnerability (biophysical and social) and personal ecological footprint of Taipei (urban) and Yunlin county (rural), Taiwan, for governments and communities to establish implementation strategies in risk areas to adapt and mitigate to climate change. His main research interests focus on using advanced oxidation processes and adsorption for the treatment of wastewater and bacteria inactivation, ground water modeling, and application of electrokinetic technologies to soil remediation/sludge treatment/activated carbon regeneration.
cord-346715-r6a5vxl0	2020	Chromium (Cr) typically exists in either trivalent and hexavalent oxidation states in drinking water, i.e., Cr(III) and Cr(VI), with Cr(VI) of particular concern in recent years due to its high toxicity and new regulatory standards. To moving forward in the right direction, three key questions need further exploration for the technology implementation, including effective management of residual waste, minimizing the risks of Cr(VI) re-occurrence downstream of drinking water treatment plant, and promote the socioeconomic drivers for Cr(VI) control in the future. The reactions of Cr(III) solids oxidation by free chlorine residuals can take place in drinking water distribution systems, as supported by statistical analysis of EPA UCMR3 database. Redox-driven Cr(VI) treatment technologies are more promising and cost-effective than physical separation technologies (for example, ion exchange), because Cr (VI) is chemically reduced to non-toxic Cr(III) solids in the presence of a reductant and subsequently removed as Cr (III) particles, eliminating the need for additional brine disposal (Eary and Rai, 1988) .
cord-350876-e7le4oh5	2005	Abstract Uniform polymeric nanoparticles with various morphologies of projection coronas like the viruses in the coronavirus group have been formed by the self-organization of macromolecular chains polymerizing in a dispersion system of styrene (St), acrylonitrile (AN) and poly(ethylene glycol) monomethoxymonomethacrylate (PEGm) in a polar solvent (water/ethanol). An increase in the water composition reduced the crystallization degree of AN units, resulting in a variety of the nanoparticle morphology such as the increased particle size, the reduced projection size, the increased projection number, and the decreased inter-projection distance. As shown in Fig. 1(a) , nanoparticles prepared in the solvent with a water composition of 20 vol% had projection coronas similar to a coronavirus in morphology. On the other hand, nanoparticles with projection coronas were not formed when the water composition was higher than 50 vol% since the dispersion system was not created during polymerization.
cord-354345-p4ld0tun	2019	We carried out a comprehensive literature review aimed at investigating waterborne viral outbreaks linked to swimming pools, to explore the etiological agents implicated, pathways of transmission, associations between indicator organisms and disease, and key issues related to chlorination/disinfection procedures. Different databases (Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar) were accessed using the terms norovirus, Norwalk virus, adenovirus, enterovirus, echovirus, coxsackievirus, and hepatitis A, in combination with terms recreation, swimming, pool, and water. In Oklahoma, USA, an outbreak of pharyngitis caused by HAdV type 7a was recorded in 1982 among 77 children attending a swimming pool [17] . In 2013-2014, a study investigated the presence of human enteric viruses (adenovirus, norovirus, and enterovirus) in indoor and outdoor swimming pool waters in Rome. Pharyngoconjunctival fever caused by adenovirus type 4: Report of a swimming pool-related outbreak with recovery of virus from pool water A swimming pool-associated outbreak of pharyngoconjunctival fever caused by human adenovirus type 4 in Beijing
cord-355993-vyyboega	2007	To illustrate and discuss this potential of disaster research we give context Environmental Impact Assessment Review 27 (2007) 343 -358 www.elsevier.com/locate/eiar and substance to our analysis by focusing on two case studies, the first involving water contamination/pollution problems in rural Ontario and the other focusing on the changing ecological and social landscapes of areas which surround the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). Although drinking water contamination problems tend to be associated with developing nationsthe World Health Organization notes that the leading cause of illness and deaths in most developing countries is attributable to gastrointestinal infections from the ingestion of water containing pathogens (Nadakavukaren, 2000) the Walkerton outbreak dramatically illustrates that the waterborne route of the disease may pose an equal, if not greater, threat to public health in the North American, and particularly, Canadian context.