key: cord-023464-uklnrgt8
authors: Black, E. Kathleen; Finch, Gordon R.
title: Detection and occurrence of waterborne bacterial and viral pathogens
date: 1993-06-01
journal: Water Environ Res
DOI: 10.1002/j.1554-7531.1993.tb00050.x
sha: 
doc_id: 23464
cord_uid: uklnrgt8

nan

The 18th edition of Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater was published during 1992. Changes in the microbiological examination section include modifications in the proposed detection of staphylococci in recreational waters, the total coliform multiple-tube fermentation technique and enumeration, virus concentration methodology, as well as a proposed chromogenic substrate test for coliforms. Environmental Microbiology was a monograph published in 1992 featuring a broad range of topics related to environmental microbiology, including detection of several waterborne bacterial, protozoan, and viral pathogens (Singh and McFeters) .

The occurrence of waterborne bacterial pathogens is summarized in Table 1 . Water types included in this table are drinking water (including bottled water), surface water, groundwater, and wastewater. The most frequently reported bacteria were Escherichia coli.. followed by the coliform group. These indicator bacteria are included in this review because of their use as indicators of pathogens. Attempts were made to correlate the presence of coliform bacteria with pathogens, such as Salmonella. Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Aeromonas hydrophila (Martinez-Manzanares et al.; O'Shea and Field; Stelzer and Jacob; and Townsend) . The correlation between salmonella and coliform June 1993 bacteria or enterococci was unclear in a survey of two pools in the Australian wet-dry tropics (Townsend) , in an estuary of a river in Spain (Martinez-Manzanares et al.) , and in storm water runoff (O'Shea and Field). V. parahaemolyticus and A. hydrophila in shellfish were correlated with total coliforms (Martinez-Manzanares et al. ) , and aeromonads increased relative to coliforms in treated drinking water (Stelzer et at.) .

Studies on the persistence of pathogens and indicators in water were reported. The survival of E. coli (Gauthier et al.; Korhonen and Martikainen, 1991; Prabu and Mahadevan; Roberts; and Terzieva and McFeters, 1991) , Salmonella species (Townsend) , Campylobacter species (Korhonen and Martikainen, and Terzieva and McFeters) , Legionella pneumophila (Cargill et al., and Paszko-Kolva et al., 1991) , and H elicobacter pylori (West et al.) was examined in surface water, groundwater, seawater, and under varying saline conditions.

Surveys of the incidence of Vibrio vulnificans indicated that this organism shows seasonal variance in numbers and in habitat (O'Neill et al.. Tamplin and Capers; and Vanoy et al. ) , increasing in numbers only when the temperature of the water is greater than 20°-23°C. During the cold weather months, V. vulnificus was detected only in sediments, whereas at higher water temperatures, such as found during the summer months, the organism was detected in oysters, sediment, and seawater (Vanoy et at.) .

A survey of pools in the Australian wet-dry tropics revealed that the levels of Salmonella. coliforms, and enterococci varied through the year, being lowest during the dry season (Townsend) . The concentration of salmonellas varied by as much as two log cycles,and the concentration of coliforms and enterococci varied by as much as three log cycles. The high reported levels of Salmonella were attributed to the high carrier rate in reptiles and marsupials and the high water temperatures.

The Norwalk agent and hepatitis A were implicated in several outbreaks of waterborne illness in North America during 1989-1991 (Health and Welfare Canada, and Herwaldt et al., 1991) . The occurrence of viruses in water are summarized in Table 2 .

Surveys of river water and recreational water showed that virus levels varied throughout the year (Hughes et al., and Tani et al.) . Poliovirus presence in river water was found to be associated with the application of the polio vaccine, however, the presence of echoviruses, reoviruses, coxsackieviruses, and adenoviruses did not vary throughout the year (Tani et al.) . In coastal and inland seawater, coxsackieviruses were most frequently isolated. The other viruses that were identified were polioviruses (Hughes et al.) , possibly derived from immunized children. The authors noted, however, that identification and isolation of viruses in their study were limited by the cell culture used and the number of plaque forming units seeded.

The infectivity of viruses from lawns irrigated with wastewater was examined using an animal model (Deming et al.) . Fewer piglets exposed for 2 hours to lawns irrigated with 4 X 105 50% cell-culture infectious dose (CCID so ) virus particles became positive than piglets inoculated with 100 CCID so virus particles.

References (Leung et al.; Martinez-Manzanares et al.; Moyer et al.; Stelzer et al.) (Korhonen and Martikanen, 1991; Stelzer and Jacob; Terzieva and McFeters, 1991 (Terzieva and McFeters, 1991) A survey of municipal wastewater reported that the survival of human immunodeficiency viruses in wastewater was less than that of polioviruses (Casson et at.) .

The occurrence of G. lamblia and two other protozoa, Cryptosporidium parvum and Acanthamoeba. is summarized in Table  3 . The survival of C. parvum oocysts was reported under various environmental conditions and it was found to be a robust organism in all of the water types examined (Robertson et al.v. Acanthamoeba is distributed widely in the freshwater environment. Studies have shown that the detection of L. pneumophila in water is more probable if Acanthamoeba species are present also (Sanden et at.) .

Representative literature from the past year related to the detection of waterborne pathogens are summarized in Table 4 . Several articles investigated differences in recovery of waterborne pathogen detection methods, particularly with respect to quantity and speed of analysis (Barrell; Covert et al.; Foster et al.; Schets and Havelaar, 1991; Warburton et al.; and Whipple et al.) . Viable but nonculturable organisms present a problem when detecting organisms in water (McCarty et al.; McKay; and Singh and McFeters) . Preenrichment and selective enrichment of samples, as well as the newer technologies of gene probes and immunoassays, improve the detection of injured and stressed organisms. Methods for quantifying pathogens continue to improve, resulting in improved detection of stressed and injured organisms and reducing the time committed to identification (Bifulco and Schaefer; Covert et al.; Jacob and Stelzer; Oliver et al.; and Warburton et al.) .

Developments in gene probe and immunoassay technologies are making these detection methods more accessible to routine water analysis laboratories (Atlas et al.; Kerr et al.; Sano et al.; Thorns et al.; and Yamamoto, K. et al.i. Gene probes are rapid, sensitive, and specific, however, the probes do not always detect viable cells, and in some cases the technology requires special equipment. An extensive overview of gene probe technology was published during 1992 (Atlas et al.) . Immunoassays can detect toxins produced by organisms or the organisms themselves, however, viability determination of the detected cells is not reliable. (Brown et al.) A new technology that shows promise is the combined use of conductance and immunology (Parmar et al.v . Beads coated with the antigen for a specific pathogen are exposed to the organism. After a short incubation, the beads are separated, washed, and resuspended in broth. The change in conductance of the broth is measured, and the resulting curve is specific for the organism. Salmonella typhimurium can be detected from a preenrichment broth within 14 hours using this method (Parmar et al.) . The sensitivity of the immunobead assay is yet to be determined, specialized equipment is necessary, and competition Table 4 -0etection of waterborne pathogens.

between the Salmonella species studied and some species of Citrobacter was reported. Characteristic substances produced by Mycobacterium species have been detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Alugupalli et al.) . Although this method is extremely sensitive and considerably faster than current recovery methods, the cost of the detection equipment is beyond the capabilities of most laboratories. Entis and Boleszczuk, 1991; Foster et al.; Kerr et al.; Martinez-Manzanares et al.; Parmar et al.; Todd et al., 1991; Townsend; Tsen et al., 1991) Shigella f1exneri X (Bej et al., 1991) Staphylococcus sp. X X X (Jaulhac et al.; Martinez-Manzanares et al.; Park et al.; Ruzickova, 1991; Shinagawa et al., 1991; Stelz and (Hastie et al.; Isaacrenton et al.; Mahbubani et al., 1991; 

Salmonella Detection in Marine Waters Using a Short Standard Method

Application of Gas-chromatography Massspectrometry for Rapid Detection of Mycobacterium xenopi in Drinking Water

Universal Preenrichment Broth for The Simultaneous Detection of Salmonella and Listeria in Foods. 1. Food Prot

A Comparison Between Tryptone Bile Agar and Membrane Lauryl Sulphate Broth for the Enumeration of Presumptive Escherichia coli in Water

Polymerase Chain Reaction-gene Probe Detection of Microorganisms by Using Filter-concentrated Samples

III (1992) Serial Subcultivation of Giardia lamblia in Keister Modified TYI-S-33 Medium Containing Ultroser-G

Recovery of Enteroviruses from Water and Sediments of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela

Detection of Campylobacter upsaliensis in Diarrheic Dogs and Cats, Using a Selective Medium with Cefoperazone

Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts: Correlation of In Vitro Excystation with Inclusion or Exclusion of Fluorogenic Vital Dyes

Detection ofSalmonellas by DNA Hybridization with a Fluorescent Alkaline Phosphatase Substrate

Effects of Culture Conditions and Biofilm Formation on the Iodine Susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila

Cyanobacteria Secondary Metabolites-the Cyanotoxins

HIV survivability in wastewater

Update: Cholera-western Hemisphere, 1992

Comparing Defined-substrate Coliform Tests for the Detection of Escherichiacoliin Water

An Animal Model to Assess the Potential for Viral Disease Transmission from Lawns Irrigated with Wastewater

Instability of Fecal Coliform Populations in Waters and Bottom Sediments at Recreational Beaches in Arizona

Rapid Detection of Salmonella in Foods Using EF-18 Agar in Conjunction with the Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filter

Rotavirus Detection by Dot Blot Hybridization Assay Using a Non-radioactive Synthetic Oligodeoxynucleotide Probe

A Combined PCR and Selective Enrichment Method for Rapid Detection of Listeria monocytogenes

Modified Colorimetric DNA Hybridization Method and Conventional Culture Method for Detection of Salmonella in Foods-Comparison of Methods

Sensitivity of Escherichia coli Cells to SeaWater Closely Depends on Their Growth Stage

A Study of the Incidence of Different Fluorescent Pseudomonas Species and Biovars in the Microflora of Fresh and Spoiled Meat and Fish, Raw Milk, Cheese, Soil and Water

Zeekoevlei-Water Chemistry and Phytoplankton Periodicity

Concentrating Giardia Cysts in Water by Tangential Row Filtration Compared with Centrifugation

Gastroenteritis Outbreak at an Industrial Camp-British Columbia

Waterborne-disease Outbreaks

Rapid Determination of Members of the Family Enterobacteriaceae in Drinking Water by an Immunological Assay Using a Monoclonal Antibody Against Enterobacterial Common Antigen

Enteroviruses in Recreational Waters of Northern Ireland

Comparison of an In Vitro Method and an In Vivo Method of Giardia Excystation

Comparison of Two Media for the Isolation of Thermophilic Campylobacters from Waste Waters of Different Quality

Synthetic DNA Probes for Detection of Genes for

Diagnostic Application of Monoclonal Antibodies to Outer Membrane Protein for Rapid Detection of Salmonella

Survival of Escherichia coliand Campylobacter jejuniin Untreated and Filtered Lake Water

Biochemical Fingerprinting of Water Coliform Bacteria, a New Method for Measuring Phenotypic Diversity and for Comparing Different Bacterial Populations

Use of an Oligonucleotide Probe to Detect Vibrioparahaemolyticus in Artificially Contaminated Oysters

Detection of the Light Organ Symbiont, Vibrio fischeri. in Hawaiian Seawater by Using Lux Gene Probes

Bacterial Pathogens and Indicators in Catfish and Pond Environments

A Rapid Method for Detection of Yersinia enterocolitica Serotype 0-3 in Pig Feces Using Monoclonal Antibodies

Row Cytometric Detection of Prochlorophytes and Cyanobacteria in the Gulf of Policastro

A Membrane Filter Procedure for Assaying Cytotoxic Activity in Heterotrophic Bacteria Isolated from Drinking Water. 1. Appl. Bacteriol

I) Detection of Giardia Cysts by Using Polymerase Chain Reaction and Distinguishing Live from Dead Cysts

Differentiation of Giardia duodenalis From Other Giardia spp. by Using Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gene Probes

Relationship Between Indicators of Fecal Pollution in Shellfish-growing Water and the Occurrence of Human Pathogenic Microorganisms in Shellfish

Detection of Virulence Factors in Culturable Escherichia coli Isolates from Water Samples by DNA Probes and Recovery of Toxin-bearing Strains in Minimal Ortho-nitrophenolbeta-D-galactopyranoside-4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide Media

Evaluating a Commercially Available De-Water Environment Research

Test for Recovery of Chlorine-treated Escherichia coli

Viable but Non-culturable forms of Potentially Pathogenic Bacteria in Water-review

Direct Detection by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) of Escherichia coli in Water and Soft Cheese and Identification of Enterotoxigenic Strains

Application of Ribotyping for Differentiating Aeromonads Isolated from Clinical and Environmental Sources

Seasonal Incidence of Vibrio vulnificus in the Great Bay Estuary of New Hampshire and Maine

Detection and Disinfection of Pathogens in Storm-generated Flows

Detection ofListeria monocytogenesUsing Polyclonal Antibody

Use of Colistin-polymyxin B-cellobiose Agar for Isolation of Vibrio vulnificus from the

Nonspecific Reactions of a Commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Kit (TECRA) for Detection of

Detection and Differentiation of Bovine Group-A Rotavirus Serotypes Using Polymerase Chain Reactiongenerated Probes to the VP7 Gene

Use of a Hydrophobic Grid-membrane Filter DNA Probe Method to Detect Listeria monocytogenes in Artifically-contaminated Foods

Survival of Escherichia coli 0157-H7 in Drinking Water Associated with a Waterborne Disease Outbreak of Hemorrhagic Colitis

Coliform Bacteria from Aquatic Sources in Fiji

Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts Under Various Environmental Pressures

A Rapid Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based Assay for the Identification of Listeria monocytogenes in Food Samples

Application of Phage Typing to the Identification of Sources of Groundwater Contamination

Detection of Bovine Adenovirus Nucleic Acid Sequences in Nasal Specimens by Biotinylated DNA Probes

Rapid Method for Detecting Thermostable Nuclease in Staphylococci

Incubation of Water Samples Containing Amoebas Improves Detection of Legionellae by the Culture Method

Immuno-PCR-Very Sensitive Antigen Detection by Means of SpecificAntibody-DNA Conjugates

Comparison of Indole Production and Beta-glucuronidase Activity for the Detection of Escherichia coliin a Membrane Filtration Method

Detection of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin-A by Sandwich Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay with Monoclonal Antibodies

Evaluation of an Enzyme Immunoassay Kit for Detecting Cryptosporidium in Faeces and Environmental Samples

Detection Methods for Waterborne Pathogens

Detection of Rotavirus in Stools of Diarrhoeic Children in Belo-Horizonte, MG

Occurrence and Frequency of Staphylococci in Bottled Mineral Water

The Occurrence of Campylobacterin a Mountain River

A Study of the Prevalence of Aeromonads in a Drinking Water Supply

Persistence of Vibriovulnificus in Tissues of Gulf Coast Oysters, Crassostrea virginica, Exposed to Seawater Disinfected with UV Light

Enteric Virus Levels in River Water

Survival and Injury of Escherichia coli. Campylobacterjejuni, and Yersinia enterocolitica in Stream Water

Development of Monoclonal Antibody ELISA for Simultaneous Detection of Bovine Coronavirus, Rotavirus Seregroup-A, and Escherichia coli K99 Antigen in Feces of Calves

Evaluation of Salmonella Antisera for an Optimum Enzyme-linked Antibody Detection ofSalmonella Using Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filters

Solid-phase Polymerase Chain Reaction-Applications for Direct Detection of Enteric Pathogens in Waters

The Relationships Between Salmonellas and Faecal Indicator Concentrations in 2 Pools in the Australian Wet Dry

Use of the Polymerase Chain Reaction for Specific Detection of Type-A, Type-D and Type-E Enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus in Foods

Salmonella Detection in Meat and Fish by Membrane Hybridization with Chromogenic/Phosphatase/Biotin DNA Probe

Ecology of Vibrio vulnificus in Galveston Bay Oysters, Suspended Particulate Matter, Sediment and Seawater-Detection by Monoclonal Antibody Immunoassay Most Probable Number Procedures

A One-minute Oxidase Test to Detect VibrioStrains Isolated from Cultures on Thiosulphate-citrate-bile Salts-sucrose (TCBS) Medium

16S rRNA-based Probes and Polymerase Measurement of Pollutants Chain Reaction Method to Detect Listeria monocytogenes Cells Added to Foods

Comparison of Methods forOptimum Detection of Stressed and Low Levels of Listeria monocytogenes. Food Microbial

Effect of Physical Environment on Survival of Helicobacter pylori

Comparison of a Commercial DNAProbe Testand 3 Cultivation Procedures forDetection ofMycobacterium paratuberculosis in Bovine Feces

Contamination of Shellfish by Stool-shed Viruses-Methods of Detection

Detection of Enterotoxin and Verocytotoxin Genes in Escherichia coli from Diarrhoeal Disease in Animals Using the Polymerase ChainReaction

Factors Stimulating Propagation of Legionellae in Cooling Tower Water

Enzyme-labeled Oligonucleotide Probes for Detection of the Genes for Thermostable Direct Hemolysin (TDH) and TDH-related Hemolysin (TRH) of Vibrio parahae

molyticus. Can. J. Microbiol., 38, 410. 

Reginald Goo MONITORING Effluent monitoring data collected under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Program were used to estimate Priority Pollutant loads to the San Francisco Estuary (Davis et al. ) Chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc from four municipal wastewater treatment facilities accounted for approximately 50% of the total loads for these elements to the Estuary. Silver concentrations were measured in coastal surface waters in the Southern California Bight (Sai'iudo-Wilhelmy and Flegal). Based on mass balance calculations, anthropogenic silver inputs from the Point Lorna discharge off San Diego, Calif., account for essentially all of the silver in coastal waters along the United States-Mexico border during summer conditions. Grimalt et al. reported a study of a sediment sampling network encompassing six coastline perpendicular transects, each situated in front ofa river mouth. Variance analysis has shown this type of sampling scheme can recognize the main coastal pollution discharge sites, but is not useful for tracing their area of influence.Aichinger et al. used electrolytic respirometry to measure the biodegradability of six phthalate esters and four polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Dissolution appeared to govern the degradation rate when these compounds were present in amounts exceeding their solubility. Alexander and Fu found microbial mineralization of styrene rapid in wastewater and certain types 300 of soil. They suggested that styrene will be rapidly destroyed by biodegradation in most aerobic environments and the rate may be slow in environments of low pH. Chaudhuri et al. studied the effect oftemperature on the incubation time in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) tests. They concluded that BOD s. 2o is equivalent to BOD 3 • 27 and should be used in tropical countries.Fendlinger et al. published an analytical method for the determination of alkyl sulfate surfactants in natural waters. Their monitoring results indicated that alkyl sulfate surfactants removal is similar to BOD removal and was at least 90% at two trickling filter wastewater treatment plants sampled. Field et al. published a method for the determination of sulfonated aliphatic and aromatic surfactants in wastewater sludge. Concentrations of secondary alkanesulfonate and linear alkylbenzene sulfonate surfactants in wastewater sludges ranged from 0.27 to 0.80 and from 3.83 to 7.51 g/kg, respectively.Comprehensive air emission tests were conducted on two multiple-hearth incinerators (Hentz et al.) . Lead and cadmium control efficiencies were significantly higher than those assumed in proposed regulations. Despite low sludge concentrations and high control efficiencies, arsenic and cadmium emissions are expected to exceed limits proposed in recent regulations. Huang et al. reported dibromopolychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and dibromopolychlorodibenzofurans characterization in municipal waste incinerator fly ash. Concentrations of these compounds ranged from low to high parts per trillion depending on the location where the samples were collected.Brodbelt proposed an interface for on-line process monitoring of gas and liquid samples using a mass spectrometer that was applied to freon, benzene, and pentachloropyridine.

Reinelt and Grimvall reported that different loading estimation methods can yield significantly different results, even if sampling during peak flows occurs. Theoretical calculations showed that sampling strategies with evenly spaced sampling intervals may systematically over or underestimate the true loading. Characteristics of the collected data, relative influence of point sources, and desired detail of loading estimates influence the choice of the estimation method. Martin et al. compared surface-grab and cross-sectionally integrated sampling methods for determining stream water quality. Surface grab samples underrepresented concentrations of suspended sediments and some sediment-associated constituents.Foreman et al. encountered analytical interference from mercuric chloride-preserved water samples. This interference occurred in the continuous liquid-liquid extracts that were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Poor recoveries of spiked samples were observed when using a closed-loop stripping method. Clement described a classroom experiment that illustrates sampling difficulties and analytical errors that can occur in trace environmental determinations. A practical guide for environmental sampling and analysis was presented by Keith.

Sperling et al. (a) published an on-line flow injection preconcentrator coupled to an electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer for the determination of chromium(VI) and total chromium. Sodium diethyldithiocarbamate was used as the