RUDY WIEBE AND THE HISTORICITY OF THE WORD By PENELOPE VAN TOORN B.A. Hons., U n i v e r s i t y o f Sydney, 1980 M.A. Hons., U n i v e r s i t y of Sydney, 1984 A THESIS. SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department o f E n g l i s h ) We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA A p r i l 1991 © P e n e l o p e van Toorn, 1991 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of g>0 g^u-l S 1-1 The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date ' 9 9 I DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT "Rudy Wiebe and t h e H i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e Word" a n a l y z e s Wiebe's s i x major n o v e l s p u b l i s h e d t o d a t e : Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many ( 1 9 6 2 ) , F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e ( 1 9 6 6 ) , The B l u e Mountains of C h i n a ( 1 9 7 0 ) , The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear 1973), The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e (1977), and My L o v e l y Enemy (1983). T r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l terms and c o n c e p t s p r o v e i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o Wiebe's work because t h e y i m p l i c i t l y r e i n s t a t e t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p o s t u l a t e s Wiebe c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h i s s t u d y t h e r e f o r e employs t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework d e v e l o p e d by M i k h a i l B a k h t i n and V. N. V o l o i i n o v . The i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s a s y n o p t i c v i e w o f t h e s i x n o v e l s , r e l a t e s Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s and p r a c t i c e s t o h i s c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s background, s u r v e y s r e l e v a n t c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of Wiebe's work, and d e f i n e s t h e c e n t r a l t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f B a k h t i n and V o l o s i n o v . C h a p t e r s 2 and 3 d i s c u s s Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many and F i r s t and V i t a l Candle r e s p e c t i v e l y , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t a l t h o u g h Wiebe shows c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n "the d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e " a t a t h e m a t i c l e v e l , h i s o v e r t r h e t o r i c a l i n t e n t i o n s p r e v e n t him from r e a l i z i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n h i s w r i t i n g . C h a p t e r s 4 and 5 examine Wiebe's use o f p o l y p h o n i c n a r r a t i v e forms i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a and The Temptations o f B i g Bear. A n a l y s i s of t h e i n t e r - and i n t r a - t e x t u a l p o l i t i c s o f t h e s e two n o v e l s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o v e r t l y d i a l o g i c n a r r a t i v e forms may r e m a i n f u n c t i o n a l l y m o n o l o g i c . C h a p t e r 6 c o n s i d e r s The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e and Wiebe's s t r a t e g y o f embedding v o i c e s w i t h i n o t h e r v o i c e s , a p r a c t i c e w h i c h compounds t h e " i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n " o f t h e p r o s e . C h a p t e r 7 d i s c u s s e s My L o v e l y Enemy as a c h a l l e n g e t o v a r i o u s forms o f a n t i - i m a g i n a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , and t o p r e v a i l i n g n o t i o n s o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y . C h a p t e r 8 f o c u s s e s on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e provenance o f " v o i c e " and c o n c l u d e s t h a t a l t h o u g h Wiebe's n o v e l s e x p l o i t t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e W o r d — i n d e e d , o f a l l w o r d s — t h e y a l s o bear t h e l e g a c y o f a m o n o l o g i c C h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t model o f language. An A p p e n d i x e n t i t l e d "The E a r l y H i s t o r y and D o c t r i n e s o f t h e Mennonite Church" d e s c r i b e s Wiebe's d i a l o g u e w i t h Menno Simons' d o c t r i n e s o f t h e Word. TABLE OF CONTENTS A b s t r a c t L i s t o f T a b l e s L i s t of A b b r e v i a t i o n s Chapter 1: I n t r o d u c t i o n Notes t o Chapter 1 Chapter 2: Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many Notes t o Chapter 2 Chapter 3: F i r s t and V i t a l Candle Notes t o Chapter 3 Chapter 4: The B l u e Mountains of C h i n a Notes t o Chapter 4 Chapter 5: The Temptations o f B i g Bear Notes t o Chapter 5 Chapter 6: The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e Notes t o Chapter 6 Chapter 7: My L o v e l y Enemy Notes t o Chapter 7 C h a p t e r 8 : C o n c l u s i o n Notes t o Chapter 8 Appendix Notes t o Appendix B i b l i o g r a p h y : L i s t of Works C i t e d A d d i t i o n a l R e f e r e n c e s V LIST OF TABLES T a b l e I : B a k h t i n ' s C l a s s i f i c a t o r y System 2 9 - 3 0 . LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PPM Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many FVC F i r s t and V i t a l Candle BMC The B l u e Mountains of C h i n a TBB The Temptations o f B i g Bear WVCF Where I s The V o i c e Coming From? SWP The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e AC A l b e r t a : A C e l e b r a t i o n MLE My L o v e l y Enemy RWP The Rudy Wiebe Papers MBH The Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d VL A V o i c e i n t h e Land: Essays By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J . K e i t h . 1 INTRODUCTION I T h i s s t u d y examines t h e s i x major n o v e l s o f t h e Canadian Mennonite w r i t e r , Rudy Wiebe, i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from M i k h a i l B a k h t i n and V. N. V o l o s i n o v . I n each o f t h e s i x t e x t s c o n s i d e r e d — P e a c e S h a l l D e s t r o y Many (1962), F i r s t and V i t a l Candle (1966), The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a ( 1 9 7 0 ) , The Temptations o f B i g Bear ( 1 9 7 3 ) , The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e (1977) and Mv L o v e l y Enemy ( 1 9 8 3 ) — W i e b e e x p l o r e s e x p e r i e n c e s o f h i s t o r i c a l t r a n s i t i o n on a t h r e s h o l d between c u l t u r e s where i n d i v i d u a l s a r e exposed t o a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f competing v e r b a l and i d e o l o g i c a l i n f l u e n c e s . Many v o i c e s , s o c i a l d i a l e c t s and n a t i o n a l languages i n t e r s e c t i n t h e minds o f a l l Wiebe's c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s . More i m p o r t a n t , a p l u r a l i t y o f v o i c e s , d i a l e c t s and languages engage c o m b a t i v e l y w i t h one a n o t h e r i n t h e a r e n a o f t h e t e x t . V e r i s i m i l i t u d e r e q u i r e s t h a t Wiebe's t e x t s be l i n g u i s t i c a l l y mixed. However, m i m e t i c t h e o r y o f f e r s o n l y l i m i t e d i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e complex f u n c t i o n s o f , and r e l a t i o n s between, t h e languages Wiebe employs. B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v o f f e r a 2 framework o f i d e a s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s a n a l y s i s o f t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s o f Wiebe's n o v e l s and i l l u m i n a t e s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l s t r a t e g i e s and h i s r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l v a l u e s . P r i n c i p l e s f o r m u l a t e d by B a k h t i n and Volo§inov make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t a l t h o u g h Wiebe r e c o r d s h i s t o r y from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f s o c i e t i e s s u b j u g a t e d by v a r i o u s forms o f i m p e r i a l i s m , he adopts t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f an i m p e r i a l i s t i c power when i t comes t o u s i n g l a n g u a g e . Wiebe c o n s c i o u s l y p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e he d e p i c t s . He a p p r o p r i a t e s t h e a u t h o r i t y and s e m a n t i c w e a l t h d i s c o u r s e s " p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 300), and endeavours t o s u b o r d i n a t e them t o h i s own m o r a l , s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i v e s . II Wiebe's a r t i s t i c development i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by d r a m a t i c s h i f t s o f n a r r a t i v e f o c u s , and by e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s t y l e s and i n n o v a t i v e n a r r a t i v e forms. At t h e same t i m e , however, Wiebe's t h e m a t i c i n t e r e s t s , h i s c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s and h i s u n d e r l y i n g p l o t - s t r u c t u r e s a l t e r v e r y l i t t l e . When Wiebe r e f l e c t s i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many on t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f Thorn Wiens' b a s i c b e l i e f s , he might w e l l be d e s c r i b i n g h i m s e l f and h i s own o e u v r e ; Even i f t h e answer grew more c o m p l i c a t e d , . . . i t c o u l d never b a s i c a l l y change, f o r t h e b a s i c answers were known.... D e s p i t e t h e v a r y i n g p a t h s he c h o s e , he always a r r i v e d a t t h e same u l t i m a t e p o i n t . (16, 18) B a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " m o n o g l o s s i c " and " p o l y g l o s s i c " ( o r " h e t e r o g l o s s i c " ) s o c i e t i e s 1 makes i t p o s s i b l e t o v i e w t h e p l o t s o f Wiebe's n o v e l s as v a r i a n t s o f a s i n g l e paradigm. B a k h t i n d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between c l o s e d , s i n g l e - t o n g u e d s o c i e t i e s , w h i c h p e r c e i v e t h e i r own language as t h e o n l y one c a p a b l e o f r e a l i z i n g " a l l t h e r e i s t o know about t h e w o r l d " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 4 5 ) ; and open, many-tongued s o c i e t i e s w h i c h presume n e i t h e r t h a t t h e i r language i s i n t e r n a l l y u n i f i e d nor t h a t i t o f f e r s t h e o n l y v a l i d means of v e r b a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w o r l d . A l t h o u g h the. s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r c o n t e n t o f Wiebe's s t o r i e s d i f f e r s g r e a t l y a t a s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l , B a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s t h e s i n g l e , u n d e r l y i n g p a t t e r n t o w h i c h Wiebe's p l o t s i n v a r i a b l y conform. Whether w r i t i n g about Mennonites o r M e t i s , I n n u i t o r N a t i v e I n d i a n s , Wiebe i s i n t r i g u e d by t h a t c r u c i a l moment when t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a c l o s e d community d i s a p p e a r , and a m o n o g l o s s i c s o c i e t y f i n d s i t s e l f s u d d e n l y exposed t o t h e p l u r a l i t y o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e " o t h e r " v o i c e s w h i c h v i e f o r dominance i n t h e w i d e r s o c i a l w o r l d . Wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s t h e paradigm i n C h a p t e r One of Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, as t h e Canadian w a r - p l a n e s p e n e t r a t e t h e narrow h o r i z o n o f W a p i t i . In F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , t h e I n n u i t o f T y r e l Bay, and t h e Ojibw a o f F r o z e n Lake (whose s p i r i t u a l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h a t o f Abe Ross, who has f l e d from h i s a u t h o r i t a r i a n f a t h e r ) a r e a l s o v i s i t e d by t h e C a n a d i a n a i r - f o r c e , as w e l l as by o t h e r W h i t e Canadian . c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as s c h o o l s , banks, and m i s s i o n s . F o r Jakob F r i e s e n V i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , t h e Communist r e v o l u t i o n o b l i t e r a t e s a l l m o r a l and r e l i g i o u s f o r m u l a e imposed by h i s p a r e n t s , w h i l e i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear and The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , numerous m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e "White Grandmother's" v o i c e i n v a d e t h e l i v e s o f t h e N a t i v e I n d i a n s and M e t i s o f t h e C a n a d i a n West. In My L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe's s o c i a l p u r v i e w n a r r o w s , b u t t h e pattern-''remains f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n t a c t : when G i l l i a n O v e r t o n i n v a d e s t h e body-space o f t h e monogamous James Dyck, t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y d i s a p p e a r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e myth o f any " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " (MLE 133) i n l a n g u a g e . The b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e c l o s e d m o n o g l o s s i c s o c i e t y d i s a p p e a r i n Wiebe's s t o r i e s as a r e s u l t o f v a r i o u s forms o f c o l o n i z a t i o n . Because Wiebe v i e w s language as "an a c t u a l way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d " (Neuman 236), he draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e p l a y e d by language i n a l l p r o c e s s e s o f i d e o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l c o l o n i z a t i o n . Images o f s i g n s — v e r b a l and non- 5 v e r b a l — c r o w d a l l o f Wiebe's t e x t s . Language f u n c t i o n s not o n l y as a medium b u t a l s o as an o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . In each o f t h e s i x t e x t s c o n s i d e r e d , Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s i m p e r i a l i s m as a wave o f a l i e n v o i c e s and languages p e n e t r a t i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r r i t o r i e s and human minds, e r a d i c a t i n g o r a p p r o p r i a t i n g whatever d i s c o u r s e s have h i t h e r t o e n j o y e d dominance. The i n v a d i n g s o c i e t y announces i t s a r r i v a l by making " d r e a d f u l sounds w h i c h no one has e v e r heard b e f o r e " (MLE 158), and by i n s c r i b i n g c o n s p i c u o u s s i g n s o f i t s p r e s e n c e everywhere on t h e p h y s i c a l l a n d s c a p e . A t c r u c i a l , h i g h l y s y m b o l i c i m p e r i a l moments i n Wiebe's n a r r a t i v e s , a l o u d , f o r e i g n v o i c e o r sound drowns out a f a m i l i a r l o c a l sound, o r an a l i e n form o f w r i t i n g e f f a c e s a s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n a l t o a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e . The r o a r o f f i g h t e r p l a n e s b l o c k s out t h e sound o f Thorn Wiens' p l o u g h s c r a p i n g t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h ; t h e m e t a l l i c c l a n g i n g and s c r e e c h i n g o f t h e CPR drowns out t h e v o i c e s o f B i g Bear's a n c e s t o r s a t O l d Wives Lake; Canadian A i r F o r c e j e t s l a y vapour t r a i l s on t h e c l e a r s k y above F r o z e n L a k e ; and government s u r v e y o r s c a r v e i m a g i n a r y g r i d l i n e s a c r o s s M e t i s houses and gardens a t Red R i v e r . Through c o n c r e t e a u r a l and v i s u a l images such as t h e s e , Wiebe r e i f i e s an o n g o i n g , u n d e c l a r e d , " o t h e r w a r " — a b a t t l e of v o i c e a g a i n s t v o i c e , t r u t h a g a i n s t t r u t h — w h i c h o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s s t r a t e g i c a l l y g l o s s o v e r o r i g n o r e . W i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s r e l i v e an a r c h e t y p a l moment o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , o r ( t o s w i t c h t o a B i b l i c a l metaphor) e x p u l s i o n from t h e m o n o l o g i c " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y [ o f ] Eden" (MLE 133). Wiebe does not n e c e s s a r i l y d r a m a t i s e t h i s moment a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f each t e x t . 2 Nor does h e . e j e c t e v e r y c h a r a c t e r from Eden. Wiebe's j u v e n i l e c h a r a c t e r s o f t e n c o n t i n u e t o i n h a b i t t h e m o n o l o g i c p a r a d i s e t h e a d u l t s have l o s t . Wiebe's d e p i c t i o n s o f H a l Wiens, L i e s e l D r i e d i g e r , and H o r s e c h i l d , show how c h i l d r e n p l a y , q u a r r e l , e a t and s l e e p , t o t a l l y a b s o r b e d i n t h e i m m e d i a c i e s o f a d v e n t u r e and p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n , w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e — a n d hence w i t h o u t f e a r — o f t h e dangerous n a t i o n a l - a n d w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s s w i r l i n g around them. The c h i l d r e n have l i t t l e o r no knowledge of any b r o a d e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , and hence no knowledge o f a p o s s i b l e l a r g e r meaning o f t h e i n c i d e n t s t h e y w i t n e s s . Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s e n j o y no such b l i s s f u l o b l i v i o n . F o r them, h i s t o r i c a l change i n s t i g a t e s r a d i c a l p s y c h i c change. The second phase of a l l Wiebe's p l o t s d r a m a t i s e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f p e o p l e f o r c e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f many v o i c e s and languages r a t h e r t h a n one. Thorn Wiens, Abe Ross, t h e Jakob F r i e s e n s I V and V , B i g B e a r , R i e l , Dumont, and James Dyck must a l l endure phases o f c o n f u s i o n and s p i r i t u a l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , as a r e s u l t o f t h e p l u r a l i t y o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e s which p e n e t r a t e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p s y c h e s . M a r g i n a l i s e d s u d d e n l y w i t h i n a l a r g e r s o c i a l s p h e r e , t h e y s t r u g g l e t o a v o i d becoming t r a p p e d i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s " t r u e " s t o r i e s about them. D i s c o u r s e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h o u g h t t o be i n v i o l a b l e become l o s t i n a cacophony o f a l i e n d i s c o u r s e s , w h i c h d e v a l u e t h e c o l o n i z e d p e o p l e ' s most s a c r e d b e l i e f s , a x i o m a t i c v a l u e s , and time-honoured customs. T h i s phase o f cacophony and p a l i m p s e s t s i s f o l l o w e d by a t h i r d phase: t h e phase o f r e - o r i e n t a t i o n . Near t h e end o f each n o v e l , Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s a second b r e a c h i n g o f a s o c i a l boundary. T h i s t i m e , an a u t h o r i t a t i v e , d i v i n e Word o r non- v e r b a l S i g n i n v a d e s t h e p o l y g l o s s i c / h e t e r o g l o s s i c w o r l d i n h a b i t e d by a l l humanity. I n h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s , Wiebe h a n d l e s t h i s moment o f r e v e l a t i o n somewhat awkwardly: Tom Wiens d i s c o v e r s " T r u t h " (PPM 231) i n t h e image o f "the b r i g h t e s t s t a r i n t h e heavens" (PPM 239); Abe Ross h e a r s "a v o i c e " w h i c h seems t o come from nowhere (FVC 353) . In subsequent works, Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r e - o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h g r e a t e r d e x t e r i t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . The p e n u l t i m a t e c h a p t e r o f The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a ("The V i e t n a m C a l l o f Samuel U. Reimer") n a r r a t e s a h a l f - p a r o d i c , h a l f - s e r i o u s s t o r y o f a l a p s e d Mennonite who h e a r s God's c a l l i n t h e n i g h t . A t t h e end o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r , B i g Bear f e e l s t h e "warm w e i g h t " o f C h i e f ' s Son's Hand a g a i n s t h i s s o u l (TBB 415); and i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , L o u i s R i e l d i e s w h i l e r e c i t i n g t h e L o r d ' s P r a y e r (SWP 346). James Dyck's s p i r i t u a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n o c c u r s i n My L o v e l y Enemy a t a moment o f d i a l o g i c c o n t a c t between one o f Donne's h o l y sonnets and a passage from t h e New Testament (MLE 250- 5 1 ) . Whether t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e S i g n appears i n v e r b a l o r n o n - v e r b a l form, whether i t c r y s t a l l i s e s as a d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n from t h e S c r i p t u r e s , o r sounds as a f l e e t i n g B i b l i c a l echo o r a l l u s i o n , i t p e r f o r m s a p i v o t a l r o l e i n t h e l i v e s o f a l l Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s . The d i v i n e Word o r S i g n q u e l l s t h e t u m u l t o f v o i c e s and languages i n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , by o f f e r i n g an u l t i m a t e c r i t e r i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h t o gauge t h e meaning and a u t h o r i t y o f a l l u t t e r a n c e s . I n t h e minds o f Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s , t h e w o r l d ' s many human v o i c e s and languages c o h e r e i n t o a s i n g l e h i e r a r c h y , a new, e f f e c t i v e l y m o n o g l o s s i c l i n g u i s t i c o r d e r , r u l e d by t h e d i v i n e Word o r S i g n . Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s d i s c o v e r ( o r , i n some c a s e s , r e d i s c o v e r ) t h a t t h e d i v i n e Word o r S i g n , not any s i n g l e human u t t e r a n c e , c o m p r i s e s t h e s o l e , f u l l y adequate t o o l f o r " r e a l i z i n g a l l t h e r e i s t o know about t h e w o r l d " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 4 5 ) . Because Wiebe's p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s a l l l i v e t h r o u g h v a r i a n t s o f t h e same s t o r y , o t h e r members o f t h e d r a m a t i s personae a r e c o n f i n e d t o a l i m i t e d number o f r o l e s . . F o r example, t h e v i l l a i n y o f Wiebe's v i l l a i n s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y 9 c o n s i s t s i n t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n between t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and t h e d i v i n e Word o r S i g n . Wiebe's " i n t e r v e n i n g - f i g u r e s " i n c l u d e Deacon B l o c k i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many; Adam Ross i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e ; t h e m i n i s t e r of Samuel Reimer's l o c a l c h u r c h i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s of C h i n a ; G o v e r n o r M o r r i s who b l o c k s out t h e sun i n The Temptations o f B i g B e a r ; t h e p r i e s t s and R i e l h i m s e l f i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e ; Aaron Dyck and O l d H i l d e b r a n d t i n My L o v e l y Enemy. The v o i c e s o f t h e s e i n t e r v e n i n g c h a r a c t e r s may dominate t h e c l o s e d monologic community, o r t h e y may sound amongst t h e p l u r a l i t y of e q u a l l y v a l i d v o i c e s w h i c h i n v a d e t h e awareness o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . In e i t h e r c a s e , t h e y b l o c k t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d i r e c t a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e d i v i n e Word o r S i g n . Each n o v e l a l s o c o n t a i n s a m y s t i c a l , o t h e r - w o r l d l y " t e a c h e r - f i g u r e , " f o r example, Joseph Dueck, J o s h B i s h o p and S a l l y H o w e l l , John Reimer, B i g Bear, L o u i s R i e l ( a t t i m e s ) , J e s u s , and t h e m o r t i c i a n who p r e s i d e s a t Ruth Dyck's f u n e r a l . The d i v i n e Word o r S i g n o f t e n e n t e r s t h e t e x t i n t h e mouth o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s . " R e a d e r - f i g u r e s " a l s o p e r f o r m a v i t a l f u n c t i o n i n Wiebe's n o v e l s , g u i d i n g t h e r e a d e r of t h e t e x t t o w a r d s e m a n t i c g o a l s p r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a u t h o r . The r e a d e r - f i g u r e combines w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i n Thorn Wiens, Abe Ross, L o u i s R i e l , and James Dyck, w h i l e K i t t y MacLean, Wiebe's most famous r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e , remains a r e l a t i v e l y minor p l a y e r i n t h e d r a m a t i c h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s 10 d e p i c t e d i n t h e n o v e l . 3 As w e l l as o b s e r v i n g c e r t a i n s e t p a t t e r n s i n h i s p l o t t i n g and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , Wiebe's n o v e l s a l l , i n v a r i o u s ways, c o u n t e r p o s e two models of t i m e : one l i n e a r and t i e d t o h i s t o r y , t h e o t h e r c i r c u l a r o r c y c l i c . Dates and r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d , i r r e v e r s i b l e n a t u r e of events c o n s t r u c t t i m e i n t h e l i n e a r manner c o n v e n t i o n a l l y employed i n h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e . The c i r c u l a r model m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f most c l e a r l y i n Wiebe's r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e c y c l e o f t h e s e a s o n s , and t o t h e a n n u a l l y r e c u r r i n g f e s t i v a l s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c a l e n d a r . The r e g u l a r rhythm of t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t some t h i n g s n e v e r change, d e s p i t e s u p e r f i c i a l appearances t o t h e c o n t r a r y . As w e l l as p o i n t i n g t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n permanent, e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h s and v a l u e s , Wiebe's n o v e l s a l l p o s i t an e n d - p o i n t o f human h i s t o r y , a moment beyond w h i c h t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s of d i s c o v e r i n g T r u t h does not c o n t i n u e . The p r o t a g o n i s t ' s e p i p h a n i c e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e super-human Word o r S i g n works as a c l o s i n g d e v i c e i n each o f t h e s i x n a r r a t i v e s examined i n t h i s s t u d y . 4 By r e s o r t i n g r e p e a t e d l y t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c l o s i n g s t r a t e g y , Wiebe i m p a r t s an a p o c a l y p t i c q u a l i t y t o t h e f i n a l pages of h i s n o v e l s . Each e n d i n g i m p l i c i t l y p r e f i g u r e s t h e f i n a l R e v e l a t i o n p r e d i c t e d i n t h e B i b l e . 11 I I I Does t h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o n s i s t e n c y o f v i s i o n 'and method i n d i c a t e t h a t Rudy Wiebe remains c o m p l a c e n t l y ensconced i n a c l o s e d m o n o g l o s s i c C h r i s t i a n community? I s he l o c k e d , as i t were, i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f one o f h i s own p l o t s ? From s t a t e m e n t s Wiebe has made i n many i n t e r v i e w s and e s s a y s , and from t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t he w r i t e s and p u b l i s h e s n o v e l s , i t would c e r t a i n l y appear t h a t h i s i n t e n t i o n i s p r e c i s e l y not t o r e m a i n a l o o f from t h e w i d e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . Wiebe engages w i t h t h a t w i d e r w o r l d not by l e t t i n g i t " i n t o " h i s l i f e b u t by v e n t u r i n g "out" from t h e Mennonite B r e t h r e n community. Wiebe vehemently and c o n s i s t e n t l y , opposes t h a t p a r t o f t h e Mennonite c h u r c h which a t t e m p t s t o s e p a r a t e i t s e l f from s e c u l a r ' s o c i e t y o r from o t h e r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s : A r e you g o i n g t o c u t o f f any p o s s i b l e e f f e c t you c o u l d have on o t h e r p e o p l e , i n an a t t e m p t t o p r e s e r v e y o u r own i n t e g r i t y ? When you do t h a t , do worse t h i n g s s t a r t happening t o you? They p r o b a b l y d o — I t h i n k t h e y do- So I m y s e l f want t o l i v e i n t h e w o r l d t h a t i s now, because t h a t ' s where everybody e l s e i t ' s h u r t i n g i s l i v i n g . (Cameron 149). Mennonites who-attempt t o b a r r i c a d e t h e non-Mennonite w o r l d 12 o u t 5 t h r e a t e n t o b a r r i c a d e t h e v o i c e o f J e s u s i n , a p r a c t i c e c o n t r a r y t o J e s u s ' command, "Go ye i n t o a l l t h e w o r l d , and p r e a c h t h e g o s p e l t o e v e r y c r e a t u r e " (Mark 16:15), and t o Menno Simons' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Word as "a u n i v e r s a l / C a t h o l i c / e c u m e n i c a l f o r c e , not a p a r o c h i a l o r p r o v i n c i a l s p i r i t " ( L i t t e l l 1 6 ) . 6 When c o n s e r v a t i v e Mennonite groups e r e c t p h y s i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c b a r r i e r s between t h e m s e l v e s and t h e . o u t s i d e w o r l d , t h e y e n c l o s e t h e Word i n a s t a t i c , u n i t a r y c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l f i e l d . F i x e d customs and c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s c a r r y t h e B i b l e down t h r o u g h time i n a cocoon, i t s a u t h o r i t y and s e m a n t i c s t a b i l i t y s h i e l d e d b o t h from t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f h i s t o r y and from u n p r e d i c t a b l e a l i e n c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s . 7 By s e c u r i n g a s i n g l e , f i x e d c o n t e x t f o r t h e Word, t h e y a t t e m p t t o p r o t e c t i t s a u t h o r i t y from t h e a s s a u l t o f a l i e n d i s c o u r s e s , and t o l i m i t i t s p o t e n t i a l s e m a n t i c d i v e r s i t y . In an e d i t o r i a l p u b l i s h e d i n The Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d on J a n u a r y 11, 1963, e n t i t l e d "Church P r o s p e c t 1963: W r i t i n g , " Wiebe s t a t e s t h a t "the w r i t t e n word i s s t i l l t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f s p r e a d i n g t h e g o s p e l " ( 3 ) . He makes t h i s p o i n t • i n t h e c o n t e x t of a b r o a d e r argument f o r more a c t i v e p r o s e l y t i z i n g i n t h e E n g l i s h language on t h e p a r t o f t h e Mennonite B r e t h r e n Church. R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' message must compete w i t h "thousands o f v o i c e s c l a m o u r i n g f o r a t t e n t i o n " (Wiebe 1963, 3) and w i t h r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n and o t h e r . f o r m s o f modern e n t e r t a i n m e n t , Wiebe sees a p a r t i c u l a r need t o implement e v a n g e l i c a l " o u t r e a c h " (Wiebe 1963, 3) u s i n g d i s c u r s i v e forms w h i c h do not bore o r r e p e l t h e u n c o n v e r t e d . W i t h o u t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t Wiebe's a r t i s t i c m o t i v e s stem e x c l u s i v e l y from a d e s i r e t o p r o s e l y t i z e , i t remains v a l i d t o say t h a t Wiebe's n o v e l s and s h o r t s t o r i e s f u n c t i o n as v e h i c l e s c a r r y i n g J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s i n t o t h e l i v e s o f h i s r e a d e r s . U n l i k e a sermon o r r e l i g i o u s t r e a t i s e , t h e n o v e l does not p r e a c h o n l y t o t h e c o n v e r t e d o r a d d r e s s a s p e c i a l i s e d r e a d e r s h i p o f t h e o l o g i a n s . I t s u t i l i t y l i e s i n i t s c a p a c i t y t o s c a t t e r t h e Word i n t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f " o t h e r s , " t h e "average Canadians" (Wiebe 1963, 3) not a d d r e s s e d by more t r a d i t i o n a l forms o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e . Wiebe's n o v e l s t r a n s m i t t h e Word i n t o an u n f o r e s e e a b l e v a r i e t y o f d i s c u r s i v e and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , where i t s meaning and a u t h o r i t y become open t o n e g o t i a t i o n . The u s u a l b o u n d a r i e s i n s u l a t i n g t h e Word from " o t h e r " words d i s a p p e a r s . By t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e , as w e l l as through t h e s t o r i e s t h e y t e l l , Wiebe's n o v e l s l i b e r a t e t h e B i b l e from "the dungeon of a s i n g l e c o n t e x t " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 247). However, Wiebe s t i p u l a t e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t t h e n o v e l i s t ' s C h r i s t i a n w i t n e s s must be i n d i r e c t : The more c o n s c i o u s l y and d i r e c t l y t h e n o v e l i s t t r i e s i n h i s n o v e l t o p r e a c h a c e r t a i n t r u t h he h o l d s t o be 14 v a l i d , t h e l e s s i t w i l l a r i s e out of t h e s t u f f o f t h e n o v e l i t s e l f , t h e p o o r e r t h e n o v e l w i l l be, and t h e l e s s l i k e l y he i s t o c o n v i n c e anyone.... T h i s i s a fundamental p r i n c i p l e o f a l l a r t , t h a t some o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s we as human b e i n g s must u n d e r s t a n d cannot be g o t t e n a t d i r e c t l y . They can be seen and shown o n l y by t h e i n d i r e c t i o n o f a r t — b y metaphor; by symbol, i f you l i k e . That i s why f i c t i o n i s so i m p o r t a n t . (VL 42, 44) In " G i a n t F i c t i o n s and L a r g e Meanings," Sam S o l e c k i draws a t t e n t i o n t o Wiebe's i n d i r e c t p r o s e l y t i z i n g as i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n " c h a r a c t e r s and s t o r i e s . . . form and c o n t e n t " ( 7 ) : he has sought c h a r a c t e r s and s t o r i e s t o communicate, o r even t o g e t a h e a r i n g f o r h i s b a s i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n v i s i o n . . . . We can speak o f Wiebe's v i s i o n as s e a r c h i n g , n o v e l by n o v e l , f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e c u m e n i c a l mode (and t h i s i s a m a t t e r o f b o t h form and c o n t e n t ) w i t h i n w h i c h i t w i l l be g i v e n a s y m p a t h e t i c . h e a r i n g by an a u d i e n c e w i d e r t h a n t h e one a l r e a d y r e c e p t i v e t o an e x p l i c i t l y and d o g m a t i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n f i c t i o n . ( 7 ) 8 S o l e c k i ' s p o i n t can be e x t e n d e d : Wiebe s e a r c h e s a l s o f o r a language c a p a b l e o f commanding t h e a t t e n t i o n o f non- C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s , a language t h e y w i l l f i n d p a l a t a b l e , non- a l i e n and y e t a u t h o r i t a t i v e . Wiebe can and does speak d i r e c t l y t o f e l l o w members o f h i s c h u r c h . The t o n e and s t y l e o f h i s E d i t o r i a l s i n t h e Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d , o r o f a r t i c l e s he has p u b l i s h e d i n o t h e r C h r i s t i a n j o u r n a l s , d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y from h i s manner o f h a n d l i n g language i n h i s n o v e l s and s h o r t s t o r i e s . But Wiebe c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e s t h a t he cannot p r o s e l e t y z e d i r e c t l y t o t h o s e who r e a d h i s n o v e l s : The most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s he [ t h e n o v e l i s t ] would say s i m p l y d i s a p p e a r i f he a t t a c k s them head on and b l u r t s them o u t . They can be s a i d o n l y by i n d i r e c t i o n . (VL 44) B a k h t i n , l i k e Wiebe, r e c o g n i z e s t h a t i n c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e n o v e l i s t must t r a n s m i t t h e 15 a u t h o r i t a t i v e Word i n d i r e c t l y : By no means a l l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s p e r m i t t h e u l t i m a t e s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c r e a t o r [ a r t i s t i c o r d i v i n e ] t o be e x p r e s s e d w i t h o u t m e d i a t i o n i n d i r e c t , u n r e f r a c t e d , u n c o n d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . When t h e r e i s no a c c e s s t o one's own p e r s o n a l " u l t i m a t e " word, t h e n e v e r y t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g , e x p e r i e n c e must be r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h t h e medium.of someone e l s e ' s d i s c o u r s e , someone e l s e ' s s t y l e , someone e l s e ' e manner, w i t h w h i c h i t cannot i m m e d i a t e l y be merged w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n , w i t h o u t d i s t a n c e , w i t h o u t r e f r a c t i o n . . . . The d i r e c t , u n c o n d i t i o n a l , u n r e f r a c t e d word appears b a r b a r i c , raw, w i l d . C u l t u r e d d i s c o u r s e i s d i s c o u r s e r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h an a u t h o r i t a t i v e and s t a b l i z e d medium. (1984, 202-3) In Wiebe's c a s e , New C r i t i c a l a e s t h e t i c s 9 c o l l u d e w i t h t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n o f r e s p e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e , t o condemn c o e r c i v e C h r i s t i a n p r o s e l y t i z i n g i n t h e n o v e l . A c r o s s t h e c o u r s e o f h i s c a r e e r as a n o v e l i s t , Wiebe d e v i s e s new, i n d i r e c t v o i c i n g s o f , and f a v o u r a b l e c o n t e x t s f o r t h e S c r i p t u r a l Word. In h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s , and i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r of The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , Wiebe does not e n t i r e l y r e s i s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o a s s e r t "the d i r e c t , u n c o n d i t i o n a l , u n r e f r a c t e d word" ( B a k h t i n 1984, 204). A c r o s s t i m e , however, he d e v i s e s more e l a b o r a t e and more s u b t l e ways o f s p e a k i n g i n d i r e c t l y , and o f r e f r a c t i n g h i s r h e t o r i c a l message t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s o f " o t h e r s . " In The Temptations o f B i g Bear and t h e f i r s t t w e l v e c h a p t e r s o f The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , Wiebe h a r n e s s e s t h e documented u t t e r a n c e s and t h e s o c i a l d i a l e c t s o f numerous " o t h e r s , " t o c r e a t e a u t h o r i t a t i v e v e h i c l e s and f a v o u r a b l e f r a m i n g c o n t e x t s f o r t h e Word. In The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e and My L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe's i n d i r e c t i o n becomes so complex and 16 obscure that the Word' breaks into fragments whose meaning and r e l a t i v e authority depend greatly on the reader's e x i s t i n g v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p r e d i l e c t i o n s . Throughout his writing career, Wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l purpose remains the same: he never loses sight of his i n i t i a l assumption that "the written word i s s t i l l the most e f f e c t i v e means of spreading the gospel" (Wiebe 1963, 3). However, his manner of accomplishing t h i s objective s t e a d i l y evolves over time. He begins i n Peace Shall Destroy Many by addressing his readers much i n the same way as a teacher speaks to a p u p i l , but as his understanding of the socio- p o l i t i c a l dynamics of verbal communication develops, he begins to eschew the role of a u t h o r i t a t i v e possessor of the absolute truth, and to i n v i t e his readers to j o i n him i n a d i a l o g i c search for that t r u t h . 1 0 More and more, Wiebe's rhetoric i m p l i c i t l y concedes to VoloSinov's view that i t i s not a mute, wordless creature that receives such an utterance, but a human being f u l l of inner words. A l l his e x p e r i e n c e s — h i s s o - c a l l e d apperceptive background—exist encoded i n his inner speech, and only to that extent do they come into contact with speech received from outside. Word comes into contact with word. The context of t h i s inner speech i s the locale i n which another's utterance i s received, comprehended and evaluated; i t i s where the speaker's active orientation takes place. (Volosinov 118) From F i r s t and V i t a l Candle onwards, Wiebe attempts to hypothesize the non-Christian reader's inner speech, but u n t i l The Blue Mountains of China, he does not succeed i n stimulating his audience into active dialogue with his t e x t s . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t he a c h i e v e s t h i s o b j e c t i v e i n h i s m i d d l e and l a t e r n o v e l s , he e n s u r e s t h a t any a s s e n t h i s r e a d e r s may g i v e t o h i s message a r i s e s v o l u n t a r i l y . Such a s s e n t would be as much a p r o d u c t o f t h e r e a d e r - i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s e x i s t i n g i n n e r speech as o f Wiebe's t e x t , which i n v a d e s t h e p s y c h e from w i t h o u t . As Wiebe h y p o t h e s i z e s t h e r e s p o n s e s o f h i s r e a d e r - i n t e r l o c u t o r s , he must e n v i s a g e t h e Word from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w of an " o t h e r . " The p r o c e s s o f w r i t i n g t h u s a c t i v a t e s a p r o c e s s of t e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e Word a g a i n s t c e r t a i n p o w e r f u l hegemonic d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h sound i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d , and w h i c h dominate t h e p o s i t e d r e a d e r - i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s awareness. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t Wiebe i d e n t i f i e s i m a g i n a t i v e l y w i t h h i s s o c i a l l y - a l i e n i n t e r l o c u t o r s , he does not remain c o n f i n e d i n a c l o s e d , m o n o l o g i c , narrow c h u r c h s o c i e t y . I n s t e a d of l o c k i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f one of h i s own p l o t s , he o s c i l l a t e s back and f o r t h between s t a g e s two and t h r e e , r e p e a t e d l y t e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and r e n o v a t i n g t h e meaning o f t h e Word. IV The e v o l u t i o n o f Rudy Wiebe's s t y l e may be d e s c r i b e d as a s e a r c h f o r s u i t a b l e v o i c e s and languages t h r o u g h w h i c h t o 18 r e f r a c t and r e f l e c t upon t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e Word. To a n a l y s e more p r e c i s e l y t h e i n d i r e c t means by w h i c h Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e a l i z e h i s e v a n g e l i c a l a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e l a b o r a t e f u r t h e r on t h e r e l e v a n t t h e o r e t i c a l paradigms. B a k h t i n and V o l o s i n o v have each d e v i s e d a system of terms and c o n c e p t s w h i c h can u s e f u l l y be a p p l i e d t o t h e s i x t e x t s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y . I t would be cumbersome t o d e f i n e e v e r y t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m i n t h e a b s t r a c t i n advance, p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e meanings emerge most c l e a r l y w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o n c r e t e d i s c u s s i o n s of s p e c i f i c t e x t s . However, b e f o r e such d i s c u s s i o n s can be e n t e r e d i n t o w i t h any degree o f r i g o u r , t h e main c o n c e p t u a l and t e r m i n o l o g i c a l framework o f t h e l a r g e r t h e o r e t i c a l system s h o u l d be s u r v e y e d , n o t i n g t h e p o i n t s where i t c o n n e c t s w i t h Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s . B a k h t i n grounds h i s t h e o r y o f t h e n o v e l on an o r a l paradigm o f language. He m a i n t a i n s t h a t language i s r e a l i z e d i n t h e form o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n c r e t e u t t e r a n c e s ( o r a l and w r i t t e n ) . . . . Each s e p a r a t e u t t e r a n c e i s i n d i v i d u a l , o f c o u r s e , b u t each sphere i n w h i c h language i s used d e v e l o p s i t s own r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e t y p e s o f t h e s e u t t e r a n c e s . These we may c a l l speech g e n r e s . ( B a k h t i n 1986, 60) F o r B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v , words e x i s t o n l y i n t h e form o f c o n c r e t e s a y i n g s o r v o i c i n g s , i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h human b e i n g s engage i n d i a l o g u e w i t h one a n o t h e r . 1 1 B a k h t i n and V o l o s i n o v b o t h oppose S a u s s u r e ' s t h e o r y of language w h i c h t h e y c l a i m d i v o r c e s language from "the 19 h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f Becoming" (Volo§inov 105). In c o n t r a s t t o S a u s s u r e , whose s y n c h r o n i c approach t o language p r i v i l e g e s l a langue o v e r p a r o l e , 1 2 B a k h t i n ' s and V o l o S i n o v ' s t h e o r i e s o f t h e u t t e r a n c e g i v e p r e c e d e n c e t o p a r o l e f and hence t o t h e d i a c h r o n i c i t y o f language. V o l o S i n o v argues vehemently t h a t t h e v e r y essence o f language i s r e v e a l e d i n i t s • h i s t o r y ; t h e l o g i c o f language i s not a t a l l a m a t t e r o f r e p r o d u c i n g a n o r m a t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l form b u t o f c o n t i n u o u s r e n o v a t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f t h a t form v i a t h e . . . u t t e r a n c e . The r e a l i t y o f language i s , i n f a c t , i t s g e n e r a t i o n . (56) B a k h t i n and V o l o i i n o v b o t h p l a c e tremendous emphasis on t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i m p l i c i t i n t h i s o n g o i n g s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s of r e n o v a t i n g and i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g language. B a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s t a c i t l y i n v o k e s a metaphor o f t h e u t t e r a n c e as a m i c r o - c o s m i c p o l i t i c a l empire: The word does not e x i s t i n a n e u t r a l i m p e r s o n a l language ( i t i s , n o t , a f t e r a l l , out o f a d i c t i o n a r y t h a t t h e s p e a k e r g e t s h i s w o r d s ! ) , b u t r a t h e r i t e x i s t s i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s mouths, i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s c o n t e x t s , s e r v i n g o t h e r p e o p l e ' s i n t e n t i o n s : i t i s from t h e r e t h a t one must t a k e t h e word and make i t one's own.... Language i s not a n e u t r a l medium t h a t p a s s e s f r e e l y and e a s i l y i n t o t h e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s i n t e n t i o n s ; i t i s p o p u l a t e d — o v e r p o p u l a t e d — w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s . E x p r o p r i a t i n g i t , f o r c i n g i t t o submit t o one's own i n t e n t i o n s and a c c e n t s , i s a d i f f i c u l t and c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e s s . (1981, 294) T h i s " d i f f i c u l t and c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e s s " m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f most c l e a r l y i n t h e n o v e l . B a k h t i n d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e n o v e l from a l l o t h e r l i t e r a r y genres on t h e b a s i s o f i t s openness t o h i s t o r i c a l change. 1 3 M u t a b l e , c a p a c i o u s , s t y l i s t i c a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s , "the n o v e l i s t h e s o l e genre t h a t . c o n t i n u e s t o d e v e l o p , t h a t i s as y e t uncompleted" ( B a k h t i n 1981, 3 ) . B a k h t i n argues t h a t w h i l e o t h e r genres r e s i s t h i s t o r i c a l change by o s s i f y i n g i n t o f i x e d c a n o n i c a l forms, t h e n o v e l c e l e b r a t e s i t s own h i s t o r i c i t y — i t s o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g — b y p e r p e t u a l l y r e i n v e n t i n g i t s e l f . B a k h t i n c a l l s t h e n o v e l a "secondary (complex) speech genre" (1986, 6 1 ) , because i t r e n o v a t e s i t s e l f by a b s o r b i n g o r a p p r o p r i a t i n g o t h e r v a r i e t i e s o f u t t e r a n c e : D u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , t h e y [ n o v e l s ] a b s o r b and d i g e s t v a r i o u s p r i m a r y ( s i m p l e ) genres t h a t have t a k e n form i n unmediated speech communion. These p r i m a r y genres a r e a l t e r e d and assume a s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r when t h e y e n t e r i n t o complex ones. They l o s e t h e i r immediate r e l a t i o n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y and t o t h e r e a l u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s . . . . They e n t e r i n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y o n l y v i a t h e n o v e l as a whole. ( B a k h t i n 1986, 62) The n o v e l can e x t e n d i t s b o u n d a r i e s "outward" by a b s o r b i n g o t h e r speech g e n r e s , much i n t h e same way as i m p e r i a l n a t i o n s e x t e n d t h e i r sphere o f i n f l u e n c e i n t o a l i e n t e r r i t o r i e s . But t e x t u a l e m p i r e s , l i k e p o l i t i c a l ones, become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a d m i n i s t e r as t h e y grow l a r g e r and more complex. U n l e s s t h e n o v e l i s t t a k e s measures t o c o n t r o l t h e r e a d e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t y and meaning o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d g e n r e s , t h i n g s f a l l a p a r t , t h e c e n t r e cannot h o l d , and s e m a n t i c a n a r c h y i s l o o s e d upon t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c . P r i m a r y speech genres may s t r i v e t o address r e a d e r s d i r e c t l y , b y - p a s s i n g t h e m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e of t h e 21 a u t h o r . Thus, t h e n o v e l ' s e x p a n s i o n a r y , d e c e n t r i n g , outward- g r a s p i n g c o l o n i s a t i o n o f o t h e r genres c r e a t e s an e q u a l and o p p o s i t e need t o c o n s o l i d a t e power c e n t r i p e t a l l y and c o n t r o l meaning from a s i n g l e a u t h o r i a l c e n t r e . 1 4 As B a k h t i n e x p l a i n s , The language o f t h e n o v e l i s a system o f languages t h a t m u t u a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y i n t e r a n i m a t e each o t h e r . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e and a n a l y z e i t as a s i n g l e u n i t a r y l a n g u a g e . . . . But a t t h e same t i m e t h e r e does e x i s t a c e n t r e o f language (a v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l c e n t r e ) f o r t h e n o v e l . The a u t h o r (as c r e a t o r o f t h e n o v e l i s t i c whole) cannot be found i n any one o f t h e n o v e l ' s language l e v e l s : he i s t o be found a t t h e c e n t r e o f o r g a n i s a t i o n where a l l l e v e l s i n t e r s e c t . The d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s a r e t o v a r y i n g degrees d i s t a n t from t h i s a u t h o r i a l c e n t r e . (1981, 47, 48-9) Two opposed t e n d e n c i e s t h u s c o l l i d e i n t h e n o v e l : c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s (which promote s t r u c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e , s t y l i s t i c homogeneity and s e m a n t i c u n i t y ) and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s (which f o s t e r f r a g m e n t a t i o n , s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y , and s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y ) . 1 5 A l l c o n c r e t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f language p a r t i c i p a t e i n , and may a l s o r e - e n a c t , t h i s " c o n t r a d i c t i o n - r i d d e n , t e n s i o n - f i l l e d u n i t y o f two e m b a t t l e d t e n d e n c i e s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 272). In t h e n o v e l i t t a k e s t h e form of a s t r u g g l e between t h e "monologic" p r i n c i p l e ( a c t i v a t e d by a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h s u p p r e s s s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y by a s s e r t i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f one u n i t a r y language and i t s c o n c o m i t a n t u n i t a r y b e l i e f - s y s t e m 1 6 ) , and t h e " d i a l o g i c " p r i n c i p l e ( a c t i v a t e d by a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h r e l e a s e " h e t e r o g l o s s i a , " t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s and semantic p l u r a l i t y l a t e n t i n a l l c o n c r e t e u t t e r a n c e s 1 7 ) . 22 A b r i e f c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u r v e y o f Wiebe's s i x major n o v e l s r e v e a l s t h a t from Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many i n 1962 t o My L o v e l y Enemy i n 1983 t h e "two e m b a t t l e d t e n d e n c i e s " s t r u g g l e more and more v i o l e n t l y . I n i t i a l l y , t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e d o m i n a t e s , b u t never e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e s s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y o r s e m a n t i c d i v e r s i t y from t h e t e x t . E x c e p t f o r i t s f o u r P r e l u d e s , Wiebe's f i r s t n o v e l , Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, appears l a r g e l y d e v o i d o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y c e l e b r a t e d by B a k h t i n . The o r t h o d o x t y p o g r a p h i c a l format o f t h e t e x t , i t s u n r e m a r k a b l e l a y o u t i n p a r a g r a p h s o f n a r r a t i o n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h d i a l o g u e , g i v e s Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many t h e appearance of a m o n o l o g i c n a r r a t i v e i n t h e a u t h o r ' s own v o i c e . Any f i s s u r e s i n t h e language o f t h e t e x t s e r v e Wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s and .are t h u s s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l m o n o l o g i c t h r u s t o f t h e n o v e l . In h i s second n o v e l , F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , Wiebe extends h i s s o c i a l and i d e o l o g i c a l p u r v i e w beyond t h e bounds o f t h e t i g h t - k n i t Mennonite community s c r u t i n i z e d i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. The language o f F i r s t and V i t a l Candle r e f l e c t s t h i s expanded h o r i z o n : Wiebe t a k e s s e v e r a l hegemonic speech genres of t h e c o l d war e r a i n t o h i s a u t h o r i a l c u s t o d y , where he s u b j e c t s them t o r i g o r o u s m o r a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n . Wiebe c l e a r l y h i e r a r c h i z e s t h e v o i c e s and languages d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e t e x t . None escapes t h e o v e r t c o n t r o l of h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l . A t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e i n h i s 23 c a r e e r , Wiebe does not e n t i r e l y e x c l u d e speech d i v e r s i t y from h i s w r i t i n g , b u t he never a l l o w s i t s e r i o u s l y t o j e o p a r d i z e t h e r e a d e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s m o n o l o g i c r e l i g i o u s and m o r a l v i s i o n . In t h e two n o v e l s w h i c h f o l l o w , however, Wiebe s h i f t s i n t o a m u l t i - v o i c e d n a r r a t i v e mode, and t h e t e n s i o n between c e n t r i f u g a l and c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s i n t e n s i f i e s d r a m a t i c a l l y . W i t h The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , Wiebe makes a v e r y o b v i o u s b r e a k away from a n y t h i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s a u n i t a r y s t y l e . The m i x i n g o f languages i n t h e t e x t r e f l e c t s t h e t u r m o i l s e x p e r i e n c e d by c h a r a c t e r s l o c a t e d on many p o l i t i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l t h r e s h o l d s : r e v o l u t i o n , war, c a p t i v i t y , m i g r a t i o n , t h e p h y s i c a l h a r d s h i p s o f p i o n e e r l i f e , and t h e s p i r i t u a l c r i s e s o f r e l i g i o u s s e n s i b i l i t i e s i n s e c u l a r s o c i a l c o n t e x t s . S e v e r a l n a r r a t o r s o f d i f f e r e n t ages, b e l i e f s and c u l t u r a l a f f i l i a t i o n s a r t i c u l a t e t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' s p l i n t e r e d e x p e r i e n c e o f h i s t o r y r a n g i n g o v e r f o u r c o n t i n e n t s and a p p r o x i m a t e l y a hundred y e a r s o f t i m e . I n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f t h e n o v e l , however, Wiebe a b r u p t l y r e a s s e r t s h i s a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l by d e f i n i n g a s i n g l e m o r a l c r i t e r i o n f o r e v a l u a t i n g a l l speech and a c t i o n i n t h e t e x t . In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear , Wiebe c r e a t e s h i s most i n t r i c a t e mosaic o f v o i c e z o n e s . 1 8 L i n g u i s t i c d e c e n t r i n g o f t h e n a r r a t i v e r e a c h e s i t s apogee i n t h i s t e x t , where any semblance o f s t y l i s t i c u n i f o r m i t y i s t o t a l l y o b l i t e r a t e d . Wiebe s h a t t e r s u n i t i e s o f n a r r a t i v e , c h a r a c t e r , t o n e , p o i n t of v i e w a n d — m o s t i m p o r t a n t — l a n g u a g e , t o p l a c e h i s r e a d e r s i n t h e m i d s t o f a v i o l e n t s t r u g g l e between c o n t e n d i n g e n c o d i n g s o f t r u t h . The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear works as a t e x t u a l microcosm o f t h e t u m u l t u o u s , c u l t u r a l l y p l u r a l Canadian West between 1876 and 1888. Wiebe extends h i s a u t h o r i a l d o m i n a t i o n o v e r v a s t e r , more d i v e r s e and m i n u t e l y d i s c r i m i n a t e d l i n g u i s t i c domains t h a n i n any p r e c e d i n g o r subsequent work. But a g a i n , t h e f i n a l t h r u s t o f t h e n o v e l remains m o n o l o g i c because Wiebe o f f e r s a s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n f o r h i e r a r c h i z i n g t h e v o i c e s o f t h e t e x t . Wiebe c o u n t e r s e v e r y a d d i t i o n a l d i a l o g i z i n g d e v i c e he i n t r o d u c e s w i t h an e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e means o f r e p r e s s i n g d i a l o g u e . A l t h o u g h The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e and My L o v e l y Enemy mark Wiebe's r e t u r n t o m o n o l o g i c n a r r a t i v e forms, b o t h t e x t s c o n t a i n many embedded v o i c e s . They a l s o a l l o w more t h a n one c r i t e r i o n f o r g a u g i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and meaning o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s . In The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , Wiebe appears t o i n d u l g e i n a s t r i d e n t r h e t o r i c a l d e f e n c e o f L o u i s R i e l , y e t c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e manner i n w h i c h Wiebe r e f r a c t s , h i s a u t h o r i a l v o i c e t h r o u g h a l a b y r i n t h o f o t h e r v o i c e s r e v e a l s a p r o f o u n d a m b i v a l e n c e w h i c h d i s r u p t s t h e s e m a n t i c c o h e r e n c e o f t h e t e x t . Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e s t o r e s e m a n t i c o r d e r a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , b u t t h e s u c c e s s o f 25 t h i s endeavour remains open t o q u e s t i o n . Semantic coherence a l s o b r e a k s down p e r i o d i c a l l y i n My L o v e l y Enemy, as Wiebe t e m p o r a r i l y a b d i c a t e s h i s p o s i t i o n a t t h e . c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . In s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e t e x t , Wiebe r e l e a s e s h e t e r o g l o s s i a by p l a c i n g t h e onus on r e a d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g i t s meaning. Wiebe e x p l o r e s t h e n o t i o n t h a t meaning i s s u e s from t h e d i a l o g i c engagement o f t h e words on t h e page w i t h t h e v a r i o u s , e v e r - c h a n g i n g c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h r e a d e r s i n t e r p r e t t h o s e words. Meaning t h e r e f o r e r e t a i n s "a c e r t a i n openendedness, a l i v i n g c o n t a c t w i t h u n f i n i s h e d , s t i l l - e v o l v i n g contemporary r e a l i t y ( t h e openended p r e s e n t " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 7 ) . However, Wiebe c o u n t e r s t h e p o t e n t i a l h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e t e x t o f My L o v e l y Enemy f i r s t , by i n t r o d u c i n g an o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e i n t h e l a t t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e n o v e l ; second, by b r i n g i n g i n an a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e a c h e r - f i g u r e ; and t h i r d , by i n v o k i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e B i b l e t o e f f e c t s e m a n t i c c l o s u r e . By d i f f e r e n t means (and perhaps n o t e n t i r e l y d e l i b e r a t e l y ) Wiebe may p e r i o d i c a l l y r e l i n q u i s h semantic c o n t r o l t o t h e many and v a r i o u s " o t h e r s " who speak i n , and engage w i t h , h i s t e x t s . But w i t h o u t f a i l , he a l s o r e c o i l s v i o l e n t l y and a b r u p t l y a t c e r t a i n key p o i n t s i n each n o v e l from t h e l o g i c a l consequences o f s u r r e n d e r i n g a u t h o r i a l 26 c o n t r o l . In a l l o f Wiebe's n o v e l s , h i s d e s i r e f o r d e m o c r a t i c freedom and open-minded d i a l o g u e c o n f l i c t s w i t h h i s y e a r n i n g f o r t h e m o n o l o g i c c e r t a i n t i e s of a u n i t a r y m o r a l , m e t a p h y s i c a l , and l i n g u i s t i c o r d e r . T h i s c o n f l i c t between d i a l o g i c and m o n o l o g i c i m p u l s e s not o n l y i n t e n s i f i e s o v e r t i m e , b u t a l s o m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n a w i d e r and w i d e r v a r i e t y o f ways. The c o n t e s t e r u p t s on an i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e number o f p l a n e s o r b a t t l e f i e l d s i n t h e t e x t , and t h e outcome i s not n e c e s s a r i l y t h e same on each one. Wiebe's t e x t s become i n c r e a s i n g l y d e s t a b i l i s e d by t h e f l u c t u a t i n g c e n t r i f u g a l and c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s Wiebe a c t i v a t e s ; a t any g i v e n moment, one o r t h e o t h e r might, p r e v a i l . S h i f t i n g t o a c l a s s i c a l metaphor, one may say t h a t from h i s f i r s t n o v e l t o h i s s i x t h , Wiebe n a v i g a t e s an i n c r e a s i n g l y t r e a c h e r o u s c o u r s e between S c y l l a , t h e many- headed, many-voiced monster o f u n b r i d l e d d i a l o g i s m ; and C h a r y b d i s , t h e i n w a r d - p u l l i n g w h i r l p o o l o f monologue. C r i t i c s have a l r e a d y t o u c h e d on t h i s t e n s i o n between c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l t e n d e n c i e s i n Wiebe's work, b u t no one has y e t a t t e m p t e d t o use i t as a b a s i s f o r a s y s t e m a t i c , d e t a i l e d s t u d y . 1 9 Sam S o l e c k i and R o b e r t K r o e t s c h have b o t h n o t i c e d Wiebe's " c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h Word/word" ( K r o e t s c h 1 9 7 8 , 1 4 ) , but have not e x p l o r e d t h i s a s p e c t o f Wiebe's w r i t i n g o t h e r t h a n i n a b r i e f , r a t h e r c u r s o r y way. 2 0 Ina F e r r i s ' a r t i c l e , " R e l i g i o u s V i s i o n and F i c t i o n a l Form: Rudy Wiebe's The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , " makes a shrewd and r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n f l i c t between Wiebe's urge t o a r t i c u l a t e h i s " t r a n s c e n d e n t , t i m e l e s s v i s i o n " and h i s a r t i s t i c commitment t o "mundane r e a l i t y i n a l l i t s c o n c r e t e n e s s , c o n f u s i o n and c o m p l e x i t y " ( F e r r i s 8 9 ) . F e r r i s c e r t a i n l y r e g i s t e r s t h e t e n s i o n between m o n o l o g i c and d i a l o g i c v i s i o n i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a . She condemns Wiebe's heavy-handed a t t e m p t t o bestow supreme a u t h o r i t y on t h e language o f John Reimer i n C h a p t e r 13, a r g u i n g t h a t "the a u t h e n t i c v o i c e o f t h e c h a p t e r b e l o n g s t o a f u g i t i v e from a n o t h e r m o d e — t o o l d Jakob F r i e s e n " ( 9 6 ) . A l t h o u g h she does not use B a k h t i n ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , F e r r i s ' s " o t h e r mode" c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e d i a l o g i c mode. D a v i d L . J e f f r e y p l a c e s a p o s i t i v e v a l u e p r e c i s e l y on t h e f e a t u r e F e r r i s most v e h e m e n t l y condemns: Wiebe's a b r u p t s h i f t from d i a l o g i c t o m o n o l o g i c language. In "A Search f o r Peace: P r o p h e c y and P a r a b l e i n t h e F i c t i o n o f Rudy Wiebe," J e f f r e y comes t o g r i p s w i t h s e v e r a l o f t h e same q u e s t i o n s as t h i s s t u d y a d d r e s s e s , and he c e r t a i n l y makes many i l l u m i n a t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s . However, J e f f r e y does not i n v o k e B a k h t i n i a n t h e o r y beyond p o i n t i n g t o t h e fundamental d i s t i n c t i o n between m o n o l o g i c and d i a l o g i c d i s c o u r s e . H i s a r t i c l e a t t e m p t s no r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s o f t h e complex i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s o f Wiebe's t e x t s . 28 S i m i l a r l y , P i e r r e S p r i e t ' s a r t i c l e , "Rudy Wiebe's The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a : t h e Polyphony of a P e o p l e o r t h e L o n e l y V o i c e o f t h e F r i n g e ? , " u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e a m b i g u i t y and m u t a b i l i t y o f Wiebe's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v o i c e s which speak i n t h e t e x t . S p r i e t r e a d s The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a as "the s t o r y o f t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f a t r i b e " ( 5 9 ) . He emphasises t h e c e n t r i f u g a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e c e n t r i p e t a l a s p e c t s o f b o t h t h e s t o r y and t h e language o f t h e t e x t . S p r i e t i n v o k e s B a k h t i n i a n terms such as " d i a l o g i c " and "polyphony" w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h h i s o t h e r , more t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l p o s t u l a t e s . A l t h o u g h aware, f o r example, o f t h e " d i a l o g i c " i n t e r s p e r s a l o f n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t ( 6 3 ) , S p r i e t f o l l o w s D o r r i t Cohn i n p o s i t i n g a h a r d and f a s t d i v i d i n g l i n e between F r i e d a ' s f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e and t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n employed i n t h e o t h e r c h a p t e r s . S p r i e t can t h u s make t h e a s t o n i s h i n g c l a i m t h a t Wiebe "makes no comment o f any k i n d " (63) i n F r i e d a ' s s t o r y , b u t " c l e a r l y f e e l s w i t h t h e [ o t h e r ] p r o t a g o n i s t s and does not even t r y t o h i d e h i s sympathy" ( 6 0 ) . A l t h o u g h he uses some o f B a k h t i n ' s t e r m s , S p r i e t grounds h i s c a s e on m o n o l o g i c models o f d i s c o u r s e and s o c i e t y . 2 1 The p r e s e n t s t u d y endeavours t o r e f i n e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Wiebe's l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s by making e x t e n s i v e use o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system d e v e l o p e d by B a k h t i n i n Problems o f Dostoevsky's P o e t i c s . B a k h t i n d i v i d e s d i s c o u r s e i n t o t h r e e main s p e c i e s . each o f w h i c h may be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t y p e s , w h i c h i n t u r n submit t o f u r t h e r d i v i s i o n i n t o v a r i e t i e s , 2 2 Because Wiebe's t e x t s w i l l be a n a l y z e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system, i t i s r e p r o d u c e d i n s y n o p t i c form T a b l e 1. 2 3 TABLE I ; B a k h t i n ' s C l a s s i f i c a t o r y System I . D i r e c t , unmediated d i s c o u r s e d i r e c t e d e x c l u s i v e l y toward i t s r e f e r e n t i a l o b j e c t , as an e x p r e s s i o n of t h e s p e a k e r ' s u l t i m a t e s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y . I I . O b j e c t i f i e d d i s c o u r s e ( d i s c o u r s e o f a r e p r e s e n t e d person) 1. W i t h a predominance o f s o c i o - t y p i c a l " ^ V a r i o u s d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s /degrees 2. W i t h a predominance o f i n d i v i d u a l l y v o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s J o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n I I I . D i s c o u r s e w i t h an o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d someone e l s e ' s d i s c o u r s e ( d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e ) : 1. U n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e : when o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i s r e d u c e d , t h e s e t e n d toward a f u s i o n o f v o i c e d , i . e . , t o w a r d d i s c o u r s e o f t h e f i r s t t y p e . a. S t y l i z a t i o n ; b. N a r r a t o r ' s n a r r a t i o n ; c. U n o b j e c t i f i e d d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who c a r r i e s o u t ( i n p a r t ) t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s ; d. I c h - E r z a h l u n g . 2. V a r i - d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e : when o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i s r e d u c e d and t h e o t h e r ' s i d e a i s a c t i v a t e d , t h e s e become i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d and t e n d t o d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o two d i s c o u r s e s (two v o i c e s ) o f t h e f i r s t t y p e . a. P a r o d y w i t h a l l i t s nuances; b. P a r o d i s t i c I c h - E r z a h l u n g ; c. D i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who i s p a r o d i c a l l y . r e p r e s e n t e d ; d. Any t r a n s m i s s i o n o f someone e l s e ' s words w i t h a s h i f t i n a c c e n t . 30 3. The a c t i v e t y p e ( r e f l e c t e d d i s c o u r s e o f a n o t h e r ) : t h e o t h e r d i s c o u r s e e x e r t s i n f l u e n c e from w i t h o u t ; d i v e r s e forms o f i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r ' s d i s c o u r s e , as w e l l as v a r i o u s d e g r e e s o f d e f o r m i n g i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d by one d i s c o u r s e on t h e o t h e r . a. Hidden i n t e r n a l p o l e m i c ; b. P o l e m i c a l l y c o l o u r e d a u t o b i o g r a p h y and c o n f e s s i o n ; c. Any d i s c o u r s e w i t h a s i d e w a r d g l a n c e a t someone e l s e ' s word; d. A r e j o i n d e r o f a d i a l o g u e ; e. Hidden d i a l o g u e . W h i l e B a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e S p e c i e s I i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y , t h e o t h e r two s p e c i e s r e q u i r e f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n . S p e c i e s I I c o r r e s p o n d s t o what c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m c a l l s " d i a l o g u e " o r "the d i r e c t speech o f c h a r a c t e r s . " From t i m e t o t i m e , B a k h t i n a l s o r e f e r s t o S p e c i e s I I as " c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , " t o i n d i c a t e t h a t p u n c t u a t i o n and o t h e r t y p o g r a p h i c a l markers d e l i n e a t e t h e words o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s from t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r o r t h e n a r r a t o r . B a k h t i n v i e w s t h e d i r e c t speech o f c h a r a c t e r s as o b j e c t i f i e d "bounded o b j e c t s " w h i c h e x i s t i n s i d e t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f a u t h o r ' s u t t e r a n c e , i n a s t a t e o f s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e a u t h o r ' s " h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 1 8 7 ) . 2 A C o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n a l l Wiebe's n o v e l s , and d e s e r v e s t o be a n a l y s e d i n some d e t a i l . I n h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s , such d i a l o g u e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t , b e i n g h i s p r i n c i p a l means o f o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e language o f o t h e r s . 31 From The Blue Mountains of China onwards, Wiebe explores more and more rigorously the a r t i s t i c and r h e t o r i c a l p o t e n t i a l of the types and v a r i e t i e s of double- voiced discourse belonging to Species I I I . To understand the appropriative strategies Wiebe employs i n his middle and l a t e r phases, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to grasp the concept of "hybridity" or " i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y , " which Bakhtin describes a b s t r a c t l y as follows: 2 5 What we are c a l l i n g a hybrid construction i s an utterance that belongs, by i t s grammatical (syntactic) and compositional markers, to a single speaker/ but that a c t u a l l y contains mixed within i t two utterances, two speech genres, two s t y l e s , two "languages," two semantic and a x i o l o g i c a l b e l i e f systems.... There i s no formal—compositional and syntactic—boundary between these utterances, s t y l e s , languages, b e l i e f systems; the d i v i s i o n of voices and languages takes place within the l i m i t s of a single syntactic whole, often within the l i m i t s of a simple sentence. It frequently happens that the same word w i l l belong simultaneously to two languages, two b e l i e f systems that i n t e r s e c t i n a hybrid construction—and, consequently, the word has two contradictory meanings, two accents. (1981, 304-5) Bakhtin d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l " and " v a r i - d i r e c t i o n a l " double-voiced discourses (Types 1 and 2 within Species III) on the basis of what he c a l l s the "dialogic angle" (Bakhtin 1984, 182). The d i a l o g i c angle defines the degree to which the author's intentions d i f f e r from those of the other who speaks i n the utterance i n question. In Type 1 ( s t y l i z a t i o n ) , there i s an intention on the part of the author to make use of someone else's discourse i n the d i r e c t i o n of i t s own p a r t i c u l a r a s p i r a t i o n s . S t y l i z a t i o n s t y l i z e s another's s t y l e i n the d i r e c t i o n of that s t y l e ' s own p a r t i c u l a r tasks. It merely renders those tasks conventional. (Bakhtin 1984, 193) 32 In Type 2 ( p a r o d y ) , t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e widens, as i t were: The a u t h o r a g a i n speaks i n someone e l s e ' s d i s c o u r s e , b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o s t y l i z a t i o n , p a r o d y i n t r o d u c e s i n t o t h a t d i s c o u r s e a s e m a n t i c i n t e n t i o n t h a t i s d i r e c t l y opposed t o t h e o r i g i n a l one. The second v o i c e , once h a v i n g made i t s home i n t h e o t h e r ' s d i s c o u r s e , c l a s h e s h o s t i l e l y w i t h i t s p r i m o r d i a l h o s t and f o r c e s him t o s e r v e d i r e c t l y o p p o s i n g aims. D i s c o u r s e becomes an a r e n a o f b a t t l e between two v o i c e s . ( B a k h t i n 1984, 193) B a k h t i n ' s c o n c e p t s o f s t y l i z a t i o n , p a r o d y and t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e prove i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o a n a l y s i s o f Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , and My L o v e l y Enemy. In a l l p a r o d y and s t y l i z a t i o n , t h e a u t h o r " r e f r a c t s " h i s o r her i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e words o f an o t h e r . B a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f " r e f r a c t i o n " c l a r i f i e s t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e " d i a l o g i c a n g l e , " w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l i s m i m p l i c i t i n a l l s t y l i z a t i o n and parody: The a u t h o r does not speak i n a g i v e n language ( f r o m which he d i s t a n c e s h i m s e l f t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r - d e g r e e ) , b u t he s p e a k s , as i t were, t h r o u g h language, a language t h a t has somehow more o r l e s s m a t e r i a l i z e d , become o b j e c t i v i z e d , t h a t he m e r e l y v e n t r i l o q u a t e s . The p r o s e w r i t e r as a n o v e l i s t does not s t r i p away t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s from t h e ' h e t e r o g l o t language o f h i s works... r a t h e r he welcomes them i n t o h i s work. The p r o s e w r i t e r makes use o f words t h a t a r e a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s and compels them t o s e r v e h i s own new i n t e n t i o n s , t o s e r v e a second m a s t e r . T h e r e f o r e t h e i n t e n t i o n s of t h e p r o s e w r i t e r a r e r e f r a c t e d , and r e f r a c t e d a t d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . d e p e n d i n g on t h e degree t o w h i c h t h e r e f r a c t e d , h e t e r o g l o t l a n g u a g e s he d e a l s w i t h a r e s o c i o - i d e o l o g i c a l l y a l i e n . . . . (1981, 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 ) 2 6 V o l o s i n o v ' s t h e o r y o f t h e u t t e r a n c e as "an a r e n a o f t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e " (23 ) 2 7 i m p l i e s t h a t e l e m e n t s o f s t y l i z a t i o n and parody c h a r a c t e r i s e a l l language use. In Marxism and t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f Language. V o l o s i n o v d e s c r i b e s t h e u t t e r a n c e as a space o r f i e l d where r i v a l a c c e n t u a l systems c l a s h , as s p e a k e r s a p p r o p r i a t e words " a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 300). I f one s o c i a l group s e i z e s a monopoly o v e r language, so t h a t one s e t o f s t a n d a r d s o r norms e n t i r e l y p r e v a i l s , t h e v e r b a l s i g n system o s s i f i e s . I t becomes " u n i a c c e n t u a l " ( V o l o s i n o v 2 3 ) , and " i n e v i t a b l y l o s e s f o r c e " ( V o l o s i n o v 2 3 ) . But as l o n g as s o c i a l s t r u g g l e c o n t i n u e s w i t h i n t h e a r e n a of t h e v e r b a l s i g n , language " m a i n t a i n s i t s v i t a l i t y and dynamism and t h e c a p a c i t y f o r f u r t h e r development" ( V o l o s i n o v 2 3 ) . I n t h e p r o c e s s o f r e - w r i t i n g h i s t o r y and r e c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g p a s s a g e s from t h e S c r i p t u r e s i n h i s n o v e l s , Wiebe c o n s t r u c t s v e r b a l and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n s as s i t e s where r i v a l s o c i a l f a c t i o n s c o n t e n d t o a s s e r t r i v a l meanings. He redeems from s e m a n t i c d e a t h t h e c l i c h e d word o r p h r a s e , t h e s t o c k d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n , t h e t o o - f a m i l i a r h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t . By p u l l i n g t h e s e e x h a u s t e d , o s s i f i e d s i g n i f i e r s back i n t o t h e a r e n a o f p u b l i c d e b a t e , Wiebe r e s u s c i t a t e s them and r e s t o r e s t h e i r power t o t r o u b l e t h e mind. Wiebe t h u s e x p l o i t s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f w o r d s — b u t o n l y up t o a p o i n t ! A t a c e r t a i n moment n e a r t h e end o f each n o v e l , he makes an a b r u p t t u r n - a r o u n d , a t t e m p t s t o q u e l l s o c i a l s t r u g g l e w i t h i n t h e a r e n a o f t h e u t t e r a n c e , and 34 endeavours t o s u b j u g a t e a l l v e r b a l s i g n s t o t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e S c r i p t u r a l Word. Wiebe's a t t e m p t s t o r e a s s e r t a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l do not always succeed, e i t h e r r h e t o r i c a l l y o r a e s t h e t i c a l l y . A u t h o r s might s u c c e e d i n . r e f r a c t i n g t h e i r a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s and languages o f o t h e r s , b u t as M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e a r e o t h e r r e f r a c t i n g media as w e l l , i n c l u d i n g t h a t mass o f a l i e n w o r d s ' p r e s e n t not i n t h e o b j e c t b u t i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e l i s t e n e r . (1981, 432) The meaning o f a t e x t can n e v e r remain e n t i r e l y i n t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n t r o l , as Wiebe found out when t h e Mennonite community e r u p t e d i n t o a f u r o r e a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. 2 8 None o f Wiebe's n o v e l s l a c k s d e v i c e s f o r l i m i t i n g h e t e r o g l o s s i a : such d e v i c e s a r e arrows i n t h e q u i v e r o f a l l r h e t o r i c i a n s . O n l y i n My L o v e l y Enemy does Wiebe's r h e t o r i c s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y b e g i n t o d e l e g a t e a u t h o r - i t y t o r e a d e r s , and encourage them t o a c t as co- c r e a t o r s o f t h e meanings " i n " t h e t e x t . Even s o , My L o v e l y Enemy i s a r g u a b l y marred by t h e measures Wiebe t a k e s t o r e p r e s s h e t e r o g l o s s i a a t t h e end. Wiebe cannot y e t f u l l y a l l o w t h e p r i m a c y o f c o n t e x t o v e r t e x t [which e n s u r e s t h a t ] a t any g i v e n t i m e , i n any g i v e n p l a c e , t h e r e w i l l be a s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s — s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l , m e t e o r o l o g i c a l , p h y s i o l o g i c a l — t h a t w i l l ensure t h a t a word u t t e r e d i n t h a t p l a c e and i n t h a t t i m e w i l l have a meaning d i f f e r e n t t h a n i t w o u l d have under any o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s ; a l l u t t e r a n c e s a r e h e t e r o g l o t i n t h a t t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f a m a t r i x o f f o r c e s p r a c t i c a l l y 35 i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o u p , and t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s i b l e t o r e s o l v e . ( H o l q u i s t 1981, 428) D e s p i t e Wiebe's i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , h i s r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s f o r c e him t o r e p r e s s t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f h i s own t e x t s . Nor has Wiebe y e t w r i t t e n a " p o l y p h o n i c " n o v e l . B a k h t i n d e f i n e s "polyphony" as "a p l u r a l i t y o f f u l l y v a l i d v o i c e s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 3 4 ) . He uses t h e t e r m t o d e s c r i b e t h e a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e o f g i v i n g v o i c e t o "a p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y - v a l i d c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s , each w i t h i t s own w o r l d " (1984, 7 ) . B a k h t i n h a i l s D o s t o e v s k y as "the c r e a t o r o f t h e p o l y p h o n i c n o v e l " (19 84, 7 ) , a d i s t i n c t v a r i e t y o f s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e w h i c h n e i t h e r h i e r a c h i z e s t h e h e t e r o g l o t v o i c e s i t c o n t a i n s , nor s u b o r d i n a t e s any o f t h e s e v o i c e s t o t h a t o f t h e a u t h o r : A c h a r a c t e r ' s word about h i m s e l f and h i s w o r l d i s j u s t as f u l l y w e i g h t e d as t h e a u t h o r ' s word u s u a l l y i s ; i t i s not s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s o b j e c t i f i e d image as m e r e l y one o f h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , nor does i t s e r v e as a m o u t h p i e c e f o r t h e a u t h o r ' s v o i c e . I t p o s s e s s e s e x t r a o r d i n a r y independence i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e work; i t sounds, as i t were, a l o n g s i d e t h e a u t h o r ' s word and i n a s p e c i a l way combines b o t h w i t h i t and w i t h t h e f u l l and e q u a l l y v a l i d v o i c e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . ( B a k h t i n 1984, 7) A l t h o u g h Wiebe uses p o l y p h o n i c n a r r a t i v e forms i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a and The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear , n e i t h e r n o v e l f u n c t i o n s p o l y p h o n i c a l l y . I t must be emphasised t h a t Wiebe and B a k h t i n a t t a c h 36 e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s t o p o l y p h o n y . F o r B a k h t i n , t h e p o l y p h o n i c n o v e l i s a m i c r o - c o s m i c democracy, a t e x t u a l model o f a p o l i t i c a l u t o p i a . Polyphony b r i n g s l i b e r a t i o n from t h e o p p r e s s i o n o f c l o s e d , n a i v e m o n o l o g i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n Wiebe's n o v e l s , however, p o l y p h o n y c a r r i e s n e g a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s . I t evokes a n a r c h y , chaos, i n s a n i t y , n i h i l i s m , a t e r r i f y i n g d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f meaning. F o r Wiebe, polyphony g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e " v o i d o f s p l i n t e r e d dogmas" (PPM 235). In a d d i t i o n , a l t h o u g h B a k h t i n a p p l i e s t h e term "polyphony" o n l y t o d i s c o u r s e , i t p r o v e s u s e f u l a l s o f o r d e s c r i b i n g o t h e r f i e l d s i n w h i c h "a p l u r a l i t y o f f u l l y v a l i d v o i c e s " can be h e a r d . P o l y p h o n y may m a n i f e s t i t s e l f not o n l y i n t h e space o f a t e x t , b u t a l s o i n t h e psyche o f a c h a r a c t e r ( p o l y p h o n i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) , o r i n a g e o g r a p h i c a l space o c c u p i e d by a c u l t u r a l l y and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y heterogeneous s o c i e t y . Wiebe's d i s t i n c t i v e v i s i o n and method w a r r a n t e x t e n d i n g B a k h t i n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f "polyphony," and r e v e r s i n g t h e p o s i t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s he a t t a c h e s t o t h e word. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e not t o i m p a r t new s e m a n t i c nuances and v a l u e s t o words i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i n s e r t i n g them i n t o new c o n t e x t s . However, i n a s t u d y o f t h i s k i n d , w h i c h must conform t o p r e d e t e r m i n e d s t a n d a r d s o f c l a r i t y and c o n c e p t u a l p r e c i s i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h o l d d i a l o g i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n check by d e f i n i n g and s t a b i l i z i n g t e r m i n o l o g y . By n o t i n g a l l d e p a r t u r e s f r o m B a k h t i n i a n usage, t h i s s t u d y seeks not t o exempt i t s e l f f r o m , but r a t h e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y i n t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f r e n o v a t i n g and i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g words " a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 300). 38 NOTES TO CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. In The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , B a k h t i n i n d i c a t e s t h a t " p o l y g l o s s i a " denotes more t h a n one n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e , w h i l e " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " r e f e r s t o t h e " i n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f any n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e " ( 6 1 ) . B a k h t i n a p p l i e s t h e s e terms b o t h t o t h e a c t u a l s t a t e of language ( i t s homogeneity o r d i v e r s i t y ) t h a t p e r t a i n s i n a s o c i e t y , and t o t h e myths t h a t s o c i e t y h o l d s about i t s language. 2. In F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , f o r example, Wiebe p o s t p o n e s h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s moment u n t i l C h a p t e r 16. 3. T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s i n t o f o u r main groups d i f f e r s from, b u t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h , George H i l d e b r a n d ' s g r o u p i n g s i n "Rudy Wiebe: t h e A n a b a p t i s t V i s i o n and t h e U s a b l e P a s t " (1977). H i l d e b r a n d d i v i d e s Wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s i n t o t h o s e who l i v e " i n a s t a t e o f n a t u r e , " t h o s e who l i v e " i n a s t a t e o f s i n , " t h e " s e a r c h i n g p i l g r i m [ s ] , " and "the redeemed" ( 3 4 - 5 ) . These f o u r groups c o r r e s p o n d r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y as "the n a i v e , m o n o l o g i c u n f a l l e n ( c h i l d r e n ) , " "the i n t e r v e n i n g c h a r a c t e r s , " "the t e a c h e r - f i g u r e s , " and "the r e a d e r - f i g u r e s . " 4.In F a r As t h e Eye Can See (Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1977) 123-5, Wiebe p a r o d i e s t h e use o f t h e deus ex machina d e v i c e , b u t a t t h e same t i m e q u e s t i o n s i t s a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t t o t a l n a r r a t i v e c l o s u r e . P r e m i e r P e t e r Lougheed, "the p e r f e c t deus ex machina" "(123), descends o n t o t h e s t a g e i n an immense c o a l scoop, t o t h e sound o f c r e a k i n g machinery. H i s speech seems a t f i r s t t o p u t an end t o t h e s t r u g g l e between t h e f a r m e r s s e e k i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r l a n d and C a l g a r y Power who want t o s t r i p - m i n e i t f o r c o a l : " T h i s p r o j e c t w o u l d d i s t u r b t o o much p r i m e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . T h e r e f o r e , a t t h i s t i m e my government w i l l not g i v e a p p r o v a l t o Dodds-Round H i l l development" ( 1 2 4 ) . The f a r m e r s t h i n k t h e y have won. Wiebe appears t o have c l o s e d t h e s t o r y . However, John Siemens r e - opens t h e n a r r a t i v e by r e a c c e n t i n g Lougheed's s p e e c h , and d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l o o p h o l e i t c o n t a i n s : "Can't you see? He's g i v e n you t h r e e y e a r s , a t most" ( 1 2 5 ) . Lougheed's s t r e s s on "not" d e f l e c t s a t t e n t i o n from h i s q u a l i f i e r "at t h i s t i m e " ( 1 2 4 ) . The s t r u g g l e has not by any means ended. 5. As Wiebe p o i n t s out i n h i s P r e f a c e t o Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, t h e e a r l y Mennonites were " r e s t r a i n e d from open p r o s e l y t i s i n g " ( 8 ) . E . K . F r a n c i s d e s c r i b e s how a t r a d i t i o n o f w i t h d r a w a l grew out o f — b u t o u t l a s t e d — t h e l e g a l and p h y s i c a l r e s t r a i n t s t o w h i c h Wiebe r e f e r s ; see I n S e a r c h o f U t o p i a : t h e Mennonites i n M a n i t o b a ( A l t o n a , M a n i t o b a : D. W. 39 F r i e s e n , 1955). 6. The term " C a t h o l i c " i n t h i s i n s t a n c e does n o t r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church, b u t d e n o t e s broadness, u n i v e r s a l i t y . 7. In " U n e a r t h i n g Language," Wiebe remarks on t h e i s o l a t i o n of t h e Paraguayan Mennonite s e t t l e m e n t s , and t h e i r a t t e m p t t o l i v e i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f t h e o l d R u s s i a n M e n n o n i t e v i l l a g e s s t i l l : t h e y ' r e e x a c t l y t h e same and t h e v i l l a g e s a r e named t h e s a m e . . . — t h e y t r y t o r e c r e a t e as much as t h e y can i n t h e South A m e r i c a n d e s e r t t h e l i f e o f R u s s i a and i t s s o c i a l p a t t e r n s . I suppose coming t o them was f o r me r e a l l y l i k e b e i n g a b l e t o go back t o t h e R u s s i a t h a t my p a r e n t s had l o s t f o r e v e r , and j u s t t a l k w i t h t h e p e o p l e t h e way t h e y t a l k e d t h e n . (Neuman 228-9). 8. See a l s o George H i l d e b r a n d : Wiebe "seeks c u l t u r a l l y more r e c o g n i z a b l e means by w h i c h t o speak t o an a u d i e n c e beyond t h e h e r m e t i c w o r l d o f e v a n g e l i c a l P r o t e s t a n t i s m " (1977, 1 ) . 9. In "The A r t i s t as a C r i t i c and a W i t n e s s , " Wiebe adheres t o t h e New C r i t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a work o f a r t s h o u l d not mean but be, and t h a t because form and c o n t e n t a r e i n s e p a r a b l e , a l i t e r a r y work cannot be p a r a p h r a s e d : "A work o f a r t i s . : i t i s s i m p l y t o o complex t o p a r a p h r a s e and e x p l a i n f u l l y , s a t i s f a c t o r i l y " (VL 4 0 ) . 10. T h i s p r o g r e s s i v e s h i f t i n Wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y can be e x p l a i n e d i n p a r t by t h e e v o l u t i o n of h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how humankind m i g h t engage w i t h t h e S c r i p t u r e s . Between 1963 and 1967, when he t a u g h t a t t h e Mennonite C o l l e g e a t Goshen, I n d i a n a , Wiebe e x p e r i e n c e d t h e Word f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n a c r e a t i v e , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y adventurous c o n t e x t — a c o n t e x t w h i c h might be d e s c r i b e d as a u t h e n t i c a l l y d i a l o g i c . R e f l e c t i n g on t h i s c r u c i a l p e r i o d some f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h S h i r l e y Neuman and R o b e r t K r o e t s c h , Wiebe's language evokes t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f t h i s f i r s t g l i m p s e o f t h e d i a l o g i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e Word; [When I p u b l i s h e d my f i r s t n o v e l ] my p a t t e r n o f t h i n k i n g was s t i l l p r e t t y . . . f u n d a m e n t a l i s t o r C h r i s t i a n i n t h e sense t h a t my major s t o r i e s came f r o m a c e r t a i n k i n d o f f a i r l y narrow u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what t h e B i b l e was t a l k i n g about, w h i c h i s how I grew up. In.some ways, I've s i m p l y never f o u n d a b e t t e r way o f t h i n k i n g 40 about the world. I think part of what you see i n The Blue Mountains of China, Shirley, i s a wider way of understanding the world-views the Bible presents to us. That i s d u e — I wouldn't want to underestimate i t — t o the time I was i n the United States teaching at a small Mennonite college. There, for the f i r s t time and over an extended period, I encountered men and women of r e a l perception who had thought through a l o t of these things, r e a l l y l i t e r a t e Christians who saw themselves as Jesus' followers and at the same time were acquainted with the thoughts of others and had brought that kind of understanding to bear on what i t means to be a C h r i s t i a n . The best thing that ever happened to me was the meetings we had every two or three weeks i n one home or another—seven or eight of us, a p s y c h i a t r i s t , a couple of theologians, a couple of l i t e r a r y people. (Neuman 242-3) 11. The term "dialogue" embraces a f a r greater range of interlocutory s i t u a t i o n s than two people speaking to one another face to face. For Bakhtin, the term "dialogue" includes a l l forms of verbal i n t e r a c t i o n , aided or unaided by technology. 12. Synchronic studies concern themselves with the l i n g u i s t i c system as i t s stands at a p a r t i c u l a r point i n time; diachronic studies examine the evolution of language across time. "La langue i s the system of a language, the language as a system of forms, whereas parole i s actual speech, the speech acts which are made possible by the language" (Culler 29). C u l l e r argues that Saussure never "deceived himself i n t o thinking that language exists as a series of t o t a l l y homogenous synchronic states" (37), but rather recognized f u l l y that "because i t i s a r b i t r a r y the sign i s t o t a l l y subject to history, and the combination at a p a r t i c u l a r moment of a given s i g n i f i e r and s i g n i f i e d i s a contingent r e s u l t of the h i s t o r i c a l process" (36). In reaction to t h i s recognition, Saussure adopted the synchronic model as "a methodological f i c t i o n " (Culler 37). 13. See "Epic and the Novel," The D i a l o g i c Imagination, 3- 40. 14. The "polyphonic novel" i s an exception to t h i s rule, being a form of secondary utterance whose i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s are democratic. See Bakhtin 1984, 5-46, f o r d e f i n i t i o n s and analysis of the polyphonic novel. Wiebe's p a r t i c u l a r manner of dramatizing and evaluating polyphony i s discussed l a t e r i n the present chapter, and i n Chapter 3. 41 15. F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , see M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , x v i i i , and H o l q u i s t ' s G l o s s a r y i n t h e same work, 425. 16. See The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , pp. 385-6, 425 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e t e r m " b e l i e f system." 17. I n C a r y l Emerson and M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t ' s E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , t h e term " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " t a k e s on d i f f e r e n t meanings i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s ( t h u s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e ) . I t a p p e a r s t w i c e i n t h e G l o s s a r y and many t i m e s i n t h e body o f B a k h t i n ' s t e x t . Emerson and H o l q u i s t t r a n s l a t e " r a z n o r e C i e , " " r a z n o r e C i v o s t , " and " r a z n o j a z y f i i e " as " h e t e r o g l o s s i a . " " R a z n o r e C i e " appears i n t h e G l o s s a r y under t h e h e a d i n g " H e t e r o g l o s s i a " and r e f e r s t o t h e p o t e n t i a l l y i n f i n i t e s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y o f any a g i v e n s e t o f words, w h i c h e x i s t s as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n f i n i t e a r r a y o f c o n t e x t s i n t o w h i c h i t m i g h t be i n c o r p o r a t e d : ( " H e t e r o g l o s s i a : The base c o n d i t i o n g o v e r n i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f meaning i n any u t t e r a n c e . . . . A l l u t t e r a n c e s a r e h e t e r o g l o t i n t h a t t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f m a t r i x o f f o r c e s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e s o l v e " [ 4 2 8 ] ) . " R a z n o r e C i v o s t " a l s o appears under t h e h e a d i n g " H e t e r o g l o s s i a " i n t h e G l o s s a r y , but i s d e f i n e d e l s e w h e r e by B a k h t i n as a "mix o f v a r i e d and o p p o s i n g v o i c e s " ( 4 9 ) . " R a z n o j a z y g i e " appears i n t h e G l o s s a r y under t h e h e a d i n g "language [ i a z y k ] " and denotes "many l a n g u a g e s , " o r , i n Lotman's terms, many "communication s y s t e m [ s ] e m p l o y i n g s i g n s t h a t a r e o r d e r e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r manner" ( H o l q u i s t 4 3 0 ) . " H e t e r o g l o s s i a " may t h e r e f o r e v a l i d l y be used t o d e n o t e many v o i c e s , many l a n g u a g e s , o r many meanings ( v o i c i n g s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ) o f a g i v e n u t t e r a n c e . B a k h t i n ' s c l e a r e s t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e d i f f e r e n t senses o f t h e word " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " o c c u r s i n The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , p. 324-25. To a v o i d p o s s i b l e c o n f u s i o n , t h e word " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " r e f e r s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t o s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y ( " r a z n o r e C i e " ) ; and terms such as " m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s , " "speech d i v e r s i t y , " o r " s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y " w i l l d e n o t e t h e m i x i n g o f v o i c e s and l a n g u a g e s m a n i f e s t i n t h e t e x t ( " r a z n o r e C i v o s t , " " r a z n o i a z y C i e " ) . 18. "A zone i s a l o c u s f o r h e a r i n g a v o i c e , " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 4 3 4 ) . V o i c e zones a r e d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l i n r e l a t i o n t o F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e i n C h a p t e r 3. 19. Numerous c r i t i c s have p o i n t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f e i t h e r c e n t r i p e t a l o r c e n t r i f u g a l t e n d e n c i e s , b u t v e r y few have d i s c u s s e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two. Most r e v i e w e r s and c r i t i c s mention t h e d i d a c t i c i s m o f Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many and F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , and t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f 42 The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a and The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear. 20. See R o b e r t K r o e t s c h , " M i r r o r , m i r r o r , show us a l l , " Rev. o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , Books i n Canada 7/1 ( J a n . 1978), 14; and K r o e t s c h ' s remarks on Wiebe's b e l i e f i n t h e " ' C a p i t a l - W ' Word" (Neuman 236). See a l s o Sam S o l e c k i , " G i a n t F i c t i o n s and L a r g e Meanings: t h e N o v e l s o f Rudy Wiebe," Canadian Forum 60 (March 1981), 5-8, 13. 21. J e f f r e y and S p r i e t a r e t h e o n l y two c r i t i c s who have a p p l i e d B a k h t i n i a n t h e o r y i n a more t h a n p a s s i n g way t o Wiebe's w r i t i n g . O t h e r c r i t i c s have a d d r e s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f Wiebe's d o u b l e - v o i c e d n e s s u s i n g t h e o r e t i c a l models o t h e r t h a n B a k h t i n ' s . See S h e r r i l l E. Grace, " S t r u c t u r i n g V i o l e n c e : 'The E t h i c s o f L i n g u i s t i c s ' i n 'The Temptations o f B i g Bear'," Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 104 ( S p r i n g 1985), 7-23; George H i l d e b r a n d "The A n a b a p t i s t V i s i o n o f Rudy Wiebe: a Study i n T h e o l o g i c a l A l l e g o r e s i s , " d i s s . M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1982. 22. See B a k h t i n 1984, 185-199, f o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s e s p e c i e s , t y p e s and v a r i e t i e s . 23. Taken from B a k h t i n 1984, 199. 24. F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o t h e r ' s speech as a bounded o b j e c t , see B a k h t i n 1981, 41-50; B a k h t i n 1984, 186- 189. 25. See a l s o B a k h t i n 1981, 429. 26. See a l s o B a k h t i n 1981, 432. 27. A l t h o u g h Volo§inov d i v i d e s t h e s o c i a l w o r l d on t h e b a s i s o f c l a s s , one may v a l i d l y v i e w t h e v e r b a l s i g n as an arena o f s t r u g g l e between s o c i a l groups d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o o t h e r c r i t e r i a . 28. See Wiebe's remarks t o t h e p u b l i c r e s p o n s e t o Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, i n "The S k u l l i n t h e Swamp," J o u r n a l o f Mennonite S t u d i e s 5 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 8-20. 43 CHAPTER 2: PEACE SHALL DESTROY MANY B r e a k i n g Open t h e C a p s u l e I Rudy Wiebe opens C h a p t e r One o f h i s f i r s t n o v e l , Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, w i t h a s y m b o l i c b r e a c h i n g o f t h e narrow h o r i z o n o f a c l o s e d , m o n o l o g i c w o r l d . In t h e s p r i n g o f 1944, Thorn Wiens p l o u g h s h i s w h e a t f i e l d i n t h e i s o l a t e d Mennonite f a r m i n g community o f W a p i t i i n N o r t h e r n Saskatchewan. Suddenly, a group o f C a n a d i a n f i g h t e r p l a n e s comes r o a r i n g out o f t h e s o u t h . They pass o v e r h e a d , t e r r i f y i n g t h e p l o u g h h o r s e s and e n g u l f i n g Thorn's w o r l d i n . t h e i r n o i s e . The p l a n e s a r e engaged i n a t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e . They pose no p h y s i c a l t h r e a t t o Thorn. What t h e y s i g n i f y , however, i s t h a t World War I I has a r r i v e d . Thorn can no l o n g e r d i s m i s s t h e war as j u s t a n o t h e r s t o r y on t h e r a d i o , a far-away t u r m o i l f o u g h t by o t h e r p e o p l e somewhere e l s e . The p l a n e s a r e t a n g i b l e , i r r e f u t a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e w a r — w o r l d h i s t o r y - - i s h e r e , f o r e v e r y o n e , now. No one escapes i t ! "The b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e community d i s a p p e a r " 1 f o r Thorn, and w i t h them, t h e myth o f i t s m o n o v o c a l i t y . H i s mind opens t o o t h e r v o i c e s and l a n g u a g e s , o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l ' a n d m o r a l u n i v e r s e t h a n t h a t u n i t a r y t r u t h imposed by t h e t y r a n n i c a l v o i c e of Deacon P e t e r B l o c k , who a t t e m p t s t o r e p r o d u c e i n W a p i t i t h e a l l e g e d l y s i m p l e , m o n o l o g i c , E d e n i c w o r l d l e f t b e h i n d i n R u s s i a . As B l o c k ' s h o l d o v e r Thorn's mind d i m i n i s h e s , he f i n d s h i m s e l f s p i r i t u a l l y l i b e r a t e d b u t m o r a l l y d i s o r i e n t e d , u n s u r e o f how he s h o u l d r e s p o n d t o Canada's " c a l l " t o ' j o i n t h e armed f o r c e s . Wiebe t e l l s t h e s t o r y p r i m a r i l y , b u t not e x c l u s i v e l y , from Thorn Wiens' p o i n t o f v i e w . Thorn's c o n s c i o u s n e s s s e r v e s as a f i e l d where r i v a l v o i c e s and c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s s t r u g g l e f o r dominance. Wiebe b r i n g s two main c o n t e s t a n t s o n t o " l i f e ' s r e a l b a t t l e - f i e l d : t h e s o u l o f man" (PPM 162- 3 ) : 2 Deacon B l o c k , who a d v o c a t e s a r i g i d adherence t o c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n and a t o t a l s e p a r a t i o n from t h e s e c u l a r w o r l d ; and J o s e p h Dueck, Wiebe's mouthpiece, who advances t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r a c t i s i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h o u t d e n y i n g h i s t o r i c a l change o r c u t t i n g o n e s e l f o f f from t h e b r o a d e r s o c i a l w o r l d . These two f i g u r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y p e r s o n i f y t h e m o n o l o g i c and d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e s . 45 I I As h i s name s u g g e s t s , B l o c k cements t h e s e p a r a t e Mennonite f a m i l i e s and i n d i v i d u a l s o f W a p i t i i n t o a m o n o l i t h i c community. He i n s i s t s t h a t t h e y always " p r e s e n t an u n b l e m i s h e d f r o n t t o t h e w o r l d " ( 2 0 5 ) . Denying, s p e a k i n g o v e r o r p h y s i c a l l y removing any v o i c e w h i c h d a r e s not say "amen", t o h i s own, Deacon B l o c k so dominates t h e p e o p l e o f W a p i t i t h a t i t comes c l o s e t o b e i n g a monovocal community. Church p o l i c y " o r i g i n a t e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h B l o c k " ( 6 8 ) , h i s " b i g v o i c e c o v e r i n g " (36) a l l . I n a t a n t r u m worthy o f J o v e , Deacon B l o c k s h o u t s down a l l d i s s e n t a t a c h u r c h m e e t i n g : "the Deacon's v o i c e overwhelmed a l l , s t e e l eyes f l a m i n g . J o s e p h ' s v o i c e was s n u f f e d ; t h e sound and t h e l o o k a b o l t t o b l a s t e v e r y o n e " ( 6 0 ) . A g a i n s t Deacon B l o c k ' s i d e a l o f a monovocal c h u r c h w i t h h i m s e l f as t h e s o l e spokesman, Wiebe's i d e a l c h u r c h community p e r m i t s m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s . When B l o c k c h a l l e n g e s Joseph's Dueck's r i g h t t o v o i c e d i s a g r e e m e n t on t h e grounds t h a t he has o n l y been i n W a p i t i n i n e months, "Thorn s u r g e d t o h i s f e e t . 'He i s a member o f t h i s c h u r c h and can speak!'" ( 6 1 ) . I t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t Thorn's words do not n e c e s s a r i l y condemn m o n o v o c a l i t y p e r se. Wiebe d i s c r i m i n a t e s between two k i n d s o f m o n o v o c a l i t y , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s under w h i c h t h e y come about. I f one t y r a n n i c a l v o i c e drowns out a l l o t h e r v o i c e s , t h e n t h e community becomes a m i c r o c o s m i c t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e . But i f m o n o v o c a l i t y a r i s e s o u t o f a genuine consensus between a l l i n d i v i d u a l s s p e a k i n g f r e e l y , i t s i g n i f i e s group s o l i d a r i t y , s o c i a l harmony and p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y . T h i s i d e a l comes c l o s e s t t o b e i n g r e a l i s e d when t h e members o f t h e c h u r c h s i n g t o g e t h e r : Thorn " f e l t t h a t everyone i n ' t h e b u i l d i n g s t o o d s e p a r a t e y e t u n i t e d , one body c r y i n g w i t h one v o i c e t o t h e g r e a t known w o r t h y o f w o r s h i p " ( 5 0 ) . Wiebe here o f f e r s an image o f agreement w h i c h r e t a i n s i t s d i a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r . 3 Deacon B l o c k m a i n t a i n s h i s power o v e r t h e p e o p l e o f W a p i t i not o n l y by s h o u t i n g l o u d e s t , b u t a l s o by i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e i r d i a l o g u e w i t h God. B l o c k assumes t h e r o l e o f s o l e m e d i a t o r between t h e S c r i p t u r e s and t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n : He shows us how t o l i v e t h e B i b l e . . . . On e v e r y s u b j e c t he must p l a c e t h e o n l y word i n e v e r y man's mouth and t h e y go home and re-chew i t f o r t h e i r f a m i l y . (218) B l o c k a l s o c o n t r o l s W a p i t i ' s d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . He i s i n v a r i a b l y e l e c t e d as a d e l e g a t e t o t h e a n n u a l Mennonite G e n e r a l C o n g r e s s , and as one o f t h e few s e n i o r men who speak E n g l i s h f l u e n t l y , t r a v e l f a r a f i e l d o r own a r a d i o , he c l a i m s a s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e l a r g e r w o r l d t o W a p i t i . As a r e s u l t , The men a g r e e d on a l l m a t t e r s , t h e i r o p i n i o n s on any o c c u r r e n c e o u t s i d e t h e i r own community b e i n g formed by g e n e r a l s u r v e y s o f one Mennonite German w e e k l y and by what Deacon B l o c k t o l d them. (29) . Deacon B l o c k w i s h e s t o keep i n p l a c e t h e language b a r r i e r w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e German-speaking M e n n o n i t e s from t h e w i d e r , m a i n l y E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g Canadian s o c i e t y , and from t h e C r e e - , F r e n c h - , and R u s s i a n - s p e a k i n g i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e W a p i t i a r e a . By s t a u n c h l y r e s i s t i n g t h e encroachment o f E n g l i s h , B l o c k r e p r e s s e s l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n t h e Mennonite community, t h i n k i n g t o p r o t e c t h i s p e o p l e from t h e hegemony o f t h e " o t h e r ' s " l a n g u a g e . B l o c k t h u n d e r s a g a i n s t Joseph Dueck f o r a d d r e s s i n g an e t h n i c a l l y mixed a u d i e n c e o f young p e o p l e i n t h e E n g l i s h language i n s t e a d o f i n t h e H i g h German language t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s . Dueck's c h o i c e o f E n g l i s h s i g n i f i e s t h e v a l u e he p l a c e s on e v a n g e l i s m . By a d d r e s s i n g h i s a u d i e n c e i n E n g l i s h , he a t t e m p t s t o r e a c h o u t s i d e t h e narrow c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e German-speaking community. F o r B l o c k , however, t h e c h u r c h community cannot exceed t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e t h n i c community. He p l a c e s more w e i g h t on r e i t e r a t i n g t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s from " o t h e r s " t h a n on d i s s e m i n a t i n g J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s t o f e l l o w human b e i n g s . By c h o o s i n g t o speak one n a t i o n a l language i n s t e a d o f a n o t h e r , a s p e a k e r s i g n i f i e s h i s o r her membership--or 48 d e s i r e d m e m b e r s h i p — i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l group. To Deacon B l o c k , t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' use o f E n g l i s h s i g n i f i e s t h e i r b l e n d i n g i n t o A n g l o - C a n a d i a n c u l t u r e . Yet t h r o u g h J o s e p h Dueck, Wiebe i n s e r t s t h e s i g n i f i e r " E n g l i s h language" i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e system o f meaning, where i t p o i n t s t o t h e s p e a k e r ' s e v a n g e l i s t i c v a l u e s . I n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, Wiebe argues t h a t by s p r e a d i n g t h e G o s p e l t o o t h e r s , one i m i t a t e s J e s u s ' A p o s t l e s f a r more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n by s e g r e g a t i n g o n e s e l f l i n g u i s t i c a l l y from p r o s p e c t i v e c o n v e r t s . S p i r i t u a l b e l i e f , not a s p e c i a l l a n g u a g e , forms t h e b a s i s o f Mennonite s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . Wiebe e n v i s a g e s t h e E n g l i s h language as a form o f common ground, a s h a r e d l i n g u i s t i c space where t h e d i v e r s e e t h n i c groups m i g h t meet and e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e . One o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s t o r i e s t h e n o v e l d r a m a t i s e s — a n d , most i m p o r t a n t , p a r t i c i p a t e s i n — i s t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e E n g l i s h language f o r t h e i r own e v a n g e l i c a l p u r p o s e s . Wiebe h i m s e l f spoke o n l y German u n t i l he e n t e r e d s c h o o l a t t h e age o f s i x . A H i s c h o i c e t o use E n g l i s h i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many i m p l i c i t l y r e p u d i a t e s Deacon's B l o c k ' s p o l i c y o f l i n g u i s t i c a p a r t h e i d , and s i g n i f i e s Wiebe's d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r e a c h as wide an a u d i e n c e as p o s s i b l e . 5 B l o c k ' s r e p r e s s i o n o f d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e s and h i s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e E n g l i s h language form p a r t o f h i s campaign t o promote m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n and language i n t h e 49 Mennonite community. As B l o c k ' s v i s i o n o f t h e W a p i t i Mennonites as "a p e o p l e a p a r t " c o l l a p s e s , so'does h i s myth o f Mennonite s o l i d a r i t y . Whether t h e y s t a y a t home o r l e a v e t o f i g h t abroad, members o f W a p i t i ' s Mennonite p o p u l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e t h e World War as a cause of b i t t e r d i v i s i o n i n t h e i r own community. Some d i s c o v e r t h e i r main l o y a l t i e s l i e w i t h t h e n a t i o n of Canada, w h i l e o t h e r s l i k e B l o c k become more e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t t h e M e n n o n i t e community i s — o r s h o u l d b e — s e p a r a t e . I r o n i c a l l y , B l o c k ' s s t a u n c h a v o i d a n c e o f t h e war a b r o a d i n v o l v e s him i n a war a t home on two f r o n t s , a g a i n s t t h e C a n a d i a n laws c o n c e r n i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , and a g a i n s t t h e more l i b e r a l Mennonite f a c t i o n s which no l o n g e r a u t o m a t i c a l l y o b j e c t t o p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n war. D e s p i t e B l o c k ' s e f f o r t s t o r e p r e s s d i v e r s i t y o f o p i n i o n , W a p i t i e x p e r i e n c e s a group i d e n t i t y c r i s i s , a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c r i t e r i a o f t h e i r s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . C o n c e a l e d i n t r a - g r o u p c o n f l i c t s emerge i n t o v i e w , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e v i o l e n c e w h i c h e r u p t s i n t h e b a r n on t h e n i g h t of t h e c h i l d r e n ' s C h r i s t m a s p l a y . As w e l l as r e p r e s s i n g t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' d i a l o g u e w i t h o t h e r s o c i a l groups, B l o c k a l s o upholds t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e on t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e . By r i g i d l y u p h o l d i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e f a t h e r s , B l o c k d i s a l l o w s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t v o i c e s i n t h e p r e s e n t m i g h t have a r i g h t t o r e - e v a l u a t e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l code. B l o c k e l e v a t e s c u l t u r a l ^ 7 50 t r a d i t i o n s t o t h e s t a t u s o f a b s o l u t e m o r a l l a w s . He b l u n t l y d e n i e s t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s own m o r a l a b s o l u t e s : The g r e a t m a t t e r s o f m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l d i s c i p l i n e have been l a i d down once and f o r a l l i n t h e B i b l e and our f a t h e r s have t o l d us how we s h o u l d a c t a c c o r d i n g t o them. They cannot change.... Most do not c a r e i f t h e y b r e a k t h e t r a d i t i o n because t o them i t i s not an a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d o f r i g h t and wrong. I n Rome, t h e y s h e e p i s h l y f o l l o w t h e Romans. But our f a t h e r s found t h e c o r r e c t way o f a c t i n g . Through t h e y e a r s , t h i s a c t i o n has d e v e l o p e d i n t o our c u l t u r e . I f we do n o t f o l l o w them i n t h e i r way, t h e n we s t a n d i n g r a v e danger o f l o s i n g our e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n . That i s why we a r e so r i g i d about c e r t a i n m a t t e r s i n t h e c h u r c h . The R u s s i a n s around o u r v i l l a g e s i n R u s s i a had t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f a c t i n g t o o , b u t when t h e y came t o Canada and once knew about a c t i n g d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e y l e t t h e o l d way s l i d e because t h e new way s u i t e d them b e t t e r h e r e . But we h o l d t h a t our a c t i o n s a r e e t e r n a l l y i m p o r t a n t ; our f a t h e r s found t h e r i g h t m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l a c t i o n . (202-3) Wiebe o f f e r s g l i m p s e s o f t h i s m y t h i c a l w o r l d o f "the f a t h e r s " t o show t h e s p u r i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e m o r a l s t a n d a r d B l o c k i n v o k e s . 6 Furthermore., Joseph Dueck g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t even i f t h e "the f a t h e r s " i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y R u s s i a had f o u n d a m o r a l l y c o r r e c t mode o f l i v i n g , t h e i r code o f b e h a v i o u r was r i g h t and good o n l y i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t . Under d i f f e r e n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , t h e same a c t i o n s m i g h t not be r i g h t a t a l l . The Second World War poses a s e e m i n g l y u n p r e c e d e n t e d m o r a l dilemma f o r t h e Mennonite community. S t r i c t p a c i f i s t s , Mennonites t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n war a t a l l c o s t s . In t h e p a s t , i n t h e R u s s i a n Mennonite f a r m i n g v i l l a g e s , " r i g h t was r i g h t and wrong was wrong. Any s i t u a t i o n c o u l d b e . q u i c k l y p l a c e d i n t o one o r t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r y " ( 2 1 ) . But i n Canada i n 1944, "the c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e more i n v o l v e d " ( 4 7 ) , b o t h i n a l e g a l and a m o r a l s e n s e . 7 Canadian law r e q u i r e s each a d u l t male o f m i l i t a r y age i n W a p i t i t o make a p e r s o n a l m o r a l c h o i c e whether t o t a k e up arms a g a i n s t Canada's enemies, p r j o i n t h e R e s t r i c t e d M e d i c a l Corps, o r a v o i d any form o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n by p r o c l a i m i n g t h e i r c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t i o n . Deacon B l o c k and h i s son, P e t e , i n v o k e t h e ways o f t h e f a t h e r s , b u t abuse t h e Mennonite i d e a l o f p a c i f i s m , by u s i n g i t as a c o n v e n i e n t excuse t o s t a y s a f e l y a t home on t h e farm t o reap (as i f i n c i d e n t a l l y ) t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e f i n a n c i a l rewards o f g r o w i n g f o o d under f a v o u r a b l e wartime market c o n d i t i o n s . The B l o c k s r e f u s e t o concede t o t h e e f f e c t o f c o n t e x t on t h e meaning o f a g i v e n a c t i o n ; t h a t i s , t h e y r e f u s e t o concede t o t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o r t h e d i a l o g i c i t y o f s i g n s . T h e i r m e c h a n i c a l adherence t o t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o war d e n i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that' a g i v e n a c t i o n , whether v e r b a l o r p h y s i c a l , s i g n i f i e s d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Deacon B l o c k ' s manner o f s p e a k i n g c o n f i r m s h i s adherence t o t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e . In p r i v a t e d i a l o g u e as w e l l as on p u b l i c o c c a s i o n s , B l o c k makes l o n g , f o r m a l , 52 d i d a c t i c speeches, i n w h i c h a r c h a i c d i c t i o n and sonorous rhythms i n v o k e t h e d i g n i t y and i r r e f u t a b l e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a s t . I n d i a l o g u e , B l o c k i n t e r r u p t s and speaks o v e r h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r s , m o n o p o l i z i n g t h e f l o o r t o such an e x t e n t t h a t d i a l o g u e becomes monologue. B l o c k ' s name, f o r t h e most p a r t , a p t l y d e s c r i b e s h i s speech: u n i f o r m i n s t y l e , and w i t h a t e x t u r e f r e e o f t h e d i s j u n c t i o n s w h i c h commonly b e t r a y h e s i t a t i o n , d e c e i t o r u n c e r t a i n t y , B l o c k ' s u t t e r a n c e s have a w e i g h t y , m o n o l i t h i c q u a l i t y . However, near t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , Wiebe opens a gap between B l o c k ' s i n n e r and o u t e r speech, and shows a t t h e same t i m e t h a t B l o c k r e p r e s s e s t h e v o i c e o f t h e " o t h e r " i n h i m s e l f . B l o c k ' s monologue b e g i n s t o b r e a k a p a r t when he speaks t o Thorn o f h i s own p a s t i n C h a p t e r 15. Dashes i n t e r r u p t t h e smooth f l o w o f h i s s y n t a x , and a l o n g s i l e n c e c o n c e a l s t h e " t e r r i b l e t h i n g " (203) t h a t happened l o n g i n h i s p a s t . When Wiebe i n c o r p o r a t e s Deacon B l o c k ' s i n n e r speech i n t o t h e t e x t , i t becomes f i s s u r e d by q u e s t i o n s , d o u b t s , a c c u s a t i o n s , e v a s i o n s and c o n f e s s i o n s . The s t y l e o f B l o c k ' s i n n e r monologue, w h i c h may more a c c u r a t e l y be d e s c r i b e d as a d i a l o g u e w i t h h i m s e l f , c o n t r a s t s m a r k e d l y w i t h t h e s u r e , s e r e n e e q u a n i m i t y o f h i s m o n o l o g i c o u t e r speech: O n l y when he [ B l o c k ] was t h r o u g h t h e b u r s t o f h i s emotions d i d h i s f a l s i t y s t r i k e home. Had he p r o t e c t e d 53 E l i z a b e t h ? — f r o m a bad m a r r i a g e b u t not a shameful d e a t h . . . . As he t h r e w a f o r k f u l o f hay on t h e l o a d , he was p r a y i n g , F a t h e r g i v e me g r a c e t o keep q u i e t — t h a t I do not l i e o u t w a r d l y more t h a n i s n e c e s s a r y — f o r t h e sake o f p e o p l e such as t h i s . S i n k i n g l y , he knew he need say n o t h i n g , e v e r , and y e t h i s whole l i f e would be one long-drawn p e r j u r y . But h i s a c t i o n had been r i g h t ! E l i z a b e t h had weakened, m i s e r a b l y ; what good c o u l d now come o f e x p o s i n g h e r s i n ? (204) Wiebe s i g n i f i e s t h e c o l l a p s e o f B l o c k ' s a u t h o r i t y by l e t t i n g h i s o u t e r speech d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o i n c o h e r e n t fragments: B l o c k s t a r e d l i f e l e s s , h i s mouth f o r m i n g , i n a n e l y , t h e words, " E l i z a b e t h — L o u i s — w h a t do you know—" .... He s a i d h o a r s e l y , "God f o r g i v e h e r — a n d y o u — " And me, he added, i n t h e c l a m o u r i n g s i l e n c e o f h i s h e a r t . (208) In a number o f r e s p e c t s , Wiebe's h a n d l i n g of language i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many c r e a t e s a d i s t a n c e between h i s own n a r r a t i v e v o i c e and t h e m o n o l o g i c v o i c e o f Deacon B l o c k . As Wiebe t e l l s o f t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d b r e a k i n g i n t o W a p i t i , h i s language l o s e s i t s m o n o l o g i c q u a l i t y : The whole y a r d b u r s t i n t o a chaos o f s q u e a l i n g p i g s , f l y i n g , squawking c h i c k e n s , C a r l o b a r k i n g , H a l s c r e a m i n g "Bang! Bang!" and t h e c a t t l e stampeding, m i l k j e t t i n g from s w i n g i n g u d d e r s , towards t h e s a f e t y o f t h e b a r n t o c r a s h a g a i n s t i t s c l o s e d d o o r i n a c o n v u l s i o n o f b o d i e s . . . . From where Thorn s t o o d , one cow l o o k e d v e r y bad.... Her c a l f would be dead a f t e r t h a t . (22) The d i s c o u r s e o f war i n v a d e s t h e n o r m a l l y t r a n q u i l d i s c o u r s e o f t h e p a s t o r a l : " b u r s t , " "chaos," " s c r e a m i n g , " " s a f e t y , " " j e t t i n g , " " c r a s h , " " c o n v u l s i o n , " " b o d i e s , " and "dead" a r e s c a t t e r e d amongst " y a r d , " " p i g s , " " c h i c k e n s , " " c a t t l e , " " m i l k , " "udders," " b a r n , " "cow," and " c a l f " ( 2 2 ) . Wiebe's s y n t a x , t o o , r e f l e c t s a c o l l i s i o n o f two s t y l e s . A f t e r a s i m p l e , unadorned o p e n i n g p r i n c i p a l c l a u s e , t h e f i r s t 54 s e n t e n c e fragments s y n t a c t i c a l l y , as e i g h t i r r e g u l a r l y - spaced p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s s h a t t e r t h e u n i f i e d p a s t o r a l t a b l e a u o f "the whole y a r d " i n t o i t s d i v e r s e c o n s t i t u e n t images. Through Wiebe's m i x i n g of d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s and d i s c o u r s e s , t h e t e x t o f t h e n o v e l r e - e n a c t s t h e o p e n i n g p r o c e s s i t d e p i c t s . D i v e r s e l i n g u i s t i c elements i n v a d e t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l j u s t as t h e f i g h t e r p l a n e s v i o l a t e t h e s e c l u s i o n o f W a p i t i . P e t e B l o c k s a y s , " I t ' d be n i c e t o j u s t s t a y i n t h e b u s h — n e v e r go out" ( 2 8 ) . W a p i t i i s b e h i n d a bush, o r r a t h e r , an immense expanse o f bush and s p a r s e l y - p o p u l a t e d d i s t a n c e . But p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s cannot s h i e l d W a p i t i from t h e knowledge of t h e war. The r a d i o b r i n g s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e war i n t o p r i v a t e homes, e f f e c t i v e l y a n n e x i n g W a p i t i i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f w o r l d h i s t o r y : I t seemed beyond comprehension t o s i t a t supper i n a l o g farmhouse i n Canada and l i s t e n w h i l e men, a t t h a t v e r y moment, t o r e each o t h e r f o r r e a s o n s none r e a l l y knew: t o l i s t e n w h i l e a l a n d i n g c r a f t e x p l o d e d , and t h e v o i c e o f t h e announcer choked, " — o u t o f t h e s k y — p a r t s o f b o d i e s f a l l i n g - - m a s s e s o f w a t e r . . . " ...A whole w o r l d l i s t e n i n g t o men k i l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s s a v a g e l y . (42-3) A g a i n , Wiebe's t e x t r e - e n a c t s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f p e n e t r a t i o n and f r a g m e n t a t i o n i t d e s c r i b e s . Here, and a g a i n i n C h a p t e r 8, t h e CBC r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n s e r t s i t s e l f i n t r u s i v e l y i n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e . I t i n v a d e s t h e t e x t o f Wiebe's n o v e l , i n t h e same way as t h e r a d i o r e p e a t e d l y b r e a k s t h r o u g h t h e b a r r i e r s B l o c k e r e c t s around W a p i t i . 55 Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many i s Wiebe's most s t y l i s t i c a l l y u n i f o r m n o v e l , y e t i t s homogeneity i s not as c o m p l e t e as i t might seem. Even a t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e i n h i s w r i t i n g c a r e e r , Wiebe i n c o r p o r a t e s what B a k h t i n c a l l s " e x t r a - l i t e r a r y g e n r e s " (1981, 33) i n t o h i s t e x t . The d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s and languages w h i c h speak i n t h e t e x t o f Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many i m p l i c i t l y s i g n i f y Wiebe's r e j e c t i o n o f t h e m o n o v o c a l i t y urged by B l o c k . I l l As B l o c k ' s name c o n n o t e s t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , Joseph Dueck's evokes t h e d i a l o g i c . By u r g i n g t h e Mennonite community t o contend w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t i m e s have changed, and t h a t t h e y no l o n g e r have e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e meaning o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l code o f b e h a v i o u r , Dueck draws a t t e n t i o n t o d i a l o g i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s on b o t h t h e s y n c h r o n i c and t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e s . Dueck causes Thorn and o t h e r young p e o p l e i n t h e community o f W a p i t i t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t even t h e most s i n c e r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e war i n v o l u n t a r i l y . The o p t i o n o f not p a r t i c i p a t i n g no l o n g e r e x i s t s , as Annaraarie Lepp e x p l a i n s : i t was f i n e t o say, "We can have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h war" when...wars were s k i r m i s h e s on t h e n e x t 56 q u a r t e r and t h e k i n g who l e d h i s t r o o p s t o a day's v i c t o r y won. Then i t was p o s s i b l e — [ n o t t o j o i n i n . But] t h e whole w o r l d i s now i n i t . We c a n ' t a v o i d i t . F a t h e r r a i s e s p i g s because t h e p r i c e i s h i g h : some men c h a r g e d up t h e Normandy beaches l a s t Tuesday w i t h our bacon i n t h e i r stomachs. (47) Joseph Dueck pushes Annamarie's argument t o i t s m o r a l c o n c l u s i o n : G i v e n a war s i t u a t i o n , we Mennonites can p r a c t i s e our b e l i e f i n Canada o n l y because o t h e r Canadians a r e k i n d enough t o f i g h t f o r our r i g h t t o our b e l i e f . The g o d l e s s man t h e n d i e s f o r t h e b e l i e f o f t h e C h r i s t i a n ! (60) An u n p r e c e d e n t e d h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n — t h e Second World War —makes a m b i v a l e n t t h e m o r a l i t y o f t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l r e f u s a l t o f i g h t , w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y had been o n l y r i g h t . The a c t i o n i t s e l f does not change, b u t i t s meaning becomes s u b j e c t t o r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n each new h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . As Thorn v a c i l l a t e s o v e r whether he s h o u l d t a k e t h e measures n e c e s s a r y t o g a i n l e g a l exemption from t h e Canadian war e f f o r t , Wiebe e x p l o r e s what B a k h t i n might c a l l d i a c h r o n i c d i a l o g i c i t y , t h e o n g o i n g s o c i a l p r o c e s s o f r e i n t e r p r e t i n g any known event o r t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . Dueck a l s o argues t h a t no s o c i e t y i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y can l i v e i t s h i s t o r y e n t i r e l y a l o n e . D e s p i t e b e i n g i n s u l a t e d from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d by v a s t t r a c t s o f u n i n h a b i t e d b u s h l a n d , W a p i t i ' s h i s t o r y i s not autonomous, but bound i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Canadian n a t i o n and t h e w o r l d . Under Joseph's i n f l u e n c e , t h e 57 Mennonites o f W a p i t i b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e y must contend not o n l y w i t h "the shock o f t h e new,"-8 new b u t a l s o w i t h t h e shock o f s o c i a l l y a l i e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . The Second World War b r i n g s a p o w e r f u l , i n v a s i v e " o t h e r , " i n t o t h e i r l i v e s , an " o t h e r " who c l a i m s an e q u a l , i f not s u p e r i o r r i g h t t o c o n f e r meaning on t h e i r a c t i o n s . The l e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e comes i n t o d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e m o r a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e B i b l e , t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e a c t o f n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t o a n o n - v e r b a l pun. "Non- p a r t i c i p a t i o n " f i t s i n t o two c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e systems o f meaning, each r e c o g n i z e d as supremely a u t h o r i t a t i v e by t h e s o c i e t y w h i c h propounds i t . Dueck draws a t t e n t i o n a l s o t o t h e p l u r a l i t y o f l i n g u i s t i c s i g n systems w h i c h o p e r a t e i n a l l s o c i e t i e s . H i s l e t t e r t o Thorn h i g h l i g h t s t h e many languages spoken i n W a p i t i : "Dear Thomas: "You a s k e d me why I w r o t e 'Thomas' t o you when I never spoke so f o r m a l l y . W e l l , t o t e l l you t h e t r u t h I r e a l l y d i d not know how t o w r i t e y o u r name, s i n c e i n W a p i t i i t ' s spoken 'Tom' i n E n g l i s h and 'Thorn' i n Low German and 'Thomas' i n H i g h German. You can assume t h e r e f o r e t h a t I am w r i t i n g i n none o f t h e s e languages b u t t h e c o r r e c t B i b l i c a l form o f t h e name as g i v e n i n t h e K i n g James v e r s i o n : t h e name o f t h e man whose eyes were open b u t c o u l d not see." (160) I t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t a l t h o u g h Dueck draws a t t e n t i o n t o W a p i t i ' s l i n g u i s t i c p l u r a l i t y , he does not g r a n t t h e languages e q u a l s t a t u s , b u t p r i v i l e g e s an E n g l i s h v e r s i o n o f t h e New Testament as most a u t h o r i t a t i v e and p a r a d i g m a t i c . 58 A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n emerges w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r m a l p r o p e r t i e s o f Dueck's u t t e r a n c e s . H i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l t a l k t o t h e y o u t h m e e t i n g t a k e s a d i a l o g i c , q u e s t i o n - a n d - a n s w e r form: " I o u t l i n e d my i d e a s i n t h e form o f q u e s t i o n s . . F i r s t : what i s t h e b a s i c f o r c e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n ' s l i f e ? U s i n g S c r i p t u r e , T t r i e d t o g i v e t h e answer as Love..." (60) Joseph engages i n d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e S c r i p t u r e s . The C h r i s t i a n f o r m u l a t e s t h e q u e s t i o n s ; t h e B i b l e answers them. However, Dueck's d i a l o g u e w i t h h i s a u d i e n c e — a n d Wiebe's d i a l o g u e w i t h h i s r e a d e r s - - r e m a i n s s t r i c t l y p e d a g o g i c a l : "someone who knows, and p o s s e s s e s t h e t r u t h i n s t r u c t s someone who i s i g n o r a n t o f i t and i n e r r o r ; . . . i t i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a t e a c h e r and a p u p i l " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 8 1 ) . A l t h o u g h J o s e p h Dueck f u n c t i o n s as Wiebe's main proponent o f t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , Wiebe never e n t i r e l y r e a l i z e s t h a t p r i n c i p l e ' i n Dueck's u t t e r a n c e s . Dueck's l e t t e r t o Thorn i n C h a p t e r 12 p r o v i d e s t h e c l e a r e s t example o f t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n . The l e t t e r opens by s i t u a t i n g i t s e l f i n a d i a l o g i c c o n t e x t : "you a s k e d me why I w r o t e . . . " ( 1 6 0 ) . Dueck o b v i o u s l y answers a q u e s t i o n posed e a r l i e r by Thorn. The l e t t e r i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f as a r e j o i n d e r , an u t t e r a n c e i n an o n g o i n g i n t e r l o c u t o r y exchange. Dueck's l e t t e r a l s o p e r f o r m s t h e v i t a l work o f d i a l o g i z i n g t h e word "peace," b u t such d i a l o g i z a t i o n has t h e u l t i m a t e aim not o f a b o l i s h i n g t h e s e m a n t i c / l i n g u i s t i c h i e r a r c h y , b u t o f r e p l a c i n g one 59 p r i v i l e g e d meaning/language w i t h a n o t h e r . The dominant i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f "peace" i n Canada i n 1944 opposes "peace" t o p h y s i c a l w a r f a r e between n a t i o n s . Wiebe d i a l o g i z e s "peace" by s e t t i n g a g a i n s t t h i s dominant s e c u l a r d e f i n i t i o n , a number o f common C h r i s t i a n a l t e r n a t i v e s : Matthew's " B l e s s e d a r e t h e peacemakers" ( 1 6 2 ) ; t h e e x p r e s s i o n "to h o l d one's peace" ( 1 6 2 ) ; t h e peace o f s o c i a l harmony; t h e " s t a t e o f s a f e t y and b l e s s e d n e s s " p r o m i s e d by God t o I s r a e l i n t h e O l d Testament ( 1 6 2 ) ; and t h e " h o r r i b l e j o k e " o f t h e a n g e l s ' "Peace on e a r t h " w h i c h was f o l l o w e d by t h e s l a u g h t e r of t h e babes of Bethlehem ( 1 6 2 ) . The word "peace" r e s e m b l e s an o b j e c t p u l l e d between s e v e r a l g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d s . In d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s , i n d i f f e r e n t speech genres o r d i s c o u r s e s , t h e meaning o f t h e word changes. However, Wiebe does not l e t "peace" f l o a t between d i s c o u r s e s i n a s t a t e o f s e m a n t i c n o n - f i x i t y . He c l o s e s t h e d i a l o g u e between t h e d i f f e r i n g v o i c i n g s o f "peace" by i n s e r t i n g t h e word i n t o t h e c o n t e x t o f J e s u s ' s t e a c h i n g s : " A c c o r d i n g t o C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g , peace i s not a c i r c u m s t a n c e b u t a s t a t e o f b e i n g . The C h r i s t - f o l l o w e r has t h e peace o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h God and t h e r e f o r e t h e peace of c o n s c i o u s f e l l o w s h i p w i t h God t h r o u g h God i n C h r i s t . Peace i s not a t h i n g s t a t i c and unchanging: r a t h e r a m i g h t y i n n e r r i v e r ( r e a d I s a i a h 48:18) t h a t c a r r i e s a l l outward c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e f o r e i t as i f t h e y were d r i f t w o o d . T h i s was t h e peace C h r i s t b r o u g h t ; he never compromised w i t h a sham s l o t h f u l peace, as we want t o . He s a i d , 'Do not t h i n k t h a t I have come t o b r i n g peace on e a r t h ; I have not come t o b r i n g peace, b u t a sword.' He b r o u g h t no outward q u i e t and c o m f o r t such as we a r e e v e r p r a y i n g f o r . R a t h e r , he b r o u g h t i n w a r d peace t h a t i s i n no way a f f e c t e d by outward w a r . . . . But I must s t o p p r e a c h i n g ! " (162-3) 60 As t h e K i n g James v e r s i o n of t h e B i b l e p r o v i d e s "the c o r r e c t B i b l i c a l form" o f Thorn's name, t h e t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s , s u p p o r t e d by I s i a h , p r o v i d e s t h e p r i v i l e g e d d e f i n i t i o n o f "peace." O n l y w i t h t h e a i d o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n can t h e paradox i m p l i c i t i n t h e t i t l e of t h e n o v e l be r e s o l v e d . The s t y l e o f Dueck's l e t t e r , and many o f h i s o t h e r extended u t t e r a n c e s , has a m o n o l o g i c , s e r m o n - l i k e q u a l i t y . D e s p i t e p r o c l a i m i n g t h e m s e l v e s r e j o i n d e r s i n d i a l o g u e , o r t a k i n g t h e form o f a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s and answers, Dueck's u t t e r a n c e b e a r a l l t h e marks o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , a v a r i e t y o f m o n o l o g i c language w h i c h B a k h t i n d e s c r i b e s as f o l l o w s : A u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e . . . remains s h a r p l y demarcated, compact and i n e r t : i t demands, so t o speak, not o n l y q u o t a t i o n marks b u t a d e m a r c a t i o n even more m a g i s t e r i a l . . . . I t s s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e i s s t a t i c and dead, f o r i t i s f u l l y complete, i t has b u t a s i n g l e meaning, t h e l e t t e r i s f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o t h e sense and c a l c i f i e s i t . (1981, 343) Wiebe p r e s e n t s h i s c e n t r a l message i n t h e form o f Dueck's l e t t e r , t h u s s e t t i n g i t o f f from t h e " o r d i n a r y language" o f t h e r e s t o f t h e t e x t . T h i s s p e c i a l d e m a r c a t i o n h e l p s i m p a r t a m o n o l o g i c , a u t h o r i t a t i v e q u a l i t y t o Dueck's d i s c o u r s e . The l e t t e r ceases t o f u n c t i o n as a r e j o i n d e r i n a d i a l o g u e between two c h a r a c t e r s , and t a k e s on t h e q u a l i t i e s o f e x p l i c i t m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e r e a d e r . In B a k h t i n ' s t e r m s , Dueck's l e t t e r sounds as d i r e c t , unmediated a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . 9 Perhaps Dueck's "But I must s t o p p r e a c h i n g ! " (163) b e t r a y s Wiebe's own awareness t h a t h i s p r o s e l y t i z i n g has become t o o o v e r t a t t h i s p o i n t i n the t e x t . IV The m o n o l o g i c a s p e c t s o f Joseph Dueck's speech r e f l e c t Wiebe's i n a b i l i t y t o embrace a l l t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , d e s p i t e h i s m i s g i v i n g s about m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n and l a n g u a g e . As Wiebe's hero s e a r c h e s f o r "the p a t h of God's r e v e l a t i o n " ( 2 3 7 ) , he f i n d s t h e p o l y p h o n i c " v o i d o f s p l i n t e r e d dogmas" (235) no l e s s repugnant t h a n "one man's m i s g u i d e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n " ( 2 3 7 ) . Thorn f e a r s t h a t by d e v i a t i n g from t h e ways o f t h e f a t h e r s a d v o c a t e d by Deacon B l o c k , he w i l l i n e v i t a b l y f a l l , l i k e Hank and Herb Unger, i n t o m o r a l n i h i l i s m . Hank b o a s t s of s h o o t i n g down " N a z i p i g s " s t r i c t l y f o r f u n ; Herb i s l a z y , b i t t e r , u n c o - o p e r a t i v e and o p e n l y contemptuous o f h i s n e i g h b o u r s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e p e r t i n e n t q u a l i t y o f Herb Unger's speech i s i t s e l u s i v e a m b i g u i t y and s e m a n t i c openness. Through d o u b l e - e n t e n d r e and n e u t r a l i n t o n a t i o n , . Herb r e f u s e s t o commit h i m s e l f t o any s i n g l e meaning, and thus evades Thorn's e f f o r t s t o d e f e a t him i n d e b a t e : "He spoke i n t h a t p e c u l i a r l y e x p r e s s i o n l e s s v o i c e t h a t he c o u l d 62 employ o f such o c c a s i o n s ; t o each of them h i s words meant something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t " ( 9 9 ) . I f B l o c k ' s v o i c e e p i t o m i s e s t h e o p p r e s s i v e e f f e c t s o f m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n , Herb Unger's u t t e r a n c e s p o i n t t o t h e danger which l i e s a t t h e o p p o s i t e extreme. The p l u r a l i t y o f a c c e n t s l a t e n t i n Herb's u n a c c e n t e d d i s c o u r s e h i n t s a t t h e consequences o f a p p l y i n g t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e t o t h e B i b l e . What happens t o t h e meaning and a u t h o r i t y o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s i f one concedes t o t h e m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y , t h e h i s t o r i c i t y and c u l t u r a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f a l l v e r b a l s i g n s ? I n t h e o r y , God's Word c o u l d d i s s o l v e i n t o a cacophony o f c o n f l i c t i n g r e l a t i v e t r u t h s and m o r a l l a w s . P a s t o r Lepp c o n v i n c e s Thorn t h a t "the t e a c h i n g s o f C h r i s t , r i g h t l y a p p l i e d " (87) o f f e r t h e s o l u t i o n t o a l l m o r a l problems; t h e B i b l e c a r r i e s t h e s e " t e a c h i n g s " down t h r o u g h h i s t o r y . But i f t h e B i b l e can be r e - i n t e r p r e t e d i n each c o n t e x t o f r e - r e a d i n g - - b y r e i n f l e c t i n g i t s words, r a n k i n g i t s p a r t s i n t o new h i e r a r c h i e s , and a n n e x i n g i t i n t o new h i s t o r i c a l and v e r b a l c o n t e x t — h o w may Thorn know whether o r not he a p p l i e s J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s " r i g h t l y " ? The d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , t a k e n t o i t s f u r t h e s t extreme, c o n t e n d s t h a t a l l r e a d i n g s a r e e q u a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e and s e m a n t i c a l l y " r i g h t . " Wiebe g l i m p s e s , b u t does not r i g o r o u s l y i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. He r e t r e a t s from a v i s i o n o f a p o l y p h o n i c B i b l e v i a t h e n o t i o n o f t h e " l i t e r a l " r e a d i n g . I n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, a l i t e r a l r e a d i n g of t h e B i b l e r e l e a s e s w h i c h e v e r meaning appears most " n a t u r a l " i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . F o r example, Thorn argues t h a t "the B i b l e t e a c h e s 'Love your n e i g h b o u r as y o u r s e l f . ' That means, i f y o u ' r e concerned about y o u r own s a l v a t i o n , be c o n c e r n e d about h i s t o o " (195). Thorn i n t e r p r e t s "neighbour" not i n t h e metonymical sense o f " h u m a n i t y - i n - g e n e r a l . " He r e f u s e s t o be f o r c e d , as was h i s o l d e r b r o t h e r , D a v i d , t o go t o f a r away p l a c e s such as I n d i a i n o r d e r t o l o v e h i s n e i g h b o u r . I n Thorn's mind " n e i g h b o u r " denotes t h e p a r t i c u l a r n e i g h b o u r s he f i n d s about him i n h i s own h i s t o r i c and c u l t u r a l l y s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t : namely t h e Moosomins and t h e M a c k e n z i e s and t h e L a b r e t s . By i n t r o d u c i n g t h e B i b l e t o n e i g h b o u r s whose h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e d i f f e r r a d i c a l l y from h i s own, Thorn p l a c e s t h e B i b l e i n a new c o n t e x t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Thorn c o n d u c t s t h e B i b l e c l a s s e s on h i s n e i g h b o u r s ' "home ground," r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c h u r c h o r s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s w h i c h , i n t h e i r minds, s i g n i f y " f o r e i g n t e r r i t o r y . " I n t h e i r own homes, t h e M e t i s c h i l d r e n annex t h e s t o r i e s i n t o t h e i r own c u l t u r a l l y - and h i s t o r i c a l l y - d e t e r m i n e d systems o f meaning, r e l e a s i n g i n t h e p r o c e s s , h i t h e r t o s u p p r e s s e d meanings o f t h e t e x t : As he [Thorn] was d r a w i n g n e a r t h e c l o s e , n e a r l y d i s c o u r a g e d , some s t r a n g e b i b l i c a l d e t a i l caught a t 64 s m a l l Judy M a c k e n z i e and she, tongue l o o s e n e d a p p a r e n t l y by t h e home s u r r o u n d i n g s , f o r she had n e v e r b e f o r e spoken even when q u e s t i o n e d d i r e c t l y , a s k e d w i t h wide eyes, "Mr Wiens, you e v e r e a t g r a s s h o p p e r s ? " " W h y — n o — I — " n o n p l u s s e d P r o u d l y , " I d i d one, l a s t summer. Phooey! They're t e r r i b l e s a l t y ! " . . . . B u t s t r a n g e l y , when t h e l a u g h t e r eased and he e x p l a i n e d t h a t P a l e s t i n i a n l o c u s t s were q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m Canadian g r a s s h o p p e r s and t h a t t h e d i e t o f " l o c u s t s and honey" meant t h a t John, l i v i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , a t e o n l y such f o o d as t h e r e g i o n n a t u r a l l y p r o v i d e d , J a c k i e L a b r e t a s k e d q u i e t l y , "Did he l i v e l i k e us when we go h u n t i n ' i n summer — b e r r i e s and f i s h and s t u f f ? " The u n e x p e c t e d p a r a l l e l amazed Thorn. "Why y e s , J a c k i e . John t h e B a p t i s t l i v e d l i k e t h a t , s i m p l y , e a t i n g what God p r o v i d e d . He was t o o busy d o i n g h i s j o b t o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h n i c e l y cooked meals As he spoke, Thorn sensed a new element o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n w h i c h he had not b r u s h e d b e f o r e . He c o u l d e x p l a i n John's g r e a t urgency as he w a i t e d and t a u g h t i n t h e J o r d a n i a n w i l d e r n e s s , p r e p a r i n g a way f o r t h e Redeemer, and t h e c h i l d r e n found a k e r n e l o f t r u t h i n h i s s t o r y . Thorn c o u l d but m a r v e l a t t h e a t t e n t i o n on t h e f a c e s b e f o r e him, and t h e s t r a n g e p a t h by w h i c h i t had a r r i v e d t h e r e . ( 1 8 9 ) The M e t i s c h i l d r e n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have v a l u e p r i m a r i l y because t h e y p r o v i d e Thorn w i t h an o p e n i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e m o n o l o g i c " r i g h t r e a d i n g " o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . The i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e i n "a k e r n e l o f t r u t h " i m p l i c i t l y concedes t h a t a s t o r y might h o l d more t h a n one v a l i d meaning. And y e t , by i n v o k i n g t h e n o t i o n o f " a r r i v a l , " Wiebe i m p l i e s t h a t u n t i l t h e c h i l d r e n f i n d t h e same k e r n e l o f t r u t h as Thorn a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e s , t h e i r C h r i s t i a n i t y must remain not q u i t e a u t h e n t i c . A l t h o u g h Wiebe cannot t o l e r a t e t h e monologism o f B l o c k ' s B i b l e , w h i c h remains s e m a n t i c a l l y l o c k e d i n t h e dungeon of a s i n g l e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , n e i t h e r can he f u l l y a l l o w t h e B i b l e ' s h e t e r o g l o s s i a . I n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Manyr o n l y p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e t a k e s p l a c e between 65 d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l groups on t h e s y n c h r o n i c p l a n e . Nor, as t h e n o v e l ' s d u a l t i m e scheme d e m o n s t r a t e s , does Wiebe g i v e f r e e r e i n t o t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e on t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e . The n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many e s t a b l i s h e s two models of t i m e : one l i n e a r , t h e o t h e r c i r c u l a r o r c y c l i c a l . The main n a r r a t i v e t a k e s p l a c e i n h i s t o r i c a l t i m e , between s p r i n g and C h r i s t m a s , 1944. Each day, t h e r a d i o b r i n g s news o f t h e l a t e s t d i s a s t e r s and v i c t o r i e s on t h e European f r o n t . No-one can f o r e s e e p r e c i s e l y what w i l l happen n e x t ; h i s t o r y o f f e r s no p r e c e d e n t o f a war f o u g h t on so huge a s c a l e . The d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e f e e d s on a l i n e a r model o f h i s t o r y such as t h e main n a r r a t i v e o f Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many p r e s e n t s . Each u n p r e c e d e n t e d moment o f f e r s a new c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e meaning o f e v e n t s and words. However, Wiebe s t r u c t u r e s h i s n a r r a t i v e i n a manner w h i c h c r e a t e s a c o u n t e r p o i n t between t e m p o r a l l i n e a r i t y and c i r c u l a r i t y . The c i r c u l a r model does not deny t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e but i t does r e p r e s s h e t e r o g l o s s i a ( o r r e a l i z e d d i a l o g i c i t y ) by d i m i n i s h i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d elements i n c o n t e x t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The f o u r P r e l u d e s , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o u r seasons o f t h e y e a r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a n n u a l l y r e c u r r i n g C h r i s t i a n f e s t i v a l s such as C h r i s t m a s and E a s t e r , e n v i s a g e h i s t o r y as a s e r i e s o f c i r c l e s , a s e r i e s o f r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e same p a r a d i g m a t i c e v e n t s . T h i s 66 c i r c u l a r model, by e m p h a s i s i n g t h e r e s p e c t s i n w h i c h h i s t o r y r e p e a t s i t s e l f , c r e a t e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a t i o n s w i l l a r r i v e a t t h e same f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c l u s i o n s , t h e same p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h , v a l u e , m o r a l i t y and meaning. A g a i n , Wiebe acknowledges t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t many v o i c e s may i n d e p e n d e n t l y a r r i v e a t t h e same u n i t a r y t r u t h , and t h a t "agreement [may] r e t a i n i t s d i a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 9 5 ) . By c o n s t r u c t i n g t i m e as b o t h l i n e a r and c i r c u l a r , Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h s and v a l u e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . 1 0 And a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , Wiebe r e a f f i r m s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a t i m e l e s s T r u t h - w i t h - a - c a p i t a l - T . As t h e f i g h t e r p l a n e s b r e a c h e d Thorn's narrow s o c i a l h o r i z o n i n t h e n o v e l ' s o p e n i n g scene, t h e c o n c e p t o f e t e r n a l , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l T r u t h b r e a k s i n t o Thorn's f i e l d o f v i s i o n , i n t h e form o f t h e s t a r w h i c h , i n t h e c h i l d r e n ' s C h r i s t m a s p l a y , appears i n t h e n i g h t sky. Wiebe b r e a k s t h e c a p s u l e o f l i m i t e d v i s i o n t w i c e , i n o t h e r words: once when t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e W a p i t i c h u r c h community a r e b r o k e n open, and a second t i m e when t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d s u d d e n l y v a n i s h — " t h e c u r t a i n was o p e n i n g " ( 2 3 1 ) — t o r e v e a l a t r a n s c e n d e n t , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , i n w h i c h u l t i m a t e , m o n o l o g i c T r u t h , V a l u e and Meaning come i n t o b e i n g . A s i m i l a r r e c o i l from t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e o c c u r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e Word. D r i v i n g home from t h e p l a y , and from t h e v i o l e n t t r a v e s t y o f t h e p l a y which e r u p t s a f t e r w a r d s i n t h e b a r n , Thorn y e a r n s t o undo l i n e a r h i s t o r y , go back t o t h e d i s t a n t p a s t , and r e c o v e r t h e l o s t o r i g i n a l meaning of t h e Word: C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s s t o o d c l e a r i n t h e S c r i p t u r e s ; c o u l d he but s c r a p e them b a r e o f a l l t h e i r a c q u i r e d meanings and see them as t h o s e f i r s t d i s c i p l e s has done, t h e i r f e e t i n t h e d u s t o f G a l i l e e . (237) Wiebe e n v i s a g e s t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f r e n e w i n g t h e Word d i a l o g i c a l l y as an e t e r n a l approach t o t h i s p o s t u l a t e d o r i g i n a l a u t h o r i t a t i v e Word. T h i s p r o v i s o t h a t d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s e s of d i s c o v e r y must always have a p o s t u l a t e d anchor o r g o a l s i g n i f i e s Wiebe's r e l u c t a n c e t o r e l i n q u i s h m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n . V A l t h o u g h Wiebe b e g i n s t o e x p l o r e t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e a t a t h e m a t i c l e v e l i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, he shows l i t t l e i n t e r e s t a t t h i s s t a g e i n d e v i s i n g e f f e c t i v e means o f a c t i v a t i n g i t i n h i s t e x t . Wiebe does not as y e t heed h i s own a d v i c e about s p e a k i n g i n d i r e c t l y : on many o c c a s i o n s i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n c r e t e s t o r y o f f e r s t o o t h i n a camouflage f o r Wiebe's m o n o l o g i c m o r a l and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r h e t o r i c . A l m o s t a l l t h e d i a l o g u e m a n i f e s t 68 i n t h e n o v e l t a k e s t h e form o f " c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , "1 1 and Wiebe a l l o w s l i t t l e o r no doubt as t o where he s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o each o f t h e v o i c e s which speak i n t h e t e x t . Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many c o n t a i n s no " ' g r e a t d i a l o g u e ' i n w h i c h c h a r a c t e r s and a u t h o r p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h e g u a l r i g h t s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 7 1 ) . Wiebe endeavours t o dominate t h e v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e t e x t no l e s s t h a n Deacon B l o c k endeavours t o r u l e W a p i t i . And as B l o c k t r i e s t o mediate between W a p i t i and t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o m e d i a t e between t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s and h i s r e a d e r s . Any d i a l o g i c elements w h i c h e n t e r Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many do so not t h r o u g h Wiebe's d e l i b e r a t e a u t h o r i z a t i o n , b u t as a r e s u l t o f t h e m o r a l , i d e o l o g i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f h i s r e a d e r s . 69 NOTES TO CHAPTER 2: PEACE SHALL DESTROY MANY 1. Wiebe uses t h i s e x p r e s s i o n when d e s c r i b i n g h i s own e x p e r i e n c e o f s u d d e n l y expanded h o r i z o n s i n Neuman 232. 2. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l page numbers a p p e a r i n g p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n C h a p t e r 2 r e f e r t o Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1962). 3. B a k h t i n d i s c u s s e s D o s t o e v s k y ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f "agreement w h i c h r e t a i n s i t s d i a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r " i n Problems o f D o s t o e v s k y ' s P o e t i c s , 95. 4. J . M. K e r t z e r , " B i o c r i t i c a l E s s a y , " The Rudy Wiebe P a p e r s F i r s t A c c e s s i o n : An I n v e n t o r y o f t h e A r c h i v e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l g a r y L i b r a r i e s , ed. J e a n F. Tener and A p p o l l o n i a S t e e l e ( C a l g a r y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l g a r y P r e s s , 1986) i x . 5. C f . W. J . K e i t h ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f Wiebe's sense o f a u d i e n c e i n "Where I s t h e V o i c e G o i n g To? Wiebe and H i s Readers," paper d e l i v e r e d a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e on "Mennonite/s W r i t i n g i n Canada," May 1990. 6. Herman Paektau's i l l e g i t i m a c y , and Deacon B l o c k ' s l a c k o f g u i d a n c e d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d show t h e s p u r i o u s n a t u r e o f B l o c k ' s myth'of t h e wisdom o f t h e f a t h e r s . 7. I n t h e F i r s t W o r l d War, a l l Mennonites l i v i n g i n Canada were a u t o m a t i c a l l y exempted from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e under t h e terms o f t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' o r i g i n a l i m m i g r a t i o n agreement w i t h t h e Dominion Government. But t h o s e who e n t e r e d Canada between 1923 and 1930, i n t h e second g r e a t m i g r a t i o n from R u s s i a , were a d m i t t e d on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e y were l e g a l l y o b l i g e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e l i k e any o t h e r Canadian c i t i z e n s i n t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e i r c o u n t r y . Wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t t h e Mennonites o f W a p i t i came t o Canada i n t h e second wave o f m i g r a t i o n . F o r a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e R u s s l a n d e r s ' l e g a l and m o r a l p o s i t i o n , see E . K . F r a n c i s , In S e a r c h o f U t o p i a : t h e Mennonites i n M a n i t o b a ( G l e n c o e : The F r e e P r e s s , 1955) 232-42. 8. T h i s t e r m was c o i n e d by t h e a r t c r i t i c , R o b e r t Hughes, whose book and t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s on m o d e r n i s t p a i n t i n g were e n t i t l e d The Shock o f t h e New. 9. S p e c i e s I i n B a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y scheme. 10. Wiebe c r e a t e s a s i m i l a r t e n s i o n between sameness and d i f f e r e n c e by g i v i n g B i b l i c a l names t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s . As Joseph Dueck p o i n t s out i n h i s l e t t e r t o Thorn, t h e i n d i v i d u a l s concerned may i n some r e s p e c t s be s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o t h e i r B i b l i c a l namesakes, but be s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s . 11. S p e c i e s I I i n B a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system. 71 CHAPTER 3 : FIRST AND VITAL CANDLE How S h a l l We Speak About H i s t o r y ? I F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e c o n t a i n s a l l t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f a p o p u l a r a d v e n t u r e romance: a s t r o n g , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t p r o t a g o n i s t , a d i a b o l i c a l a n t a g o n i s t , p r i s t i n e n o r t h e r n - w i l d e r n e s s s c e n e r y , c o l o u r f u l ' d e p i c t i o n s o f N a t i v e p e o p l e s and t h e i r customs, a s u s p e n s e f u l p l o t p u n c t u a t e d by scenes of v i o l e n c e , and a l o v e a f f a i r w h i c h ends w i t h t h e d e a t h o f t h e main f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i n a s p e c t a c u l a r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r . Wiebe s e a r c h e s f o r c h a r a c t e r s and s t o r i e s w h i c h might command t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a w i d e r , more d i v e r s e r e a d e r s h i p , an a u d i e n c e not ( c o n s c i o u s l y ) i n t e r e s t e d i n m o r a l o r s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t , Abe Ross, p r o f e s s e s not t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n such m a t t e r s . Compared w i t h Thorn Wiens, a devout Mennonite, Abe Ross i s a c h a r a c t e r w i t h whom a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f r e a d e r s m i g h t i m a g i n a t i v e l y i d e n t i f y . F i r s t and V i t a l Candle t r a c e s Abe's g r a d u a l d i s c o v e r y o f h i s deep need f o r l o v e and a f i x e d s p i r i t u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a m i d s t t h e f e a r , g r e e d and a l i e n a t i o n o f N o r t h American c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y d u r i n g t h e C o l d War e r a . By f o c u s s i n g on a "modern Everyman" ( K e i t h 1981a, 3 3 ) , Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s t h e r e l e v a n c e o f J e s u s ' message o f l o v e and peace i n such a way t h a t "the p e r s o n who i s n o n - r e l i g i o u s . . . can say, Yes, t h a t i s a p o s s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e " (Cameron, 157). In h i s c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f Abe Ross, Wiebe demonstrates what B a k h t i n c a l l s "an a c u t e awareness o f t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r , t h e a d d r e s s e e t o whom i t i s d i r e c t e d " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 205). L i k e a l l r h e t o r i c i a n s , Wiebe " t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e o t h e r ' s p o s s i b l e r e a c t i o n s , t h e o t h e r ' s p o s s i b l e r e p l y " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 205). I n f a c t , on one l e v e l , F i r s t and V i t a l Candle i s p r e c i s e l y about t h e r e a c t i o n s o f an i n t e r l o c u t o r . I n s t e a d of i g n o r i n g o r d e n y i n g t h e f a c t t h a t many r e a d e r s f e e l i n t i m i d a t e d by any d i s c o u r s e t h a t resembles a sermon, Wiebe f o c u s e s d i r e c t l y on t h i s p r o b l e m . He pre-empts, p a r r i e s , and e x p l a i n s t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r ' s p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i o n s t o C h r i s t i a n r h e t o r i c , i n d e e d t o a n y t h i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s an o v e r t message i n a work o f a r t . N o n - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s see r e f l e c t e d i n Abe t h e i r own h o s t i l i t y o r i n d i f f e r e n c e towards t h e word o f God. However, as Wiebe e x p l o r e s t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d such h o s t i l i t y , he i n t i m a t e s t h a t i t c o n c e a l s a deeper a m b i v a l e n c e . ^ Through Abe, Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s t h e c o n f l i c t i n g needs o f a l l who s e a r c h f o r meaning, whether t h e y s e a r c h i n t h e w o r l d o f v e r b a l o r n o n - v e r b a l s i g n s . Abe's s i t u a t i o n i s analogous 73 t o t h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f r e a d e r s , as t h e y attempt t o o r i e n t themselves a m i d s t t h e p o s s i b l e systems o f meaning t h a t p e r t a i n i n t h e t e x t . Abe runs from t h e t y r a n n i c a l m o n o l o g i c v o i c e of t h e p r e a c h e r , y e t he cannot t o l e r a t e t h e d i s s i p a t i o n o f meaning which p o l y p h o n y , u n h i e r a r c h i s e d h e t e r o g l o s s i a , u l t i m a t e l y i m p l i e s . He r e s i s t s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f any s i n g l e p e r m a n e n t l y s o v e r e i g n v o i c e , y e t y e a r n s t o f i n d some s o r t o f l i n g u i s t i c c e n t r e , o r some s t a b l e h i e r a r c h y o f l a n g u a g e s f o r c o n f e r r i n g meaning on t h e w o r l d . S i m i l a r l y , Wiebe's h y p o t h e t i c a l n o n - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r r e c o i l s from any work, o f a r t t h a t parades i t s message t o o o v e r t l y , y e t cannot q u i t e s u p p r e s s t h e l i n g e r i n g hope o f f i n d i n g some s p i r i t u a l l y s u s t a i n i n g k e r n e l of meaning i n t h e t e x t . L i k e Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e p r e s e n t s a t h e s i s , b u t i t does so f a r more s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y t h a n t h e e a r l i e r n o v e l . In F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s t h e many p i t f a l l s w h i c h f a c e e v a n g e l i s t i c C h r i s t i a n s such as h i m s e l f . In s e c u l a r genres such as t h e n o v e l , t h e Word o f God e n j o y s no i n s u l a t i o n from o r d i n a r y human words. O u t s i d e t h e p r o t e c t i v e cocoons o f r i t u a l and s a c r e d space, t h e n o v e l t r a n s m i t s t h e word o f God t o an u n f o r e s e e a b l e v a r i e t y of s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s where i t must s t a n d up a g a i n s t , o r be v a n q u i s h e d by, t h e f u l l f o r c e o f t h e w i d e r w o r l d ' s s o v e r e i g n d i s c o u r s e s . An emblematic image i n F i r s t and V i t a l Candle i s t h e s i g n "Jesus Saves," squeezed between " B i g A u c t i o n E v e r y Day. 2 pm New and Used C l o t h i n g " and " S c h n i t z l e r Good Sausages and Meats" (FVC 20).1 How might Wiebe make "Jesus Saves" s t a n d out from a l l o t h e r t r u t h s which a s s a u l t h i s r e a d e r s ' awareness, w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o t h e s t r i d e n t , t y r a n n i c a l r h e t o r i c o f Adam Ross, who " t h u n d e r [ s ] what...the L o r d had stomped i n t o him" (299)? H a v i n g a r t i c u l a t e d h i s commitment t o t h e i d e a l o f non- a g g r e s s i o n i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, how might Wiebe b e g i n t o implement t h a t i d e a l i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h o s e who r e a d h i s n o v e l s ? In F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , Wiebe endeavours t o s o l v e t h i s dilemma by r e - a t t u n i n g t h e ear o f t h e r e a d e r . I n s t e a d o f s p e a k i n g more s t r i d e n t l y and d i r e c t l y , t u r n i n g up t h e volume as i t were, he a t t e m p t s t o r e - s e n s i t i z e h i s r e a d e r s ' r e c e i v i n g a p p a r a t u s . Wiebe " p o s i t i o n s " r e a d e r s c a r e f u l l y i n t h e hope t h a t t h e y might hear an o l d message from a new a n g l e . He b r e a k s t h e E n g l i s h language i n t o i t s component speech g e n r e s , w h i c h he s o r t s and e v a l u a t e s a g a i n s t t h e m o r a l c r i t e r i a a r t i c u l a t e d i n J e s u s ' u t t e r a n c e s . A l t h o u g h F i r s t and V i t a l Candle l a c k s t h e c o n s p i c u o u s i n t e r n a l b o r d e r l i n e s w h i c h g i v e The B l u e Mountains of C h i n a and The Temptations o f B i g Bear t h e i r c o l l a g e - l i k e appearance, i t c o n t a i n s a network o f i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s , some t y p o g r a p h i c a l l y marked, o t h e r s h a l f - h i d d e n o r c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e u t t e r a n c e . E x t e n d e d passages o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e appear a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s i n t h e t e x t , and Wiebe's i n t e r e s t i n i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d words c o n t i n u e s t o d e v e l o p . In f i f t e e n o f t h e n o v e l ' s e i g h t e e n c h a p t e r s , t h e v o i c e o f Abe Ross b l e n d s and i n t e r w e a v e s w i t h t h e v o i c e o f an o m n i s c i e n t t h i r d p e r s o n n a r r a t o r ; Abe's v o i c e a l o n e n a r r a t e s t h e t h r e e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s . F i r s t and V i t a l Candle m a n i f e s t s a g r e a t e r degree o f speech d i v e r s i t y t h a n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. However t h a t d i v e r s i t y c o n t i n u e s t o s e r v e r h e t o r i c a l r a t h e r t h a n e x p l o r a t o r y p u r p o s e s . I I The s t o r y o f Abe Ross conforms t o t h e B i b l i c a l a r c h e t y p e o f t h e p r o d i g a l son. Both sons w a l k a c i r c u l a r p a t h o f e x i l e and r e t u r n , l o s s and r e d i s c o v e r y . Abe a l s o t r a v e l s a c i r c u l a r p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e word of God. A t t h e age o f s e v e n t e e n , he l e a v e s b e h i n d h i s f a t h e r ' s v o i c i n g o f God's words; a t f o r t y , Abe r e d i s c o v e r s t h e word of God r e a c c e n t u a t e d 2 i n t h e mouths o f S a l l y H o w e l l and J o s h B i s h o p . I n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d , Abe wanders i n a w i l d e r n e s s o f v o i c e s , l o n e l y , s p i r i t u a l l y empty and d e s p a i r i n g a t l i f e ' s m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s and f u t i l i t y . Wiebe's t e x t t a k e s up Abe's s t o r y i n medias r e s . I n t h e C h a p t e r s 1, 2, 3 and 5, i n which Abe " r e s t s " i n W i n n i p e g , Wiebe uses Abe's f i e l d o f awareness as a d e v i c e t o r e g i s t e r t h e c o n f u s i n g m u l t i t u d e o f speech genres w h i c h crowd i n t o , f r a c t u r e , and f i n a l l y numb c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c i t y e n v i r o n m e n t s . The Winnipeg s e c t i o n o f F i r s t and V i t a l Candle d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h Wiebe d i f f e r s from B a k h t i n i n h i s a t t i t u d e towards a l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f p o l y p h o n y . Through Abe, f r e s h from t h e v e r b a l s p a r s e n e s s o f t h e A r c t i c , Wiebe d e - n a t u r a l i s e s t h e c i t y d w e l l e r s ' "normal a d j u s t m e n t " (57) t o t h e i r p o l y p h o n i c e n v i r o n m e n t . He d r a m a t i s e s t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t of t h a t environment on t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g , and s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f . Wiebe does not employ polyphony i n t h e e x u b e r a n t c e l e b r a t o r y mode o f p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s such as Robert K r o e t s c h o r George B o w e r i n g . On t h e c o n t r a r y , he suggests t h a t a p l u r a l i t y o f f u l l y v a l i d v o i c e s t h r e a t e n s c o h e r e n t t h o u g h t , p a r a l y s e s e m o t i o n , and undermines s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f . Wiebe s t y l i z e s p o l y p h o n y most c o n c r e t e l y i n C h a p t e r s 2 and 3 o f F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , i n t h e scenes o f t h e K i n c o n n e l l s ' p a r t y and t h e Red V i n e C l u b . 3 By p l a c i n g Abe i n crowded, n o i s y , c l a u s t r o p h o b i c rooms, where v o i c e s become e n s n a r l e d and b r o k e n and no s i n g l e t h r e a d o f d i s c o u r s e can be f o l l o w e d t o i t s end, Wiebe g u i d e s h i s r e a d e r s toward an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r own l i n g u i s t i c m i l i e u and i t s e f f e c t s 77 on t h e p s y c h e . In b o t h of t h e s e scenes o f cacophony, Abe cannot t o l e r a t e t h e n o i s e . To s h i e l d h i m s e l f f r o m t h e " i n c r e d i b l e c l a c k i n g r a c k e t " (33) i n t h e K i n c o n n e l l s ' basement, he f i r s t " d e l i b e r a t e l y s h u t [ s ] out h i s h e a r i n g " (33) and t h e n d r i n k s h i m s e l f i n t o o b l i v i o n . A t t h e Red V i n e C l u b , h i s b e h a v i o u r f o l l o w s a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n : ...as he now s a t , b e a t e n by clamour, w a i l s , s h o u t s , b a r k s , f o o t - s t o m p i n g , and t h e l o w - t o n e d w h i s p e r s from t h e a d j a c e n t t a b l e s a l l r a n t o g e t h e r i n one g r i n d i n g cacophony h a l l e l u j a h amen when my baby s m i l e s a t me...o j e s u s j e s u s j e s u s how i l o v e you j e s u s s a f e i n your arms o d a r l i n g s a f e on y o u r g e n t l e b r e a s t t h e r e by your l o v e i g o t j u s t what i wanted i g o t j u s t what i needed As i f dropped i n t o a v o i d , s u d d e n l y a l l was gone. A f t e r a moment Abe r e a l i z e d he was slumped down on a r e d - l e a t h e r s e a t , head i n h i s arms as i f t o s h i e l d s o m e t h i n g v i t a l from a n n i h i l a t i o n . He s a t up t h e n , l o o k e d a c r o s s t h e room and w i t h o u t a b r e a k o f movement r o s e and went t o t h e t a b l e where J i m was l e a n i n g back, p i c k i n g up t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h t h e t h r e e g i r l s . "Jim, I'm s o r r y t o i n t e r r u p t , b u t i t ' s l a t e and I'm g o i n g . " (62) F a r f r o m f e e l i n g e n r i c h e d o r l i b e r a t e d by h i s e x p e r i e n c e s o f p o l y p h o n y , Abe's o v e r l o a d e d awareness b l a c k s o u t . Swamped by r e l e n t l e s s waves o f p r e s e n t and remembered p a s t v e r b a l d i n , c o n s c i o u s n e s s does not r i s e t o new p i n n a c l e s o f freedom and e n l i g h t e n m e n t ; i t s i n k s i n t o o b l i v i o n . D u r i n g h i s t i m e i n W i n n i p e g , Abe s t r a i n s t o hear some s i n g l e v o i c e he can f o l l o w . F l e e t i n g l y , a m i d s t the cacophony, he h e a r s words w h i c h seem t o speak t o him i n a s p e c i a l way. But t h e y a r e a u d i b l e o n l y i n f r a g m e n t s , i n s n a t c h e s o f memory, s c r a p s o f g r a f f i t i , moments o f h e i g h t e n e d awareness l i s t e n i n g t o Bach. B e f o r e Abe can even 78 name h i s f l i c k e r i n g i n t i m a t i o n s , o t h e r languages and v o i c e s b e s i e g e h i s f i e l d o f awareness, c l a s h i n g v i o l e n t l y and b r e a k i n g a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r . Abe's e x p e r i e n c e s d r a m a t i s e t h e unanchored mind's f u t i l e and e x h a u s t i n g s e a r c h f o r meaning i n p o l y p h o n i c space. They a l s o a l l o w Wiebe t o d r a m a t i s e s h i s own p r o b l e m a t i c p o s i t i o n as an e v a n g e l i c a l C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r i n a complex, cacophonous, h e t e r o g l o t w o r l d , where p e o p l e h a b i t u a l l y b l o c k out a l l u t t e r a n c e s w h i c h do not i m m e d i a t e l y s a t i s f y t h e i r most p r e s s i n g needs. F i r s t and V i t a l .Candle t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t i t s own " d i a l o g i z i n g background" ( B a k h t i n 1981, 7 6 ) , t h e m a n i f o l d e x i s t i n g u t t e r a n c e s t o w h i c h i t r e p l i e s and a g a i n s t w h i c h i t must d e f i n e i t s e l f i n t h e p u b l i c domain. A number o f c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e n o v e l e x e m p l i f y t h e way Wiebe does n o t want t o sound. The o v e r - e m p h a t i c u t t e r a n c e s o f S h e r r i s K i n c o n n e l l r e i f y speech a d a p t e d t o t h a t most dense o f p o l y p h o n i c m i l i e u x , t h e crowded p a r t y . Wiebe's i t a l i c s i n d i c a t e S h e r r i s ' s e x a g g e r a t e d i n t o n a t i o n : "he was so unhappy b u t he had t o c a t c h a p l a n e t o n i g h t " ( 2 4 ) . An i n f l a t e d v e r b a l c u r r e n c y , her words c a r r y l i t t l e s i n c e r i t y o r s e m a n t i c v a l u e . Her over-abundant a d j e c t i v e s s t r a i n upwards i n t o t h e r e a l m of s u p e r l a t i v e s and empty h y p e r b o l e : " a b s o l u t e l y d e l i g h t f u l " ( 2 3 ) , " c o m p l e t e l y i n t r i g u e d " ( 2 3 ) , 79 "so d r e a d f u l l y narrow" ( 2 3 ) , " a b s o l u t e l y y e a r s " ( 2 3 ) , "so happy you came!" ( 2 3 ) , " a b s o l u t e l y p r o s t r a t e " ( 2 4 ) . The speech of t h e s o c i e t y h o s t e s s b e a r s t h e s c a r s o f her c o n s t a n t b a t t l e t o command a t t e n t i o n a m i d s t a crowd o f competing v o i c e s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e " s t r i d e n t v o i c e o f t h e p r e a c h e r " (61) and t h e " r o c k - c r u s h e r t o n e s o f t h e g i r l s i n g i n g [above] h e r e l e c t r i c g u i t a r " (61-2) i l l u s t r a t e how t h e Word o f God becomes d i s t o r t e d and u n r e c o g n i s a b l e as e v a n g e l i s t s t r y more and more d e s p e r a t e l y t o a m p l i f y i t above t h e c o m p e t i n g d i n . The t e x t o f F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e m a n i f e s t s p o l y p h o n y o n l y t o r e i f y and denounce i t . P o l y p h o n y becomes a bounded o b j e c t i n t h e t e x t , an u n p l e a s a n t b u t n e c e s s a r y s t a g e i n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n t o r e s t o r e t h e l o s t o r u n r e c o g n i s e d a u t h o r i t y o f God's v o i c e . F o r Wiebe, p o l y p h o n y f u n c t i o n s as a means t o a m o n o l o g i c end, not as an end i n i t s e l f . He c o n d u c t s Abe t h r o u g h o r beyond an e x p e r i e n c e o f p o l y p h o n y towards a n o t h e r g o a l . Because Wiebe h a r n e s s e s h i s r e a d e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n s t o t h o s e of Abe Ross, t h e r e a d e r , t o o , must endure a c o n f u s i n g p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d v o i c e s , b e f o r e moving beyond t h a t e x p e r i e n c e t o r e a c h a new p e r c e p t i o n o f o r d e r and c o h e r e n t meaning. L i k e t h e p r o d i g a l son, who had t o g e t l o s t b e f o r e he c o u l d be found,. Wiebe's r e a d e r s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l e s o f 80 o r i e n t a t i o n , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n and r e o r i e n t a t i o n as t h e y n e g o t i a t e a p a t h t h r o u g h a t e x t w h i c h moves r e p e a t e d l y from monologue i n t o p o l y p h o n y and on towards a new h i e r a r c h y o f v o i c e s . In t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s , as Abe wanders t h e crowded n i g h t - t i m e s t r e e t s o f Winnipeg, Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s a mind " l o o k i n g i n t e n s e l y " ( 9 ) but s e e i n g n o t h i n g , a mind t r y i n g t o c a t c h h o l d o f something, y e t open t o t o o many i m p r e s s i o n s t o h o l d f a s t t o any one o f them. Abe cannot o r d e r o r rank h i s p e r c e p t i o n s . H i s w o r l d r e s e m b l e s a m e a n i n g l e s s t e x t i n w h i c h e v e r y element c a r r i e s an e q u a l a c c e n t . Wiebe's grammar, p u n c t u a t i o n and s y n t a x f o r c e r e a d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n Abe's d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , by s u b v e r t i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f " v o i c i n g , " o r a c c o r d i n g r e l a t i v e w e i g h t t o t h e words and s y l l a b l e s o f t h e t e x t : He had been w a l k i n g a l o n g P o r t a g e Avenue f o r more t h a n an hour, g l a n c e s e a r c h i n g out f i r s t a s t o r e window, t h e n a c a r g l i d i n g by under t h r o t t l e d power, l o o k i n g i n t e n s e l y though come t h e e v e n i n g ' s end and d r o p p i n g i n t o bed he would remember not one d e t a i l o f t h e mass, c o u p l e s c h a t t i n g as t h e y p a s s e d o b l i v i o u s , when l o o k i n g down i n t o a r e s t a u r a n t below s t r e e t l e v e l Abe Ross saw t h e g i r l s e a t e d a l o n e a t t h e t a b l e . ...He was by, t h e w h i t e image o f t h e g i r l d r i f t i n g p a s t h i s memory l i k e any m y r i a d o f shapes p a s s e d and f o r g o t t e n i n who c o u l d r e c o l l e c t how may towns and t e n t s and c i t i e s and farmhouses, and he s t o p p e d . ( 9 ) The d i s o r i e n t i n g e f f e c t o f t h i s passage a r i s e s not because Wiebe p r o b l e m a t i z e t h e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e o f t h e t e x t , 4 but t h r o u g h Wiebe's momentary p l u r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a c c e n t s o f t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e . Each s e n t e n c e e s t a b l i s h e s a p a r t i c u l a r s y n t a c t i c d i r e c t i o n o r n a r r a t i v e l i n e i n i t s i n i t i a l c l a u s e , l o s e s i t s way i n a t a n g l e o f r i g h t - b r a n c h i n g s u b o r d i n a t e 81 p h r a s e s and c l a u s e s , and t h e n r e c o v e r s i t s o r i g i n a l p a t h i n a second main c l a u s e w h i c h t e r m i n a t e s t h e s e n t e n c e . B o t h s e n t e n c e s become s u b t l y m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l 5 i n t h e i r m i d d l e s e c t i o n s , where t h e more t h a n one p o s s i b l e . s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e can be d i s c e r n e d . How, f o r example, s h o u l d r e a d e r s v o i c e t h e embedded q u e s t i o n i n t h e second s e n t e n c e ? S h o u l d "who c o u l d r e c o l l e c t how many towns and t e n t s and c i t i e s and farmhouses" be spoken w i t h a r i s i n g i n t e r r o g a t i v e p i t c h ? Or w i t h t h e f a l l i n g p i t c h o f a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n ? Or w i t h t h e l e v e l p i t c h i n d i c a t e d by t h e v e r y s u b o r d i n a t e g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h i s c l a u s e i n l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e s e n t e n c e ? Wiebe's t e x t p e r m i t s t h e mind's e a r t o hear s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e r e a d i n g s o r " v o i c i n g s " o f t h e s e words. I n c o n s i s t e n t p u n c t u a t i o n a l s o confounds t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e . By o m i t t i n g a comma between "when" and " l o o k i n g " and between " l e v e l " and "Abe" i n t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e , Wiebe c o n f r o n t s r e a d e r s w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g s i g n a l s f o r p a u s i n g and s t r e s s . On o c c a s i o n s , s y n t a x and p u n c t u a t i o n i s s u e c o n t r a d i c t o r y commands. T h e ' s y n t a x of t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e t e l l s t h e v o i c e t o pause between "passed" and " o b l i v i o u s , " b u t t h e absence o f a comma i m p l i e s t h a t " o b l i v i o u s " i s t h e o b j e c t o f "passed,". and t h a t no pause s h o u l d s e p a r a t e t h e s e two words. Unorthodox p u n c t u a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y when c o u p l e d w i t h c o n v o l u t e d s y n t a x , c r e a t e s g r a m m a t i c a l and semantic a m b i g u i t i e s w h i c h f u r t h e r b a f f l e t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e . F o r example, "a c a r g l i d i n g by under t h r o t t l e d power, l o o k i n g i n t e n s e l y , " and " d r o p p i n g i n t o bed he would remember" m i g h t each be a r t i c u l a t e d e i t h e r as i n s t a n c e s o f e l l i p s i s , o r as examples o f m i s p l a c e d m o d i f i e r s . A t t h e same t i m e , p a s t and p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s such as " t h r o t t l e d , " " l o o k i n g , " " d r o p p i n g , " " c h a t t i n g , " " s e a t e d , " " p a s t , " and " f o r g o t t e n " c o n f u s e t h e r e a d e r ' s sense o f t e m p o r a l l i n e a r i t y , and b l u r t h e v o c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s between a d j e c t i v e s and v e r b s . How s h o u l d t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e r e s o l v e t h e s e a m b i g u i t i e s ? The p o i n t t o be s t r e s s e d , however, i s t h a t t h e m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s i s temporary and i l l u s o r y . Wiebe's g r a m m a t i c a l a m b i g u i t i e s , h i s unorthodox p u n c t u a t i o n and h i s s y n t a c t i c c o n v o l u t i o n s postpone but do not p r e v e n t t h e r e a d e r ' s d i s c o v e r y o f a p o s i t i o n from which t h e meaning o f t h e s e n t e n c e can be known. W i t h i n t h e space o f each o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s , r e a d e r s undergo a p r o c e s s of d i s o r i e n t a t i o n as Wiebe c r e a t e s an a r r a y o f e q u a l l y v i a b l e o p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e manner i n which t h e words and p h r a s e s s h o u l d be h e a r d . But t h i s d i s o r i e n t a t i o n i s f o l l o w e d by a sudden r e - o r i e n t a t i o n , as t h e s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e p a t t e r n s o f a c c e n t u a t i o n , pace, p i t c h and p a u s i n g r e s o l v e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a s i n g l e " r i g h t " v o c a l i s a t i o n . Wiebe s u b j e c t s r e a d e r s t o a s i m i l a r c y c l e o f d i s o r i e n t a t i o n f o l l o w e d by r e o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e space o f 83 c e r t a i n p a r a g r a p h s i n t h e t e x t . L i k e t h e b e a u t i f u l f e m a l e s t r a n g e r whom Abe f o l l o w s i n C h a p t e r 1, t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e o f t h e t e x t r e p e a t e d l y g e t s l o s t i n a crowd o f o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s , o n l y t o re-emerge f u r t h e r on: [1] A t a x i e a s e d p a s t , t h e d r i v e r t r y i n g t o c a t c h h i s eYef [2] she m i g h t have t a k e n one. You c o u l d w a l k f o r a week i n W i n n i p e g and i f — [3] why was I so s t u p i d ? — [4] he paused a t t h e [5]"Don't Walk," [6] t h e c u r b b a l a n c i n g h i s f e e t . A s c a t t e r o f p e o p l e w a i t e d a c r o s s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n . [7] B u s - s t o p . [8] The l i g h t f l i c k e d and he c r o s s e d knowing a l r e a d y she was not among them. He s t r o d e t h r o u g h o b l i v i o u s and j u s t beyond t h e r e s t a u r a n t a t t h e c o r n e r t h r o u g h t h e d o u b l e g l a s s o f a s t o r e t h e edge o f h i s g l a n c e snagged a g a i n s t [ t h e ] b l u e [ o f her c l o a k ] . (17) The o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e b e g i n s t h i s passage ( s e c t i o n 1 ) , breaks t h r o u g h i n t e r m i t t e n t l y i n t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n s (4 and 6 ) , and r e c o v e r s i t s former dominance i n s e c t i o n 8. T h i s v o i c e merges w i t h Abe's i n n e r monologue i n s e c t i o n s 2 and 7; i t quotes t h e "Don't Walk" s i g n i n s e c t i o n 5; w h i l e i n s e c t i o n 3 Abe's, v o i c e b r i e f l y b r e a k s t h r o u g h by i t s e l f . A g a i n , a c y c l i c movement becomes a p p a r e n t . In s e c t i o n s 2 t o 7 i n c l u s i v e , Wiebe sometimes b l e n d s , sometimes i n t e r l a c e s t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e w i t h Abe's v o i c e and w i t h what might be c a l l e d "the v o i c e s o f t h e c i t y . " Y e t i n s e c t i o n 8, he r e s t o r e s t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e t o i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n o f dominance i n t h e p a r a g r a p h . A c o n g r u e n t c y c l e o f monologue l o s t and r e s t o r e d can be d i s c e r n e d on a l a r g e r s c a l e w i t h i n t h e n o v e l as a whole. No sooner have r e a d e r s o r i e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s and found t h e i r way 84 onto t h e main n a r r a t i v e f r e e w a y t h a n Wiebe d i v e r t s them i n t o t h e o b s c u r e , bumpy byways o f f l a s h b a c k , a l l e g o r y , and numerous as y e t i l l - d e f i n e d i n s e r t e d u t t e r a n c e s and n a r r a t i v e modes: s i g n s , p l a q u e s , g r a f f i t i , songs, fragments o f remembered speech, p r i c e t a g s , a b u s i n e s s c a r d , Abe's b r i e f i n t e r j e c t o r y f i r s t p e r s o n e x c l a m a t i o n s and q u e s t i o n s , t o u r i s t g u i d e p a t t e r , a newspaper a d v e r t i s e m e n t , s n a t c h e s o f t h e B i b l e , s c r a p s o f p a r t y - t a l k , t h e i n t i m a t e s e c u l a r c o n f e s s i o n s between c l o s e f r i e n d s , t h e s u s t a i n e d f l a s h b a c k o f Chapter 4, and Abe's A r c t i c a d v e n t u r e s t o r y cum p a r a b l e i n Chapter 1. Amongst t h e d i v e r s e u t t e r a n c e s and speech genres w h i c h p e n e t r a t e t h e w o r l d c r e a t e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f r e a l i s m , r e a d e r s l o s e s i g h t o f t h e landmarks w h i c h i n i t i a l l y gave them t h e i r b e a r i n g s i n t h e w o r l d o f t h e n o v e l . Where, one wonders, i s t h i s s t o r y g o i n g ? From a v a n t a g e p o i n t a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , Wiebe's s t r a t e g y becomes c l e a r : Wiebe s u b j e c t s t h e d i s c o u r s e of t h e t e x t t o c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r o r g a n i s i n g i t around a new c e n t r e . I n i t i a l l y , Wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s a dominant n a r r a t i v e v o i c e i n t h e t e x t , a v o i c e i n w h i c h Abe and an anonymous o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r speak i n u n i s o n . Wiebe t h e n f r a c t u r e s t h e d i s c o u r s e i n C h a p t e r s 1 t o 5, as a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o h i s subsequent r e a s s e m b l y o f t h e b r o k e n p i e c e s i n t o a new h i e r a r c h y . From C h a p t e r 6 onwards, t h e d i s o r i e n t e d r e a d e r g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r e s a new o r i e n t a t i o n 85 within the f i e l d of the text. Across the course of the novel as a whole, the reader's d i s o r i e n t a t i o n diminishes f o r two main reasons. F i r s t , the texture of the language changes when the action s h i f t s from one verbal milieu to another. When Abe moves from Winnipeg to Frozen Lake, and begins to define and h i e r a r c h i z e the voices and languages he hears i n the world, these voices and languages o s s i f y and f a l l into ranks within the f i e l d of the text. Wiebe begins to group the l i n g u i s t i c scraps together, d i s t r i b u t i n g them consistently between the utterances of d i f f e r e n t characters. He gradually builds the chopped and vaguely-defined fragments of Part 1 into the s o l i d , substantial, i n t e r n a l l y consistent blocks of speech which duel against one another i n the extended dialogues of Parts 5 , 6 and 7 . Characters such as John Marsden, Amos Quequeish, S a l l y Howell and Josh Bishop speak as ideologues, 6 as mouthpieces f o r d i s t i n c t v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s . The s o c i a l struggle i m p l i c i t i n the i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y of the early chapters emerges more and more into the open, i n the compositionally marked dialogues which occur i n the l a t e r portions of the text. There, the characters engage i n debate expressly about the virtues and l i m i t a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t ways of t a l k i n g about the world. The second reason d i s o r i e n t a t i o n diminishes i s that the 86 r e a d e r l e a r n s p r o g r e s s i v e l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s i n t h e jumble of speech g e n r e s embedded i n t h e t e x t . R e o r i e n t a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e t e m p o r a l as w e l l as t h e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n . I n s t e a d o f h e a r i n g a cacophony, r e a d e r s b e g i n t o hear ranked c h o r u s e s o r f a m i l i e s o f v o i c e s which e v e n t u a l l y converge i n t o a s i n g l e h i e r a r c h y n e a r t h e end o f t h e t e x t . Wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s between t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c e r t a i n speech g e n r e s . He t r a i n s t h e r e a d e r t o hear s i m i l a r i t y and d i f f e r e n c e a c c o r d i n g t o new c r i t e r i a . R e - r e a d i n g t h e W i n n i p e g s e c t i o n o f t h e t e x t , t h e p r o d i g a l r e a d e r , e a r a t t u n e d anew, r e c o g n i z e s t h e broken shreds o f d i s c o u r s e embedded i n C h a p t e r s 1 t o 5 as t h e t a t t e r e d o u t e r l i m i t s o f c e r t a i n speech genres o r p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r s ' v o i c e z o n e s . 7 I l l I t i s not by chance t h a t Wiebe p l a c e s Abe i n W i n n i p e g i n t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e : Winnipeg c a r r i e s h i s t o r i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s e s s e n t i a l t o h i s theme o f s p i r i t u a l (and l i n g u i s t i c ) e x i l e and r e t u r n . W h i l e w a n d e r i n g a i m l e s s l y around W i n n i p e g , Abe comes a c r o s s t h e grave o f L o u i s R i e l , t h e grave a l s o o f R i e l ' s dream o f a r e l i g i o u s n a t i o n . O n l y R i e l ' s tomb and t h e S t . B o n i f a c e B a s i l i c a remain as m a t e r i a l t r a c e s o f t h a t dream. W i n n i p e g was once a 87 C h r i s t i a n s t r o n g h o l d , b u t by t h e time Abe a r r i v e s , t h e s e c u l a r i s a t i o n o f Canada i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e . R i e l ' s dream has f l e d ( t o J o s h B i s h o p ' s mind a t F r o z e n L a k e ) . God's words h o l d s o v e r e i g n t y o n l y on t i n y i s l a n d s o f space and time i n t h e m i d s t o f a n o n - r e l i g i o u s way of l i f e . W o r s h i p o c c u r s a t s e t t i m e s on s e t d a y s . A s e x t o n l o c k s t h e c h u r c h e s a f t e r b u s i n e s s h o u r s . G r a s s grows o v e r R i e l ' s s e l d o m - v i s i t e d g r a v e , and t o u r i s t s outnumber w o r s h i p p e r s i n S t . B o n i f a c e B a s i l i c a . In t h e W i n n i p e g s c e n e s , t h e t e x t u r e o f Wiebe's p r o s e r e n d e r s t h e famed " d e c l i n e of C h r i s t i a n i t y " a u d i b l e . L i k e a modern-day B a b e l , W i n n i p e g i s a p l a c e o f cacophony i n w h i c h t h e v o i c e o f God s t r u g g l e s v a i n l y t o be h e a r d above t h e r e s t . P r o f a n e d i s c o u r s e s appear t o have o v e r r u n t h e c i t y , m o n o p o l i z i n g i t s p r e s e n t meaning and r e - w r i t i n g t h e meaning o f i t s p a s t . T a l l b u i l d i n g s , monuments t o t h e power of money, dominate t h e s k y l i n e . The church door i s "now i n shadow under t h e department s t o r e " ( 4 6 ) . B r i g h t l y l i t s t o r e window d i s p l a y s r e a f f i r m J i m MacLaren's c l a i m t h a t "Without money i n t h i s c o u n t r y you've got n o t h i n g . You c a n ' t do n o t h i n g . You a r e n o t h i n g " ( 5 9 ) . Words c o n c e r n i n g God r e s i d e i n t h e down-and-out p a r t o f town. I n s t e a d o f s h i n i n g out i n up-town neon b r i l l i a n c e , t h e y a r e s c r a w l e d o b s c u r e l y on w a l l s , o r j o s t l e d amongst t h e grimy b i l l b o a r d s and p l a c a r d s o f t h e s t r e e t . In Abe's psyche and t h e contemporary 88 w e s t e r n i s e d w o r l d i n g e n e r a l , t h e s t r u g g l e between s e c u l a r and r e l i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e s appears t o have f i n i s h e d , and s e c u l a r d i s c o u r s e s seem t o h o l d a l l t h e power. The word o f God, r o u t e d , has a l m o s t abandoned t h e f i e l d . But Wiebe's n o v e l a l s o o c c u p i e s t h a t f i e l d . Because Wiebe has not abandoned f a i t h i n t h e Word of God, t h e Word has not abandoned t h e t e x t o f t h e n o v e l . Nor has i t e n t i r e l y - d e s e r t e d t h e psyche o f Wiebe's a l l e g e d l y " n o n - C h r i s t i a n " p r o t a g o n i s t . In t h e language of t h e t e x t , which r e f l e c t s Abe's awareness, Wiebe b r i n g s t h e s t r u g g l e back t o l i f e a g a i n : [1] "Would you l i k e t o t o u r t h e B a s i l i c a ? " [2] and e x p l a i n t h e p r e c i s e c o s t o f t h e new b a p t i s t e r y a t t h e door and a n c i e n t g o l d - i n l a i d a l t a r p i e c e and t h e p u l p i t and t h e r e p l a c e m e n t v a l u e of [3] t h e whole cavernous mound [4] w h i l e as i n c i d e n t a l l y p o i n t i n g out t h e s t a t i o n where J e s u s f e l l f o r t h e t h i r d t i m e . [5] F a c t s a t l e a s t t h e boy c o u l d h a n d l e ; [6] w i t h h a r d i r o n y he t h o u g h t , [7] I have saved t h e w o r l d from one more sum a d d i c t . [8] Dreams were f o r men, not c h i l d r e n : l i k e t h e dream b u r i e d between t h e b a s i l i c a and t h e r i v e r , under t h e a l r e a d y b r o w n i s h g r a s s b e s i d e t h e i n e v i t a b l e b r o n z e p l a q u e : [9] TOMB OF LOUIS RIEL, PRESIDENT OF THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT OF 1869-70. [10] Governments t o o p r e f e r r e d f a c t s t o dreams, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e dreamer was so f o o l i s h as t o t r y t o r e a l i z e them.(45) A l t h o u g h o n l y s e c t i o n 9 i s t y p o g r a p h i c a l l y demarcated from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g t e x t , t h e whole passage i s s h o t t h r o u g h w i t h i n t e r n a l p o l e m i c as Wiebe f a n s t h e a p p a r e n t l y dead embers o f Winnipeg's r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e back 89 i n t o l i f e . In s e c t i o n s 2 and 4, where Abe p a r o d i c a l l y p a r a p h r a s e s t h e t o u r i s t g u i d e ' s s p i e l , two opposed i n t e n t i o n s s t r u g g l e i n t h e s i n g l e u t t e r a n c e . The language o f t h e t e x t r e - e n a c t s Abe's i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e . C h r i s t i a n and n o n - C h r i s t i a n components o f t h e s e l f c o n t e n d a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r . S e c t i o n 3 a r g u e s t h a t Abe has l e f t h i s C h r i s t i a n f a i t h e n t i r e l y b e h i n d ; however, i n s e c t i o n s 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 10, Abe i n t e r p r e t s t h e B a s i l i c a and R i e l s ' g r a v e from a C h r i s t i a n p e r s p e c t i v e . By r e f u s i n g t h e t o u r i s t g u i d e ' s o f f e r , Abe s y m b o l i c a l l y r e s i s t s t h e f a c t - m o n g e r s who endeavour t o s e i z e c o n t r o l o f t h e meaning o f t h e B a s i l i c a and R i e l ' s g r a v e . Abe's i n t e r n a l monologue i s r e a l l y an i n t e r n a l d i a l o g u e : t h e word o f God has not abandoned t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n psyche a f t e r a l l . In f a c t , i n t h i s passage, Abe's C h r i s t i a n v o i c e has emerged from "some f a r o f f unabandoned c o r n e r o f h i m s e l f " (38) and assumed a p o s i t i o n o f dominance o v e r h i s - s c e p t i c a l v o i c e . Wiebe's management o f t h e v o i c e s i n t h i s passage s u g g e s t s t h a t Abe's (and n o n - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s ' ) p r o f e s s i o n s o f n o n - b e l i e f s h o u l d not be a c c e p t e d a t f a c e v a l u e , and t h a t t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n s perhaps h i d e a d e e p e r , unacknowledged a m b i v a l e n c e towards God w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l psyche and t h e community as a whole. Wiebe asks r e a d e r s t o l i s t e n t o t h e o b s c u r e , m i n o r i t y v o i c e s w h i c h i n h a b i t t h e c i t y and t h e psyche. The h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f Wiebe's language f u n c t i o n s 90 r h e t o r i c a l l y i n t h a t i t r a i s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a remnant of C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f remains i n "some f a r o f f unabandoned c o r n e r " o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s who c o n s i d e r themselves members o f s e c u l a r s o c i e t y . Such i s c e r t a i n l y t h e case f o r Abe Ross. The paradox of Abe's s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t he has l e f t h i s f a i t h b e h i n d because he honours t h e a u t h o r i t y o f words from t h e B i b l e . Abe cannot f o r g e t h i s C h r i s t i a n p a s t e n t i r e l y . V o i c e s from t h e p a s t c o n t i n u e t o i n h a b i t h i s psyche. Even a f t e r t w e n t y t h r e e y e a r s away from h i s f a t h e r , Abe cannot f o r c e i n t o o b l i v i o n "the t h u n d e r e d ' t h o u - s h a l t s ' and ' t h o u - s h a l t - n o t s ' o f damnation t h a t f o r e v e r r u l e d " ( 4 5 ) . Moreover, even as Abe d i s c l a i m s h i s C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f , h i s f i g u r e s o f speech p e r p e t u a t e a C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e cosmos, and h i s c u r s e s i n v o k e t h e power o f a God i n whom he no l o n g e r b e l i e v e s : O n c e — t h a t d e v i l o f a t i m e j u s t a f t e r t h e w a r — a s a g - f a c e d man l e a n e d o v e r h i s c o t t h e r e when he c o u l d comprehend a g a i n and t o l d him he had c r i e d and begged f o r g i v e n e s s — o f a l l t h e damned r e l i g i o u s c o n f i d e n c e t r i c k s t o t r y on a hangover!(20) [emphasis added] In t h i s passage, Abe and Wiebe e n t e r i n t o u n e q u a l d i a l o g i c c o m p e t i t i o n . Abe i n t e n d s t o p r o c l a i m h i s n o n - b e l i e f , b u t Wiebe sabotages Abe's i n t e n t i o n by p u t t i n g C h r i s t i a n f i g u r e s o f speech i n t o Abe's mouth. Two a u t h o r i a l w i l l s s t r u g g l e w i t h i n a h y b r i d i s e d u t t e r a n c e , s i t u a t i n g t h a t u t t e r a n c e i n a space o f o v e r l a p between C h r i s t i a n and s e c u l a r frames o f r e f e r e n c e . But one frame o f r e f e r e n c e s u r r o u n d s and subsumes t h e o t h e r . Abe's f i c t i o n a l n o n - C h r i s t i a n p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e , e x i s t s o n l y as a bounded o b j e c t w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e o f a d e v o u t l y C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r . Wiebe m e d i a t e s between t h e c h a r a c t e r s and t h e r e a d e r s , t r a n s l a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s by h a v i n g annexed them i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f h i s t e x t . Wiebe's C h r i s t i a n i n t e n t i o n i n f i l t r a t e s a l l t h e o t h e r v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t , p u l l i n g them i n t o a d i f f e r e n t speech g e n r e : t h e n o v e l as a form o f C h r i s t i a n t e s t i m o n y . The u t t e r a n c e s o f Wiebe's C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s ( s u c h as S a l l y H o w e l l and J o s h B i s h o p ) seem i n e r t and r a t h e r l i f e l e s s because t h e y l a c k t h e i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n between c o m p e t i n g w i l l s . By c o n t r a s t , t h e speech o f h i s non-and pseudo- C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s c o n s t i t u t e s an a r e n a i n w h i c h Wiebe engages i n s o c i a l s t r u g g l e . Unknowingly, many c h a r a c t e r s i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e speak i n puns. Wiebe h y b r i d i z e s t h e non- and p s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s ' speech, p e r m i t t i n g r e a d e r s t o p e r c e i v e more meanings i n t h e i r words t h a n t h e y t h e m s e l v e s apprehend. L i k e Abe Ross who, t o t h e g r e a t amusement o f t h e O j i b w a , sometimes knows not what he says i n t h e i r language, t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s u n w i t t i n g l y a c t i v a t e a C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e a l i n t h e i r speech. Wiebe i n v i t e s h i s r e a d e r s t o hear what seems a t f i r s t t o be t h e s u b o r d i n a t e v o i c e i n h i s i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d p r o s e . F o r example, when t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s c a s u a l l y blaspheme and c u r s e , t h e y do not mean t o i n v o k e t h e power o f God. They do not i n t e n d t o c o n s i g n t h e i r enemy o r t h e i r dog o r t h e i r t r u c k t o e t e r n a l damnation. Y e t t h r o u g h t h e s t o r i e s o f B j o r n e s e n ' s c u r s i n g o f H a r r y S t u r g e o n and o f Adam Ross's c u r s i n g o f h i s son, Wiebe r e a f f i r m s t h e f o r g o t t e n c o n n e c t i o n between c a s u a l c u s s i n g and s e r i o u s r i t u a l c u r s i n g . As a r e s u l t , a l l c u s s i n g i n t h e n o v e l becomes i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d . Wiebe's t e x t p e r p e t u a t e s b o t h t h e C h r i s t i a n and t h e p r o f a n e meaning o f t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s ' words, i n a manner w h i c h p r i v i l e g e s t h e f o r m e r over t h e l a t t e r . Unbeknown t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s , o v e r and above t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s , Wiebe i n v o k e s t h e C h r i s t i a n meaning o f words. He r e f u s e s t o r e l i n q u i s h c o n t r o l o f t h e w o r l d o f v e r b a l s i g n s t o h i s s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c opponents, t h o s e who t h i n k t h e y now m o n o p o l i z e t h e r i g h t t o c o n f e r meaning on words and t h e w o r l d . I n s t e a d , he c a p t u r e s t h e speech o f t h o s e who have c a p t u r e d t h e key terms i n h i s C h r i s t i a n l e x i c o n , and he s u b j e c t s t h e i r speech t o h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l i n t h e t e x t . IV I n C h a p t e r 6 , Wiebe c o n d u c t s h i s r e a d e r s beyond t h e cacophony o f t h e c i t y t o t h e r e l a t i v e peace and q u i e t o f 93 F r o z e n Lake. I n comparison w i t h Winnipeg, F r o z e n Lake i s " v i r g i n t e r r i t o r y " t o t h e E n g l i s h language. Wiebe's w i l d e r n e s s s e t t i n g s add a r o m a n t i c d i m e n s i o n t o t h e a c t i o n , but more i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y p r o v i d e Wiebe w i t h a b a r e s t a g e upon which t o d r a m a t i s e t h e p r o c e s s o f i n i t i a l c o l o n i z a t i o n o f N a t i v e P e o p l e s ' psyches by a g r o w i n g number o f competing White hegemonic d i s c o u r s e s . Because o n l y a s m a l l number o f E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e speech genres has p e n e t r a t e d F r o z e n Lake, each one can be h e a r d i n i s o l a t i o n from t h e o t h e r s , can be e x p l o r e d and e v a l u a t e d as a d i s c r e t e v e r b a l code b o t h by Abe and by Wiebe's r e a d e r s . By s h i f t i n g t h e a c t i o n from Winnipeg t o F r o z e n Lake, Wiebe c r e a t e s a space s u i t a b l e f o r e x p l o r i n g t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f d i s c o u r s e . Only an o u t e r t h r e s h o l d of -the E n g l i s h language p r o v i d e s s u f f i c i e n t m e n t a l and t e x t u a l space i n w h i c h t o u n t a n g l e t h e knot of speech genres which confounds urban c o n s c i o u s n e s s and c o n v o l u t e s t h e language o f t h e W i n n i p e g s e c t i o n o f t h e t e x t . F r o z e n Lake, l i k e W a p i t i i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, t y p i f i e s a p o l y g l o s s i c s p a c e . 8 Government p o l i c i e s , i n s t i t u t e d m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e s c h o o l system, s y s t e m a t i c a l l y promote t h e E n g l i s h language o v e r t h e O j i b w a language o f t h e N a t i v e I n d i a n i n h a b i t a n t s . Wiebe mentions b u t does not e l a b o r a t e upon t h e d i f f e r e n c e between " p o l y s y n t h e t i c " Ojibwa language and " a n a l y t i c " E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . 9 He r e f e r s t o t h e 94 p o l y s y n t h e t i c n a t u r e o f O b j i w a on two o c c a s i o n s i n P a r t 3 o f t h e n o v e l (95, 104), b u t p a s s e s up an o p p o r t u n i t y t o d r a m a t i s e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e p o l y s y n t h e t i c O j i b w a psyche by t h e a n a l y t i c E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . The E n g l i s h language as such does not d i s r u p t t h e O j i b w a psyche. Wiebe l o c a t e s t h e Ojibwa's v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l problem more p r e c i s e l y . The Ojibwa do n o t e n c o u n t e r t h e E n g l i s h language as a s i n g l e s y s t e m , 1 0 b u t as a c o m p o s i t e made up o f s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t speech g e n r e s . I n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . Abe e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n c e r n t h a t t h e s t a t e s c h o o l system has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o promote t h e l e a s t w o r t h w h i l e speech genres and i g n o r e t h o s e w h i c h c o d i f y s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l v a l u e s . In C h a p t e r 12, Abe r e f l e c t s upon t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Ojibwa c h i l d r e n a r e becoming t h e most d i s t i n c t l y , most f o r c e d l y non- I n d i a n . .. S a l l y c o u l d n ' t l e t them speak a word of E n g l i s h not o n l y because i t was government r e g u l a t i o n b u t because o t h e r w i s e t h e y would never l e a r n t o speak p r o p e r E n g l i s h — s o wash your f a c e and r e a d about D i c k and Jane whoever t h e y a r e and open d o o r s f o r s i l l y g i r l s and no wonder P e t e r Pan i s l e f t b e h i n d when even f o r a c h i l d i t ' s i m p o s s i b l e — . (220) Through Abe, Wiebe p o i n t s t o t h e c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r a c t i c e d t h r o u g h t h e government s c h o o l system. As t h e Ojibwa c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e t h e E n g l i s h language, t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i t s e l f works l i k e a l o n g i n i t i a t i o n ceremony, e d u c a t i n g t h e c h i l d r e n i n t o p a r t i a l membership i n t h e b r o a d e r A n g l o - C a n a d i a n community. P o t e n t i a l l y , such e d u c a t i o n c u t s t h e O j i b w a c h i l d r e n o f f from t h e i r own 95 c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e , and l e a d s t o t h e i r a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o mainstream A n g l o - C a n a d i a n c u l t u r e . S a l l y H o w e l l and J o s h B i s h o p attempt an a l t e r n a t i v e , b e n i g n form o f i m p e r i a l i s m , one w h i c h b u i l d s on t h e e x i s t i n g remnants o f t h e Ojibwa c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e . I n s t e a d o f s t a m p i n g out t h e O j i b w a c h i l d r e n ' s t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge, S a l l y a t t e m p t s t o h y b r i d i z e i t w i t h h e r C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e a l . F o r example, she t e a c h e s her p u p i l s "Canada's f i r s t C h r i s t m a s c a r o l w r i t t e n by t h e C a t h o l i c B r e b e u f f o r h i s Huron c o n v e r t s " ( 2 2 9 ) . T h i s c a r o l i n t e g r a t e s t h e n a t i v i t y s t o r y i n t o a N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n p h y s i c a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t , w i t h h u n t e r s r e p l a c i n g shepherds, a " l o d g e o f b r o k e n b a r k " (229) i n s t e a d o f a s t a b l e , "a ragged robe o f r a b b i t - s k i n " (229) r a t h e r t h a n s w a d d l i n g bands, and " c h i e f s . . . w i t h g i f t s o f f o x and b e a v e r - p e l t " (229) i n p l a c e o f t h e t h r e e w i s e men b e a r i n g g o l d , f r a n k i n c e n s e and myrrh. S a l l y ' s n o n - v i o l e n t e v a n g e l i s m does not impose t h e word o f God d i c t a t o r i a l l y and m o n o l o g i c a l l y , b u t a l l o w s i t t o e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Ojibwa c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y . S a l l y and J o s h p e r m i t t h e Ojibwa v o i c e t o sound i n t h e n a t i v i t y song, a l b e i t i n a s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n . 1 1 J o s h B i s h o p a l s o v e n t u r e s out from h i s own c u l t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n o r d e r t o i n t r o d u c e h i s God t o 96 t h e p e o p l e o f a n o t h e r c u l t u r e . D i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e u s u a l m i s s i o n a r y p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g t h e Cree s y l l a b i c B i b l e , and i m p a t i e n t a t t h e s l o w p r o g r e s s o f t h e W y c l i f f e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o O j i b w a , J o s h u n d e r t a k e s t o t r a n s l a t e t h e B i b l e h i m s e l f . J o s h b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e O j i b w a w i l l not l i s t e n t o God u n l e s s he speaks t o them, and can be spoken t o . i n t h e i r own language. U n l i k e more o r t h o d o x m i s s i o n a r i e s , J o s h does not d e s t r o y , but i n s t e a d b u i l d s on, t h e d i s c o u r s e s a l r e a d y i n p l a c e . In r e p l y t o Abe's q u e s t i o n , "What do you do, you j u s t t a k e t h e i r word f o r God...and t a l k about him, o r what?", J o s h says . "They b e l i e v e t h e r e a r e many s p i r i t s , and t h e G r e a t S p i r i t , t h e k i s c h e manido, i s so g r e a t and s o v e r e i g n he w o u l d never have a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . He's above t h a t . . . . What I've been t r y i n g t o do i s show them t h a t t h e k i s c h e manido i s not so c a r e l e s s about them, t h a t t h e i d e a o f g r e a t n e s s t h e y have i s r i g h t b u t t h a t he has come t o man t h r o u g h J e s u s C h r i s t and t h a t we can know a g r e a t d e a l about him." "You l e a v e as much o f t h e i r i d e a i n and j u s t g i v e i t a C h r i s t i a n t w i s t ? " "You s t a r t where t h e y b e l i e v e , y e s . S a i n t P a u l d i d , when he t a l k e d t o t h e Greek s e n a t o r s i n A t h e n s . " (169-70) J o s h p r o c e e d s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a g r e a t e r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l gap e x i s t s between a r e l i g i o u s and a non- r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k t h a n between t h e o u t l o o k s o f p e o p l e who h o l d t o d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s . C e r t a i n v a l u e s t r a n s c e n d t h e boundary between C h r i s t i a n i t y and o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . M o r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i t makes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e whether one i n v o k e s t h e power o f God o r k i s c h e manido. A more i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n i s whether one i n v o k e s t h i s power t o c u r s e d r t o b l e s s . 97 Curses and b l e s s i n g s can b o t h be bestowed i n e i t h e r E n g l i s h o r Ojibwa. C e r t a i n speech genres t r a n s c e n d b o u n d a r i e s between n a t i o n a l languages. From t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i d e s o f t h e b o r d e r s e p a r a t i n g Heathen from C h r i s t i a n , Kekekose and B i s h o p t o g e t h e r oppose t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f f o r c e and v i o l e n c e , t h e s e c u l a r and p s e u d o - r e l i g i o u s speech genres w h i c h dominate A n g l o - C a n a d i a n c u l t u r a l l i f e , and w h i c h t o an i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t shape a c t i o n , t h o u g h t and b e l i e f i n t h e Ojibwa community a t F r o z e n Lake. The E n g l i s h language and t h e Ojibwa language do not c o n f r o n t each o t h e r l i k e two m o n o l i t h s ; Wiebe's t e x t u n c o v e r s i n t r a - l i n g u i s t i c axes which c u t a c r o s s t h e t h r e s h o l d between t h e two n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s . On t h e t h r e s h o l d between E n g l i s h and O j i b w a , d i f f e r e n t speech genres w i t h i n t h e E n g l i s h language s t r u g g l e t o e x e r t t h e i r hegemony o v e r t h e minds o f t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e . Amos Quequeish has r e t u r n e d from p r i s o n s p o r t i n g a l a r g e v o c a b u l a r y o f E n g l i s h o b s c e n i t i e s and c u r s e s . T r a d e r s b r i n g t h e language o f commerce t o t h e r e g i o n . John Marsden i n t r o d u c e s a d i s c o u r s e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , and an a b s t r a c t , s c i e n t i f i c , s t a t e - e n d o r s e d v e r s i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e . The s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m exposes t h e c h i l d r e n t o E n g l i s h as a v e r b a l code b r i n g i n g new and a l i e n o r d e r s o f knowledge, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s c i e n t i f i c v i e w o f t h e w o r l d o f f i c i a l l y endorsed by t h e s t a t e . But S a l l y H o w e l l and t h e B i s h o p s i n t r o d u c e E n g l i s h t o t h e O j i b w a a l s o as a r e l i g i o u s 98 d i s c o u r s e . B e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e Ojibwa " c a n ' t a v o i d [ t h e w h i t e w o r l d ] even i f t h e y t r y " ( 3 1 3 ) , S a l l y and J o s h g i v e v o i c e t o speech genres w h i c h oppose t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d , s t e r i l e and p r o f a n e E n g l i s h e s i n v a d i n g t h e minds o f t h e F r o z e n Lake community. A t F r o z e n Lake, Wiebe's main l i n g u i s t i c b a t t l e - f r o n t emerges c l e a r l y i n t o v i e w . V The d i a l o g u e s i n C h a p t e r 13 i n v o l v i n g John Marsden p r o v i d e a s u i t a b l e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e x p l o r i n g Wiebe's fundamental m o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n between d i s c o u r s e s . I n an exchange between S a l l y H o w e l l and John Marsden, Wiebe j u x t a p o s e s two r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t ways o f t a l k i n g about i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . Marsden opens w i t h "Do you t h i n k t h e t h e o r y of Canadian m i l i t a r y d e f e n c e would make sense t o them [ t h e O j i b w a c h i l d r e n ] ? " "No," she s a i d . "They have t r o u b l e enough l e a r n i n g about t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d r i g h t now l e a v e a l o n e l e a r n i n g which t h e y s h o u l d h a t e . " "Now j u s t a — m i n u t e , " Marsden s t u m b l e d o v e r a . word. She s t o o d m o t i o n l e s s . "Yes?" " I was t a l k i n g about d e f e n c e , not h a t e — " "But," she i n t e r r u p t e d and Abe t o o s t a r e d a t her i n amazement, " t h o s e c h i l d r e n a r e v e r y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . I t would make no sense t o them a t a l l p r e p a r i n g t o shoot down someone who might come o v e r t o k i l l you, and not h a t e them. Anyone you p l a n t o k i l l b e f o r e he k i l l s you you j u s t n a t u r a l l y h a t e . R i g h t ? " "You don't t a l k about i t l i k e t h a t . I f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a g g r e s s i o n e x i s t s a government has t o make p l a n s t o d e t e r i t , t h a t ' s a l l . " (233 - 4 ) Wiebe uses t h e Ojibwa c h i l d r e n ' s minds as an a r e n a i n which Marsden's language s t a n d s t r i a l . Through S a l l y ' s a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e O j i b w a c h i l d r e n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Marsden's t a l k , Wiebe d e n a t u r a l i z e s a language w h i c h e n j o y s wide a c c e p t a n c e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n and o t h e r W e s t e r n i z e d s o c i e t i e s . Marsden's manner o f s p e a k i n g i m p r e s s e s l i s t e n e r s as h i g h l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e because i t i s s u e s from t h e mouth of a p r o f e s s i o n a l , an " e x p e r t . " But i f r e a d e r s p a r t i c i p a t e i m a g i n a t i v e l y i n t h e O j i b w a c h i l d r e n s ' mode o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e y occupy a space o u t s i d e t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f " e x p e r t s ' " d i s c o u r s e . A l i e n a t e d from t h e v e r b a l m i l i e u w h i c h o r d i n a r i l y shapes t h e i r own norms and v a l u e s , r e a d e r s can a s s e s s i t s e f f e c t s on i d e o l o g y and b e h a v i o u r . L i k e t h e c r e a t o r s o f "Newspeak" i n George O r w e l l ' s N i n e t e e n E i g h t y - F o u r , 1 2 Marsden employs language as an i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s : i f "you don't t a l k about i t l i k e t h a t , " t h e l o g i c r u n s , y o u ' l l soon l e a r n not t o t h i n k o f k i l l i n g as k i l l i n g , nor see "the t h e o r y o f Canadian m i l i t a r y d e f e n c e " as "planned r a c i a l and r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l s a v a g e r y " (Wiebe 1989, 9 6 ) . 1 3 A b s t r a c t euphemisms such as " a g g r e s s i o n , " " d e t e r , " and "defence" push t h e b l o o d and g u t s o f k i l l i n g i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d and out o f s i g h t . I n Marsden's speech, language becomes a t o o l f o r f a c i l i t a t i n g k i l l i n g . I t works i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same way as modern weapons t e c h n o l o g y w h i c h e n a b l e s one p e r s o n t o k i l l a n o t h e r 100 from a d i s t a n c e by p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n and w a t c h i n g a b l i p on a m o n i t o r s c r e e n . By r o o t i n g out t h e words " k i l l " and "hate" from h i s v o c a b u l a r y , Marsden s t r i p s war o f i t s p e r s o n a l and m o r a l d i m e n s i o n s . As a r e s u l t , k i n d , p o l i t e , c h u r c h - g o i n g , n o v e l - r e a d i n g c i t i z e n s c o n s e n t t o m u r d e r i n g o t h e r s l i k e t h e m s e l v e s , q u i t e w i l l i n g l y and e f f i c i e n t l y , i n a mood o f c o o l detachment, a l o o f from any p a s s i o n a t e p e r s o n a l h a t r e d o r p e r s o n a l g u i l t . Marsden's speech employs d e - h u m a n i s i n g l a b e l s and euphemisms t o deaden c o n s c i e n c e and r e n d e r k i l l i n g n a t u r a l and a b s t r a c t . By c o n t r a s t , Anton Schwafe i n s i s t s i n C h a p t e r 2 t h a t he s t r a n g l e d "a human b e i n g " (36) not "a communist" (36) o r one o f "the R e d s " ( 3 4 ) . J o s h B i s h o p speaks o f t h e Germans not as enemies, b u t as "mothers" ( 2 4 1 ) , "sons" ( 2 4 1 ) , " f a t h e r s and husbands" ( 2 3 9 ) , and " p e o p l e " ( 2 4 1 ) . Through S a l l y , J o s h , and Schwafe, Wiebe i n t r o d u c e s a c o u n t e r - d i s c o u r s e , a manner o f s p e a k i n g which r e s t o r e s t h e p e r s o n a l and m o r a l d i m e n s i o n o f war and o f t h e "planned s a v a g e r y " o f c o l d war. Through t h e language o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , Wiebe e f f e c t i v e l y d e c o n s t r u c t s s t a t e - e n d o r s e d v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s s e p a r a t i n g "us" from "them," and a f f i r m s i n s t e a d t h e s a c r e d n e s s o f a l l God's c r e a t i o n . Wiebe f i r s t i n t r o d u c e s John Marsden i n C h a p t e r 2 a t t h e K i n c o n n e l l s ' p a r t y . I n t h i s e a r l y scene, Marsden's language 101 might seem l e s s o f f e n s i v e and b a r b a r i c t h a n H a r o l d Granger's c r a s s d i a t r i b e s a g a i n s t heathens, communists, and p a c i f i s t s . But Wiebe shows t h a t Marsden's language i s no l e s s h o s t i l e t o human l i f e . Marsden a t f i r s t d i s s o c i a t e s h i m s e l f (and Canada) from Granger's ( t h e U.S.A.'s) a g g r e s s i v e s t a n c e towards t o "the Reds" ( 3 4 ) . When someone a t t h e p a r t y p u t s Marsden foward as an example o f Canada's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t communism, Marsden q u i c k l y demurs: "No, no. I'm w i t h Norad and we're s t r i c t l y d e f e n s i v e . W e ' l l n e v e r — w e c o u l d n ' t — t o u c h a n y t h i n g o v e r s e a s . That's SAC's b u s i n e s s . " (33) I r o n i c a l l y , even as he a t t e m p t s t o d i s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f from Granger's a g g r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n , Marsden speaks t h e same language as Granger. Nobody e l s e a t t h e p a r t y uses t h e terms "Norad" o r "SAC". These words form p a r t o f t h e v o c a b u l a r y o n l y o f t h e two d e f e n c e e x p e r t s . 1 4 In Chapter 2, Marsden uses tame, e u p h e m i s t i c words such as "touch," " a t t a c k , " " h i t back," and " a n y t h i n g o v e r s e a s . " I n Chapter 13, however, i n h i s d i a l o g u e s w i t h J o s h B i s h o p and S a l l y H o w e l l , t h e v e r b a l mask c o n c e a l i n g Marsden's h a t r e d g r a d u a l l y f a l l s away, e x p o s i n g h i s p e r s o n a l m o r a l c o m p l i c i t y i n t h e a c t o f k i l l i n g . J o s h f o r c e s Marsden t o t r a n s l a t e h i s j o b d e s c r i p t i o n i n t o a language w h i c h cannot s k i r t around God's commandment not t o k i l l . He f o r c e s Marsden t o own t h e word " k i l l , " and t o f a c e t h e f a c t t h a t h i s t a r g e t s a r e f e l l o w human b e i n g s : 102 ..."You spend t h e b i g g e s t p a r t o f y o u r l i f e , a l l your employed w a k i n g h o u r s , w o r k i n g how t o k i l l p e o p l e more e f f i c i e n t l y . Why?" Marsden s a i d h e a v i l y I don't e x a c t l y see my j o b as a s t u d y i n e f f i c i e n t k i l l i n g — " "No, I'm s u r e you d o n ' t . But i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , when t h e bomber comes o v e r and you see i t on y o u r s c r e e n and o r d e r t h e i n t e r c e p t o r r o c k e t f i r e d , y o u r o n l y i n t e r e s t i s t h e ' k i l l ' r i g h t ? " "That's my j o b : s t o p t h e p l a n e from g e t t i n g t h r o u g h t o p e o p l e l i k e y o u — " J o s h went on i m p e r v i o u s l y , "And you gun f o r t h e k i l l whether i t ' s a r o c k e t o r t e n men i n a bomber-- makes no d i f f e r e n c e . " " I don't t h i n k about men a t a l l . I'd p r o b a b l y go c r a z y i f I d i d — f a m i l i e s , a l l t h a t s t u f f . I don't t h i n k a t a l l ; a l l my j o b i s , r i g h t now, s t o p t h a t bomber g e t t i n g t h r o u g h t o you." (239) I t i s c r u c i a l t o n o t i c e t h a t as J o s h B i s h o p goads Marsden i n t o anger, Marsden's language converges more and more w i t h t h a t o f H a r o l d Granger. When J o s h e x p r e s s e s h i s l a c k o f f a i t h i n guns, Marsden r e t a l i a t e s w i t h "Okay p r e a c h e r ! And what e l s e w i l l t h e goddam Commies l i s t e n t o ? " ( 2 4 5 ) . Marsden's b e l l i g e r e n c e and use o f p r o f a n i t y a r e p r e c i s e l y what one would e x p e c t from H a r o l d Granger. H a r o l d G r a n g e r ' s " s p e e c h encodes v a l u e s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e t o Wiebe's Mennonite i d e a l s . A l t h o u g h Granger appears o n l y b r i e f l y i n t h e n o v e l , h i s u t t e r a n c e s p r o v i d e an e s s e n t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n p o i n t i n t h e t e x t , a l i n g u i s t i c c e n t r e around w h i c h Wiebe assembles t h e speech s t y l e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . Marsden i s not a l o n e i n j o i n i n g G r a n g e r ' s l i n g u i s t i c community. Amos Quequeish b e l o n g s by v i r t u e o f h i s c o n s t a n t s w e a r i n g and c u r s i n g . John K i n c o n n e l l a l s o b e l o n g s w i t h H a r o l d G r a n g e r , because h i s language i m p l i c i t l y 103 c e l e b r a t e s t h e p r e d a t o r y dog-eat-dog ethos b e h i n d t h e c a p i t a l i s t i d e a l o f c o m p e t i t i o n : He once e x p l a i n e d e v e r y major t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r o b l e m F r o b i s h e r has had up n o r t h i n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s ! And a l s o how h i s p r o p o s e d network would k i l l e v e r y one of them, f o r e v e r . You know t h e way he t a l k s — n o t ' d i s p o s e o f o r ' s o l v e ' — k i l l ! n e v e r t o be r e s u r r e c t e d . (88) Adam Ross and S i g u r d B j o r n e s e n , t o o , u n l e a s h v i o l e n c e and h a t r e d i n t h e i r language. In t h e same way as B j o r n e s e n "used a l l t h e O j i b w a c u r s e f o r m u l a s " (141) a g a i n s t H a r r y S t u r g e o n , Adam Ross uses God's word as a weapon t o p u n i s h h i s son: ...he s n a t c h e d t h e B i b l e down from t h e s h e l f above t h e t a b l e and h o l d i n g i t b e f o r e him l i k e a h i g h and m i g h t y weapon, i n t o n i n g h i s v o i c e so h a r d I c o u l d not b a t t e r mine a g a i n s t i t , beyond m y s e l f though I was, " I f ye w i l l not h e a r , and i t ye w i l l not l a y i t t o h e a r t , s a i t h Jehovah t h e God o f h o s t s , t h e n w i l l I send t h e c u r s e upon you, y e a , I have c u r s e d you a l r e a d y : C u r s e d be he t h a t d i s h o n o u r e t h h i s f a t h e r . C u r s e d . C u r s e d . " (303) Granger, Marsden, Quequeish, K i n c o n n e l l , S i g u r d B j o r n e s e n and Adam R o s s — s i x men o f d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s and v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t w a l k s o f l i f e . Yet Wiebe g a t h e r s them a l l i n t o t h e same m o r a l l y - d e f i n e d l i n g u i s t i c community. Wiebe's t e x t a l e r t s r e a d e r s t o t h e m o r a l a f f i n i t i e s between t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s ' d i f f e r e n t speech s t y l e s , and t o t h e v i o l e n c e i m p l i c i t i n , o r l e g i t i m i z e d by, t h e i r o r d i n a r y , a p p a r e n t l y innocuous f i g u r e s o f speech. Wiebe r e - d e f i n e s t h e b o u n d a r i e s between s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . He d i v i d e s a l l d i s c o u r s e i n t o two m o r a l c a t e g o r i e s : t h a t w h i c h encodes h i s Mennonite i d e a l o f l o v e f o r a l l human b e i n g s , and t h a t w h i c h v a l o r i z e s anger, v i o l e n c e , and h a t r e d . 104 VI As i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n F i r s t and V i t a l Candle speak l e s s as unique i n d i v i d u a l s t h a n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c groups. W i t h i n t h e space o f t h e t e x t o f F i r s t and V i t a l Candle Wiebe works out h i s own map o f t h e s o c i a l and v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l w o r l d . He p r o j e c t s t h a t w o r l d from t h e m o r a l p o s i t i o n a r t i c u l a t e d by Jesus i n t h e Sermon on t h e Mount, t o expose t h e m o r a l l y - d e f i n e d l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s which t r a n s e c t t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d axes between n a t i o n a l languages and between c e r t a i n speech g e n r e s . Wiebe i n v i t e s h i s a u d i e n c e t o t a k e a second r e a d i n g o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s u s i n g p r e v i o u s l y o v e r l o o k e d l i n g u i s t i c c o - o r d i n a t e s . When r e a d e r s ( s p e a k e r s ) come t o l o c a t e t h e m s e l v e s on t h e map Wiebe p r o v i d e s , t h e y may f i n d t h e m s e l v e s s i t u a t e d i n u n e x p e c t e d p l a c e s , on t h e "wrong s i d e " o f some s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c , m o r a l o r r e l i g i o u s l i n e . Mainstream C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s might f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e same language community as "the enemy." E n l i g h t e n e d e c l e c t i c s , who r e s p e c t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a l l d i s c o u r s e s e q u a l l y , see t h e i r l i b e r a l t o l e r a n c e d i s s o l v i n g i n t o n i h i l i s m . N o n - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s r e a l i s e , l i k e Abe, t h a t t h e y a r e n e i t h e r beyond t h e range o f , nor i n d i f f e r e n t t o , t h e v o i c e o f God. Wiebe d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e way i n w h i c h each speech genre a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n s h r i n e s o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s a p a r t i c u l a r m o r a l s t a n c e , as i f s o - c a l l e d " f r e e " l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s were v e r y l i t t l e removed from " r e c i t i n g a damned s c r i p t " ( 2 4 ) . I t i s customary, f o r example, f o r a "defence s p e c i a l i s t " (and i n d e e d f o r most s c i e n t i s t s and s c h o l a r s ) t o encode t h e v a l u e s o f pragmatism and s c i e n t i f i c detachment by expunging p e r s o n a l and m o r a l terms from t h e u t t e r a n c e s t h e y make i n a p r o f e s s i o n a l c a p a c i t y . The c o n v e n t i o n s o f each 105 speech genre c r e a t e i n advance a moral p o s i t i o n f o r t h e s p e a k e r and t h e l i s t e n e r t o occupy. H i s t o r i c a l p l a q u e s a f f o r d one of t h e c l e a r e s t examples o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e . The h i s t o r i c a l p l a q u e i s t e r s e . The p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h i s speech genre l e g i t i m i s e c e n s o r s h i p . Space l i m i t a t i o n s n e c e s s i t a t e c o u n t l e s s s i n s o f o m i s s i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n , c o n v e n i e n t l y v e i l i n g t h e u g l y , b r u t a l s i d e o f t h e dominant p a r t i e s ' g l o r i o u s t a l e s of v i c t o r y . I n C h a p t e r 3, Wiebe l i f t s t h e v e i l c u s t o m a r i l y h e l d i n p l a c e by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e genre: NEAR THIS SITE STOOD THE FOLLOWING FORTS: FORT ROUGE UNDER LA VERENDRYE, 1738, FORT GIBRALTAR UNDER THE NORTHWEST COMPANY, 1810, THEN CAME FORT GARRY IN 1822, REPLACED BY UPPER FORT GARRY 1835 AND EXTENDED INTO THE 1850'S WHEN THIS GATEWAY WAS ERECTED. DEMOLISHED IN 1882. F i v e g e n e r a t i o n s , f o u r f o r t s g l o s s e d i n f i f t y words on a p l a q u e o f g r e e n i s h b r o n z e . And o f a l l t h e poor f o o l s t h a t had mixed t h e mud o r p u l l e d i t a p a r t , n o t h i n g . . . . RIEL: 16 NOVEMBRE: 1885 S t a r i n g a t t h e s t o n e he [Abe] had a l m o s t seen H-A-N-G- E-D. But t h e r e a r e some f a c t s tombstones do not f a c e — nor f o r t y i s h men... (43-4, 46) H i s t o r i c a l p l a q u e s i l l u s t r a t e e x t r e m e l y c l e a r l y t h e unspoken c e n s o r s h i p laws t h a t i n f o r m a l l speech g e n r e s , as t h e y each c o n s t r u c t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r " r e a l m o f t h e t r u e , " and push f o r e i g n f a c t s beyond t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r h o r i z o n . By h a v i n g Abe c o n s i d e r t h e c a r n a g e not mentioned on t h e p l a q u e s , Wiebe p u l l s t h e m o r a l f a c t s back i n t o t h e p i c t u r e . I n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , Wiebe a c c e n t s t h e s i l e n c e s , t h e h i d d e n m o r a l , i d e o l o g i c a l , and p o l i t i c a l b i a s e s and b l i n d - s p o t s i n a number o f hegemonic speech genres w h i c h s t r u c t u r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . W i t h i n t h e p e r i m e t e r s o f t h e t e x t , Wiebe r e i f i e s t h e languages o f commerce, a n t h r o p o l o g y , f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s , "psych j a r g o n " ( 2 1 0 ) , h i s t o r y , and c e r t a i n k i n d s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y he c o n s i d e r s s p u r i o u s . O n l y by b r e a k i n g decorum o r t r a d i t i o n , o r by t r a n s l a t i n g an u t t e r a n c e from one speech genre i n t o a n o t h e r , might one o r b o t h i n t e r l o c u t o r s b r e a k out o f t h e m o r a l e n c l o s u r e w h i c h t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f any speech genre e r e c t around them. Wiebe i n v i t e s r e a d e r s t o u n d e r t a k e p r e c i s e l y such a t r a n s l a t i o n . He r e f o r m u l a t e s many o f t h e k i n d s o f u t t e r a n c e s h e a r d f r e q u e n t l y i n d a y - t o - d a y l i f e , t r a n s l a t i n g them i n t o a manner o f speech w h i c h encodes t h e m o r a l v a l u e s a r t i c u l a t e d by J e s u s i n t h e Sermon on t h e Mount. A t t i m e s , Wiebe's t r a n s l a t i o n s i n v o l v e s u b s t i t u t i n g c e r t a i n words f o r o t h e r words, such as when J o s h B i s h o p t r a n s l a t e s " d e t e r " i n t o " k i l l , " o r " t a r g e t " i n t o "men." A more s u b t l e v a r i e t y o f t r a n s l a t i o n o c c u r s when t h e words t h e m s e l v e s remain unchanged, b u t a r e t r a n s p o r t e d i n t o a new c o n t e x t o r c a p t u r e d by a r i v a l s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c group. Annexed i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e system o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n , t h e word ( o r u t t e r a n c e ) may t a k e on an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t meaning. R e f l e c t i n g l i g h t - h e a r t e d l y on t h i s phenomenon, Abe and h i s o l d s c h o o l f r i e n d , J i m MacLaren r e c a l l t h e way O l g a , 107 t h e g i r l who p l a y e d Lady Macbeth i n t h e s c h o o l t h e a t r i c a l s , made "Out, o u t , damned s p o t s o u n d . . . l i k e b e l l o w i n g a t some f l e a - b i t t e n b l a c k and w h i t e b i t c h t o g e t out from under t h e t a b l e ! " ( 5 0 ) . On a more s e r i o u s n o t e , Wiebe e x p l o r e s t h e f o r g o t t e n " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y " 1 5 o f c e r t a i n key words. He reopens a l l e g e d l y c l o s e d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e meaning o f a number of v e r b a l s i g n s , s i g n s whose meaning a m a j o r i t y o f r e a d e r s would p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r f i x e d , c e r t a i n and immune from f u r t h e r change. Wiebe's t e x t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e s o c i a l s t r u g g l e t o c o n f e r meaning on s i g n s i s by no means o v e r y e t , d e s p i t e t h e arguments o f r i v a l f a c t i o n s t o t h e c o n t r a r y . F o r Wiebe, words such as " J e s u s , " "God," and "damn" a r e not m e a n i n g l e s s a n a c h r o n i s m s , mere f o s s i l i s e d v e s t i g e s o f o b s o l e t e modes o f b e l i e f . As f a r as he i s concerned, t h e s e s o - c a l l e d " f o s s i l i s e d " terms have never d i e d ; t h e y l i v e and b r e a t h e and i n f a c t dominate t h e psyche o f C h r i s t i a n s l i k e h i m s e l f . F o r such C h r i s t i a n s , t h e problem i s not so much t h a t t h e key terms i n t h e i r v o c a b u l a r y ("God," " C h r i s t , " "damned," and " h e l l , " f o r example) have d i s a p p e a r e d o r p a s s e d out o f c i r c u l a t i o n ; worse, t h e s e terms appear t o have been c a p t u r e d and e n s l a v e d by non- and p s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n groups i n s o c i e t y , who p u t t h e most s a c r e d words i n t h e C h r i s t i a n l e x i c o n t o work i n p r o f a n e speech genres where t h e y f u n c t i o n as c u r s e s and m e a n i n g l e s s 108 e x p l e t i v e s . I n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . Wiebe t r a n s f o r m s t h e s e a p p a r e n t l y dead and m e a n i n g l e s s s i g n s i n t o b a t t l e zones once more, s i t e s where competing views o f t h e w o r l d c o n t e n d . The B i b l i c a l speech genres i n t h e t e x t c o n s t i t u t e an a l t e r n a t i v e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d . P r a y e r s , B i b l e r e a d i n g s , Josh's sermons, and S a l l y ' s C h r i s t i a n t e s t i m o n i e s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n p u l l terms such as " C h r i s t , " "God," and " J e s u s " i n t o a s i g n i f y i n g system w h i c h encodes Wiebe's Mennonite C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e a l . The C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s say " J e s u s " o r "God" under d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s and i n d i f f e r e n t t o n e s o f v o i c e from t h o s e a d o p t e d by non- and p s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s . J o s h ' s and S a l l y ' s " C h r i s t , " "God," and " J e s u s " l o o k i d e n t i c a l on t h e page t o " t h e same" words spoken by Marsden o r Amos Quequeish, b u t t h e y i n f a c t c a r r y e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e m a n t i c v a l u e s . The manner and c i r c u m s t a n c e s under w h i c h Wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s speak o f God p r o v i d e s r e a d e r s w i t h an i n f a l l i b l e g u i d e t o t h e i r r e l i g i o u s and m o r a l a t t i t u d e s . Wiebe exposes t h e s p u r i o u s n a t u r e o f H a r o l d Granger's p r o f e s s e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , by h a v i n g him say " C h r i s t a l m i g h t y you're a Communist!" ( 3 4 ) . Marsden, t o o , uses t h e name o f God i n v a i n . I n t h e company o f p r a c t i s i n g C h r i s t i a n s such as J o s h and S a l l y , Marsden p o l i t e l y t r i e s t o s u p p r e s s h i s h a b i t u a l s w e a r i n g , b u t Wiebe m e t i c u l o u s l y r e g i s t e r s i n t h e t e x t each v e r b a l t r i p - u p , each pause o r q u i c k s u b s t i t u t i o n : 109 "'Now j u s t a — m i n u t e , ' Marsden s t u m b l e d o v e r a word" ( 2 3 3 ) . Why mention t h a t a c h a r a c t e r stumbles o v e r a word? Because h i s s i l e n c e s c a r r y as heavy a burden o f meaning as h i s a u d i b l e speech. By m e n t i o n i n g Marsden's s t u m b l e , Wiebe a c c e n t u a t e s t h e pause, so t h a t a b r i e f s i l e n c e (an absence) becomes a u d i b l e (a p r e s e n c e ) . Wiebe's dash i n d i c a t e s t h e d e l e t e d e x p l e t i v e "goddam." As Marsden becomes more h e a t e d , he s l i p s i n t o h i s h a b i t u a l mode o f s p e a k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g t o make h i s u s u a l t a c t f u l d e l e t i o n s : "God h e l p us when t h e y g e t t h e H-bomb!" ( 2 4 2 ) ; "What e l s e w i l l t h e goddam Commies l i s t e n t o ? " ( 2 4 5 ) ; "God man, you c o n t r o l t h e a l l o w a n c e s ! " (246). C o r n e r e d and a n g r y , Marsden b e g i n s t o swear and c u r s e , "as i f J o s h ' s p a s s i o n had r e l e a s e d him from r e s t r a i n t " ( 2 4 5 ) . Throughout most o f t h e n o v e l , Abe c o n s i d e r s h i s C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f t o t a l l y dead, and h i s u n s t i n t i n g use o f c u r s e s and p r o f a n i t i e s would seem t o b e a r h i s o p i n i o n o u t : " h i s mind c o u l d o n l y c u r s e " ( 1 7 ) ; "god a l m i g h t y s i x weeks out" ( 1 8 ) ; "damn t h a t boy damn t h a t g i r l . . . d a m n i t a l l " ( 2 2 7 ) ; "you God damn s t i n g y s l a v e d r i v e r ! Working us a l l t o d e a t h t o buy y o u r God damn s t i n k i n g s o u l i n t o heaven!" ( 3 0 5 ) . Yet t h r o u g h Abe's language, Wiebe h i n t s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f Abe's r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f remains open. C e r t a i n key terms i n t h e C h r i s t i a n l e x i c o n , words such as " C h r i s t , " "God," " J e s u s , " "damn," " g r a c e , " and " l o v e , " a r e p u l l e d i n 110 two d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s w i t h i n Abe's psyche, d r a m a t i s i n g h i s unacknowledged s p i r i t u a l v a c i l l a t i o n . F o r example, Abe r e c a l l s "an o l d v e r s e . . . ' C h r i s t , t h a t my l o v e were i n my arms/And I i n my bed a g a i n ' " ( 3 3 2 ) . When he sang t h i s " o l d v e r s e " w i t h h i s war-time b u d d i e s , t h e word " C h r i s t " f u n c t i o n e d as a m e a n i n g l e s s e x p l e t i v e . I n such a r e a d i n g o f t h e v e r s e , " C h r i s t " c o n v e n i e n t l y f i l l s an empty m e t r i c space, l e a v i n g t h e main a c c e n t o f t h e s e n t e n c e t o f a l l on t h e e r o t i c image o f l y i n g i n bed i n t h e arms o f one's l o v e . But as Abe approaches t h e t h r e s h o l d o f C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , t h e word " C h r i s t " b e g i n s t o t a k e on a d i f f e r e n t meaning. Under S a l l y ' s i n f l u e n c e , Abe r e c o n s i d e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e word " C h r i s t " might a l s o a d d r e s s a l i v i n g e n t i t y . As soon as Abe g r a n t s t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , t h e e n t i r e u t t e r a n c e c r o s s e s t h e b o r d e r i n t o a n o t h e r speech genre: "he would more n e a r l y have c a l l e d i t a p r a y e r " ( 3 3 2 ) . The word " g r a c e " undergoes a s i m i l a r r e - a c c e n t u a t i o n , a s i m i l a r s t r a d d l i n g and subsequent c r o s s i n g o f t h e t h r e s h o l d from s e c u l a r t o C h r i s t i a n speech g e n r e s . I n C h a p t e r 1, Abe employs "grace" t o r e f e r t o t h e b e a u t y and e l e g a n c e o f t h e woman he f o l l o w s t h r o u g h W i n n i p e g : "A t r a n s p a r e n t s c a r f added a g r a c e n o t e t o h e r c o i f f u r e " ( 1 7 ) ; "she g r a c e s t h e couch" ( 1 7 ) . But S a l l y H o w e l l i n t r o d u c e s Abe t o a n o t h e r meaning o f t h e word, a C h r i s t i a n meaning w h i c h s u r r o u n d s and I l l subsumes t h e s e c u l a r meaning: " I n t h e C h r i s t i a n ' s v o c a b u l a r y God's ' g r a c e ' i s t h e v e r b 'to b e . ' . . . P e r i p h e r a l l y i t means God's f a v o u r t o man, who's done e v e r y t h i n g not t o d e s e r v e t h a t ; and i n c l u d e d i n i t i s t h e power t o make a man p l e a s i n g i n God's s i g h t . . . " (316) When Abe b e g i n s t o p r a y a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , he employs t h e word "grace" i n i t s C h r i s t i a n sense: "By y o u r g r a c e have mercy" (353). The word " g r a c e " has c r o s s e d i n t o a C h r i s t i a n speech genre: t h e p r a y e r . P r a y e r has a v i t a l p l a c e i n Wiebe's r a d i c a l p r o t e s t a n t v i s i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between God and humankind. T o g e t h e r , p r a y e r and B i b l e - r e a d i n g c o n s t i t u t e a d i a l o g u e . U n l i k e t h e O j i b w a ' s k i s c h e manido and Adam Ross's " a b s o l u t e - l a w - g i v i n g " God, Wiebe's God o f g r a c e e n t e r s d i r e c t l y i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h each o f h i s f o l l o w e r s . A l t h o u g h t h e d i v i n e word o f God remains s o v e r e i g n , a l l human v o i c e s have p e r m i s s i o n t o a d d r e s s God a t w i l l . A l l e n j o y t h e same p o l i t i c a l p r i v i l e g e t o e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h i s d i v i n e o t h e r . D i a l o g u e i s p r e c i s e l y what Abe's f a t h e r f o r b i d s , as Wiebe's h a n d l i n g o f t h e c u r s i n g scene makes c l e a r . Adam Ross c o n s i g n s h i s son t o e t e r n a l e x i l e from t h e s o c i e t y o f God and f a m i l y as punishment f o r t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r y s i n s o f r e f u s i n g t o l i s t e n and i n s i s t i n g on a n s w e r i n g back: t h e f a c e hunched t o g e t h e r now i n m i l d s u r p r i s e a t my s p e a k i n g a f t e r he had spoken and t h e r e was, a c c o r d i n g 112 t o a l l t h a t had e v e r happened i n our f a m i l y , n o t h i n g f u r t h e r t o be mentioned.... So he d i d not b o t h e r t o answer; j u s t t u r n e d t o go o u t and as he d i d s o m e t h i n g went o v e r me l i k e a spasm and i n a moment we were s h o u t i n g both...and he b e l l o w i n g a t l a s t would I t a k e back what I s a i d and r e c e i v e t h e b e a t i n g I d e s e r v e d and I l o n g p a s t c a r i n g , h a v i n g h u r l e d a l l t o t h e w i n d t h e i n s t a n t I v e n t u r e d t h e f i r s t words.... And t h e n he had s n a t c h e d t h e B i b l e down from t h e s h e l f above t h e t a b l e and h o l d i n g i t b e f o r e him l i k e a h i g h and m i g h t y weapon, i n t o n i n g , h i s v o i c e so h a r d I c o u l d not b a t t e r mine a g a i n s t i t , beyond m y s e l f though I was, " I f ye w i l l not h e a r , and i f ye w i l l not l a y i t t o h e a r t , s a i t h Jehovah t h e God o f h o s t s , t h e n w i l l I send t h e c u r s e upon you, y e a , I have c u r s e d you a l r e a d y : c u r s e d be he t h a t d i s h o n o u r e t h h i s f a t h e r . C u r s e d . C u r s e d . " (303) I n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . Wiebe opposes not o n l y non- C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d , but a l s o t h e dominant C h r i s t i a n f a c t i o n s w h i c h have a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e v o i c e o f God and used i t f o r t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s . A w a l l o f " o t h e r , a l i e n words about t h e same o b j e c t , t h e same theme," ( B a k h t i n 1981, 276) o b s c u r e s t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Wiebe's God. J e s u s ' e x h o r t a t i o n t o " l o v e t h y n e i g h b o u r " f o r example, must c o n t e n d a g a i n s t t h e words and a c t i o n s o f a l l t h e C h r i s t i a n s i n h i s t o r y who have s t a r t e d wars i n t h e name o f t h e one t r u e God. Wiebe's most dangerous opponents a r e " C h r i s t i a n s " l i k e H a r o l d Granger, who r e l i s h t h e p r o s p e c t o f "pounding t h e h o l y h" (33) out o f t h e communists, o r t h e O n t a r i o Orangemen who q u e l l e d t h e R i e l r e b e l l i o n by " s h o o t i n g as s i n c e r e l y as t h e y s a i d t h e i r p r a y e r s e v e r y n i g h t " ( 4 4 ) . Wiebe's t e x t a f f i r m s t h a t a l l C h r i s t i a n s do not s h a r e t h e same v a l u e s . They hear God d i f f e r e n t l y and speak r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t languages. A v a s t 113 g u l f s e p a r a t e s t h e g e n t l e , s o f t - s p o k e n sermons o f J o s h B i s h o p from Adam Ross's f i r e - a n d - b r i m s t o n e v e r s i o n s o f "the same" speech g e n r e . As w e l l as making a u d i b l e t h e c o v e r t a l l i a n c e s o r s u b t l e harmonies between speech genres which n o r m a l l y sound r a d i c a l l y opposed t o one a n o t h e r , Wiebe a l s o a l e r t s r e a d e r s t o t h e deep but seldom acknowledged r i f t s i n what might u s u a l l y be t h o u g h t o f as "THE C h r i s t i a n v o i c e . " Abe cannot hear t h e v o i c e o f God i n t h e complex, cacophonous urban v e r b a l m i l i e u not o n l y because o t h e r v o i c e s drown i t out b u t a l s o because God's v o i c e d i s s o l v e s i n t o a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f human v o i c e s w h i c h a t t e m p t t o mediate between i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e r s and God. Abe t r i e s " L u t h e r a n , A n g l i c a n , M e n n o n i t e , B a p t i s t , U n i t e d , [and] Roman C a t h o l i c " c h u r c h e s , b u t he can n e v e r d i s c e r n God's unmediated v o i c e i n a l l t h e g i b b e r i s h from p r e c i s e l y a c t e d r i t u a l t o s h a p e l e s s h a l l e l u j a h - a m e n - i s m , from i d i o t i c a p p e a l s t o emotion t o as i d i o t i c a p p e a l s o f p h i l o s o p h y , from t i m e - m a r k i n g s i l e n c e t o banshee screams, w i t h a l l t h e i n n u m e r a b l e g r a d i e n t s o f e m o t i o n a l and m e n t a l a t r o p h y and massage between, f a r from not f i n d i n g need s a t i s f i e d , he had not even been a b l e t o u n e a r t h t h a t , h i s v e r y need, t o r e c o g n i z e i t . He s i m p l y knew e m p t i n e s s , a v a c a n c y w i t h him so l o n g now i t had a c q u i r e d a k i n d o f p a i n f u l f u l l n e s s , l i k e s w a l l o w i n g a i r a f t e r a seven-day hunger. O n l y t h i s was no seven days. (93-4) Wiebe's complex p l o t t i n g ( w h i c h emerges i n t o c l e a r f o c u s o n l y a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l ) has t h e e f f e c t o f d i v i d i n g t h e s e many C h r i s t i a n v o i c e s i n t o two camps: t h o s e who w o r s h i p t h e God o f t h u n d e r , and t h o s e who w o r s h i p Wiebe's God o f g r a c e . I n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , Abe's c i r c u l a r 114 j o u r n e y away from and back towards t h e v o i c e o f God appears i n P a r t s 6, 4, 2, 1, 3, 5 and 7. However, Wiebe b e g i n s Abe's s t o r y i n medias r e s , f o l d i n g t h e c i r c l e i n h a l f as i t were, and p l o t t i n g two p a t h s , l e a d i n g towards two a l t e r n a t i v e images o f t h e God's v o i c e . W h i l e t h e main s t o r y - l i n e moves f o r w a r d i n t i m e t h r o u g h P a r t s 1, 3, 5 and 7 towards t h e b e g i n n i n g o f Abe's d i a l o g u e w i t h J e s u s , a second n a r r a t i v e moves c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y backwards t h r o u g h P a r t s 2, 4 and 6 t o t h e moment when Abe a t t e m p t s t o move out o f e a r s h o t from Adam Ross's m o n o l o g i c . " a b s o l u t e - l a w - g i v i n g k i n d " (291) o f God. I n P a r t s 6 and 7, Wiebe j u x t a p o s e s two r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s o f God. A g a i n s t t h e t y r a n n i c a l , unanswerable, t h u n d e r i n g v o i c e o f God from w h i c h Abe r u n s i n h i s y o u t h , Wiebe s e t s t h e g e n t l e v o i c e o f t h e God o f g r a c e , who f o r c e s no one t o l i s t e n and who h e a r s t h e p r a y e r s o f b e l i e v e r s . Through J o s h B i s h o p and S a l l y H o w e l l , t h e v o i c e o f Wiebe's God o f g r a c e dominates t h e f i n a l two c h a p t e r s o f t h e n o v e l . A t t h e end o f t h e s t o r y , as Abe g r i e v e s a t S a l l y ' s g r a v e s i d e , Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s d i a l o g u e w i t h God: And i n t h a t l o n g d r y c r y i n g , d i d he hear a v o i c e l i k e an echo o f a l l t h e p a s s e d r o a d s and r i v e r s o f h i s l i f e : "You have r u n and h i d d e n f a r , and you a r e t i r e d . Turn t o me now, come now"? I n h i s n o t h i n g n e s s he c o u l d not know; o n l y l a t e r : But he f o u n d w i t h i n h i m s e l f t h a t he c o u l d v o i c e a t l a s t : " I am a m i s e r a b l e s i n n e r . By y o u r g r a c e have mercy, have mercy." (353) 115 I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Wiebe p r e s e n t s t h e image o f God's u t t e r a n c e i n an i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e , a s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h makes sense o n l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a d i a l o g u e . By t h i s s t r a t e g y , Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o engage h i s r e a d e r s i n d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t . However, t h e f i n a l e f f e c t o f Wiebe's q u e s t i o n remains r h e t o r i c a l ; t h e d i a l o g i c s e n t e n c e - f o r m does not change t h e m o n o l o g i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e passage because Wiebe answers h i s own q u e s t i o n f o r t h e r e a d e r . A t t h i s p o i n t i n h i s w r i t i n g c a r e e r , Wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l purpose p r e c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e n t e r i n g i n t o e q u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h h i s r e a d - e r s . As an e v a n g e l i c a l M e n n o n i t e , Wiebe endeavours t o p l a c e J e s u s ' message o f l o v e and peace i n a p o s i t i o n o f s o v e r e i g n - t y i n human c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s s i n g l e i n t e n t i o n c o v e r t l y h y b r i d i s e s t h e many v o i c e s and languages c o n t a i n e d i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , h a r n e s s i n g them a l l i n t o t h e s e r v i c e o f h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l . The v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e n o v e l do not e n j o y e q u a l s t a t u s o r e q u a l power. Wiebe has " d e c i d e d i n advance" ( B a k h t i n 1984, 204) w h i c h s i n g l e v o i c e w i l l p r e - v a i l . The t e x t not o n l y r e s e m b l e s , b u t a l s o s t r i v e s towards r e a l i z i n g i n h i s t o r i c a l a c t u a l i t y , a Mennonite U t o p i a i n w h i c h J e s u s ' v o i c e has s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r a l l human v o i c e s . Wiebe p r o c e e d s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t speech c o n s t i t u t e s a form o f a c t i o n , and t h a t F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n h i s t o r y by b r i n g i n g t h e v o i c e o f J e s u s i n t o t h e s t r u g g l e 116 t o c o n s t i t u t e f a c t s and c o n f e r meaning on them. W h i l e h o l d i n g h i s r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n w i t h a s t o r y o f l o v e and v i o l e n c e i n t h e n o r t h e r n - w i l d e r n e s s , Wiebe c h a l l e n g e s t h e hegemony of s e c u l a r s c i e n t i f i c , n a t i o n a l i s t i c , and main- stream ( s t a t e - e n d o r s i n g ) C h r i s t i a n d i s c o u r s e , and exposes t h e n i h i l i s t i c r e s u l t s o f a c c o r d i n g a l l s i g n i f y i n g systems e q u a l v a l i d i t y . I f F i r s t and V i t a l Candle a c h i e v e s i t s d e s i r e d r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t , r e a d e r s s h o u l d a c q u i r e a new u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r own a c t i v e " s p e a k i n g p a r t " i n h i s - t o r y . 117 NOTES TO CHAPTER 3: FIRST AND VITAL CANDLE 1. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , p a r e n t h e t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g i n C h a p t e r 3 r e f e r t o F i r s t and V i t a l Candle ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1966). 2. See H o l q u i s t 1981, 423, and V o l o s i n o v 23, f o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f " r e a c c e n t u a t i o n " and " r e a c c e n t i n g . " A c c o r d i n g t o H o l q u i s t , "Every language o r d i s c o u r s e system a c c e n t s — h i g h l i g h t s and e v a l u a t e s — i t s m a t e r i a l i n i t s own way, and t h i s changes t h r o u g h t i m e . The p a r a l l e l w i t h a language's s t r e s s system i s not a c c i d e n t a l " ( 4 2 3 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e y do not a f f i l i a t e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h any c h u r c h , S a l l y H o w e l l and J o s h B i s h o p " a c c e n t " t h e B i b l e i n a d i s t i n c t l y Mennonite way. They p r i v i l e g e t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f J e s u s above o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e B i b l e , and s e t J e s u s ' Sermon on t h e Mount (Matthew 5:3-7:27) above a l l e l s e . 3. See e s p e c i a l l y pp. 32-3, and p. 62. 4. I n t h a t Wiebe employs t h i r d p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n w h i c h r e f l e c t s Abe's p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e t e x t m a n i f e s t t h e p r e s e n c e o f two n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s a t t h i s p o i n t . W i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r ' s v o i c e a l m o s t m o n o p o l i s e s t h i s passage, g i v i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e a pronounced m o n o l o g i c q u a l i t y . 5. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e i t e r a t e t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , t h e m u l t i p l e a c c e n t s do not d e r i v e from m u l t i p l e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s , and do not i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t e x t i s i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e term " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y " d e s c r i b e s t h e p l u r a l i t y o f p o s s i b l e ways a s i n g l e r e a d e r might choose t o " v o i c e " t h e words on t h e page. 6. I n T h e . D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , B a k h t i n m a i n t a i n s t h a t "The s p e a k i n g p e r s o n i n t h e n o v e l i s a l w a y s , t o one degree o r a n o t h e r , an i d e o l o g u e , and h i s words a r e always i d e o l o g e m e s . A p a r t i c u l a r language i n a n o v e l i s always a p a r t i c u l a r way o f v i e w i n g t h e w o r l d , one t h a t s t r i v e s f o r a s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e " (333). 7. A c c o r d i n g t o M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t , a zone i s a l o c u s f o r h e a r i n g a v o i c e : i t i s b r o u g h t about by. t h e v o i c e . . . . Zones a r e b o t h a t e r r i t o r y and a sphere o f i n f l u e n c e . . . . A c h a r a c t e r ' s zone need not b e g i n w i t h h i s d i r e c t l y q u o t e d speech but can b e g i n f a r back i n t h e t e x t ; t h e a u t h o r can p r e p a r e t h e way f o r an autonomous v o i c e by m a n i p u l a t i n g words o s t e n s i b l y b e l o n g i n g t o " n e u t r a l " a u t h o r i a l speech. (1981, 434). 118 8. In a p o l y g l o s s i c space, two o r more n a t i o n a l languages c o - e x i s t . 9. I n an a n a l y t i c language, " a u x i l i a r y words a r e t h e c h i e f o r s o l e means o f e x p r e s s i n g g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f words, t o t h e t o t a l o r p a r t i a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f i n f l e c t i o n " ( P e i and Gaynor, 1 3 ) . A p o l y s y n t h e t i c language i s one " i n w h i c h v a r i o u s words a r e combined ( u s u a l l y merged i n t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a v e r b ) , w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g c o m p o s i t e word r e p r e s e n t i n g an e n t i r e s e n t e n c e , statement o r i d e a " ( P e i and Gaynor, 172). 10. A c c o r d i n g t o B a k h t i n , l i n g u i s t s who t a k e as t h e i r o b j e c t o f s t u d y t h e s i n g l e language system (an a b s t r a c t system o f n o r m a t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l forms) cannot come t o g r i p s w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n language use i n r e a l s i t u a t i o n s . B a k h t i n argues t h a t Saussure's "langue" has never e x i s t e d i n h i s t o r i c a l a c t u a l i t y and t h a t S a u s s u r e ' s model o f language d e n i e s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y ( d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n ) o f l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e . See B a k h t i n 1986, 60-102, and V o l o S i n o v 1973, 58-61 f o r B a k h t i n ' s arguments a g a i n s t Saussure's b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n between "langue" and " p a r o l e , " and a g a i n s t h i s p r i v i l e g i n g o f t h e s y n c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n o f language o v e r t h e d i a c h r o n i c . B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v agree w i t h S a u s s u r e , however, on one fundamental p o i n t : t h a t t h e l i n k between t h e s i g n i f i e r and i t s s i g n i f i e d ( s ) i s a r b i t r a r y and s o c i a l l y n e g o t i a t e d . B a k h t i n ' s and V o l o S i n o v ' s v i s i o n o f t h e s i g n as an a r e n a o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e depends on t h i s a s s u m p t i o n . 11. See B a k h t i n 1981, 342-45. B a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e " and " i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e " d i s c o u r s e o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f S a l l y H o w e l l ' s and J o s h B i s h o p ' s methods. 12. See i n p a r t i c u l a r George O r w e l l ' s Appendix t o N i n e t e e n E i a h t y - F o u r . 13. Wiebe e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n t i n u i n g c o n c e r n w i t h t h e i s s u e o f "planned s a v a g e r y " i n contemporary i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n P l a y i n g Dead. 96-7. 14. R e s e a r c h i n g F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , Wiebe g a t h e r e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f documents on t h e s u b j e c t o f American and Canadian d e f e n c e p o l i c y . Wiebe notes t h a t Norad s t a n d s f o r "North American A i r Defence," and SAC f o r " S t r a t e g i c A i r Command." W h i l e t h e f o r m e r i s an e a r l y w a r n i n g "defence o n l y " system, t h e l a t t e r i s a n u c l e a r s t r i k i n g f o r c e w i t h a g l o b a l range. Through Norad, w h i c h i s o r g a n i s e d j o i n t l y between Canada and t h e U.S.A, Canada i m p l i c a t e s i t s e l f i n t h e a g g r e s s i v e f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s o f t h e U.S.A., h e l p i n g " t o 119 e n a b l e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o use i t s maximum power t o d e s t r o y t h e enemy s h o u l d he d e c i d e t o a t t a c k t h e N o r t h American c o n t i n e n t . " Wiebe's h a n d w r i t t e n notes mention t h a t t h e term "the enemy" i s used, i n d e e d t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , by t h e e x p e r t s . See The Rudy Wiebe P a p e r s , F i l e 26.8.5. 15. " M u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y " r e f e r s t o "the c l a s h o f l i v e s o c i a l a c c e n t s " ( V o l o s i n o v 23) w i t h i n t h e v e r b a l s i g n , t h e p o t e n t i a l v o i c i n g s o f t h e word. 120 CHAPTER 4: THE BLUE MOUNTAINS OF CHINA H i s t o r y as I n a d v e r t e n t C o n f e s s i o n I In The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a ( 1 9 7 0 ) , Rudy Wiebe r e c o u n t s t h e h i s t o r y not o f an i n d i v i d u a l b u t o f a group, "a p a r t i c u l a r p e o p l e from v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s bound t o g e t h e r by a f a i t h . " 1 Four, f a m i l i e s — t h e F r i e s e n s , t h e Epps, t h e Reimers and t h e D r i e d i g e r s — r e p r e s e n t a community o f R u s s i a n Mennonites who, i n t h e c o u r s e o f a hundred y e a r s , s p l i t i n t o s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t s o c i e t i e s , d i v i d e d by d i s t a n c e , language, c u l t u r e , and h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e i r d i s p a r a t e v o i c e s c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h i n t h e space o f Wiebe's t e x t t o a r t i c u l a t e Mennonite "knowledge o f our o r i g i n s . " 2 The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a c o n t i n u e s Wiebe's movement away from d i r e c t , unmediated a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . C o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e c o n t i n u e s t o p e r f o r m t h e v i t a l r o l e i t p l a y e d i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many and F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , b u t i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n becomes more complex and p e r v a s i v e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . Moreover, Wiebe 121 s h i f t s i n t o a d i a l o g i c form i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l d e s i g n o f h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s . A s i d e from F r i e d a F r i e s e n ' s s e c t i o n s ( C h a p t e r s 1, 3, 6, and 1 0 ) , Wiebe no l o n g e r o r g a n i s e s h i s e x p o s i t i o n of t h e m a t i c m a t e r i a l as a c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e r i e s o f s t a g e s i n t h e l i f e o f an i n d i v i d u a l . I n s t e a d , he moves t o w a r d f o r m a l " s y n c r i s i s " — t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f v a r i o u s v o i c e s r e f l e c t i n g d i v e r s e p o i n t s o f v i e w . 3 Each c h a p t e r o f t h e t e x t i s dominated by t h e v o i c e o f a s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r , who a r t i c u l a t e s a d i s t i n c t p o s i t i o n w i t h i n Mennonite s o c i e t y and r e c o r d s e v e n t s from h i s o r her p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e . Together t h e y form a f r a g m e n t e d , m u l t i - v o i c e d , h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e w h i c h encodes t h e p l u r a l i t y o f t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p a s t . However, a t e x t may assume a d i a l o g i c form w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l i n q u i s h i n g m o n o l o g i c l i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s and c o n c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h ; t h e s e depend on t h e a u t h o r ' s p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e n o v e l . 4 The d i f f i c u l t y posed i n i t i a l l y by t h e t e x t o f The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a i s t h a t Wiebe's p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h o s e v o i c e s i s d e c e p t i v e . F o r t h e most p a r t , he o b s c u r e s h i s own dominance o v e r t h e v a r i o u s n a r r a t i n g v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t , so t h a t t h e y seem a t f i r s t t o e n j o y t h e s t a t u s o f autonomous c e n t r e s o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l , c o - s u b j e c t s i n t h e " ' g r e a t d i a l o g u e ' i n w h i c h c h a r a c t e r s and a u t h o r might p a r t i c i p a t e 122 w i t h e q u a l r i g h t s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 7 1 ) . Wiebe's s e l f - e f f a c e m e n t f o r c e s r e a d e r s t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h e concept o f d i a l o g i c t r u t h and w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f human u n d e r s t a n d i n g , problems a r t i c u l a t e d most e x p l i c i t l y i n t h e n o v e l by F r a n z Epp and Jakob F r i e s e n IV. 5 As each new s p e a k e r e n t e r s t h e a r e n a o f t h e t e x t , he o r she c a s t s a new l i g h t , a new system o f a c c e n t s , on t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e o t h e r s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t s e m a n t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s c o n t i n u o u s l y m u l t i p l y and u n f o l d . 6 Each s p e a k e r seems "honed i n on h i m s e l f " ( 1 2 4 ) , o r i e n t e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o h i s o r her own p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n s , l e a v i n g r e a d e r s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e t e x t w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f any c o n s i s t e n t c r i t e r i o n o f r e l e v a n c e , w i t h o u t a p r e d e t e r m i n e d b a s i s f o r s i f t i n g , w e i g h i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g what i s s a i d , and t h u s w i t h no s u r e i d e a o f t h e o f f i c i a l s i t e on w h i c h t h e v o i c e s d i a l o g i c a l l y i n t e r s e c t . 7 Wiebe i n i t i a l l y d i s o r i e n t s r e a d e r s by p l a c i n g them i n a s i m i l a r p r e d i c a m e n t t o Jakob F r i e s e n IV who hears a s t r a n g e r speak b u t cannot a r r i v e a t a s t a b l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e words, because he "was n e v e r s u r e t o what q u e s t i o n t h e man gave h i s answer" ( 1 1 4 ) . O n l y i n r e t r o s p e c t , from a p o i n t near t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , does Wiebe u n v e i l t h e q u e s t i o n t o w h i c h a l l t h e s p e a k e r s i n t h e t e x t have g i v e n an answer. I n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r , John Reimer g i v e s v o i c e t o "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n 123 o f . . . s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e " ( 2 1 5 ) , t h e m o r a l charge t o w h i c h a l l t h e v o i c e s have a l r e a d y u n w i t t i n g l y c o n f e s s e d o r a c q u i t t e d t h e m s e l v e s . John Reimer's announcement o f t h e q u e s t i o n pushes t h e n o v e l a c r o s s a b o r d e r between speech g e n r e s : i t t r a n s l a t e s a p o l y p h o n i c h i s t o r y i n t o a m o n o l o g i c t r i a l . By u n v e i l i n g "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n , " Wiebe r e a c c e n t s t h e e n t i r e t e x t r e t r o a c t i v e l y . C a s u a l i n c i d e n t s and remarks, i n t e r s t i t i a l p h r a s e s , t r i v i a l c i r c u m s t a n t i a l d e t a i l s caught o n l y i n t h e s p e a k e r ' s p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n s u d d e n l y d i s p l a y t h e i r t r u e t h e m a t i c r e l e v a n c e ; c o n v e r s e l y , words and e v e n t s w h i c h a t f i r s t seemed c r u c i a l f a d e i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . In t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , Wiebe e f f e c t s a sudden r e v e l a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a sudden " r e v e r s a l o f method and p e r c e p t i o n " ( F e r r i s 9 4 ) . He unmasks h i s own v o i c e — o r h i s " v o i c i n g " o f t h e words o f J e s u s — a n d r e v e a l s i t s r e l a t i o n t o a l l t h e o t h e r v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t . The v o i c e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s work u l t i m a t e l y as o b j e c t s r a t h e r t h a n s u b j e c t s o f c o g n i t i o n , t h e a c c e n t s i m p a r t e d by t h e i r own v o l i t i o n o v e r r i d d e n by Wiebe's s o v e r e i g n a u t h o r i a l v o i c e . Wiebe's c o n c e a l e d purpose t h r o u g h o u t i s t o r e f r a c t h i s own v o i c e t h r o u g h — r a t h e r t h a n speak t o - - h i s s e e m i n g l y autonomous n a r r a t o r s . C l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t r e v e a l s t h a t a l t h o u g h Wiebe s h i f t s i n t o a d i a l o g i c form i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , t h e n o v e l remains f u n c t i o n a l l y m o n o l o g i c , an e l a b o r a t e system o f "dialogue [ s J r h e t o r i c a l l y 124 performed" ( B a k h t i n 1984, 7 3 ) . I I The f i r s t v o i c e w h i c h speaks i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a i s t h a t o f F r i e d a F r i e s e n , Wiebe's f i r s t a t t e m p t a t a p o l y g l o s s i c speech: I have l i v e d l o n g . So l o n g , i t t a k e s me days t o remember even p a r t s o f i t , and some I c a n ' t remember a t a l l u n t i l I've been t h i n k i n g o v e r i t a l i t t l e now and t h e n f o r weeks, and l i t t l e Johann o r F r i e d l ask, " U r g r o s s m u t t c h i , what i s t h a t , so c o l d i n Canada t h e ground i s s t i f f ? " Then I have t o be c a r e f u l o r I ' l l s t a r t making i t up, t h e y l i k e t o hear so much. What I t e l l I remember o n l y t h r o u g h God's g r a c e . (7) F r i e d a ' s u n u s u a l rhythms, d i c t i o n , and s y n t a x g i v e her E n g l i s h a d i s t i n c t l y f o r e i g n a c c e n t , an a c c e n t i d e n t i f i e d as German w i t h t h e appearance o f t h e names " U r g r o s s m u t t c h i , " "Johann," and " F r i e d l " ( 7 ) . In an i l l u m i n a t i n g a r t i c l e on t h e n a t u r e and s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f F r i e d a ' s language, Magdalene F a l k Redekop d e s c r i b e s i t s e f f e c t as * something l i k e t h a t o f a d o u b l e e x p o s u r e o r s t e r e o s c o p i c v i s i o n . . . . ' Her s y n t a x and v o c a b u l a r y evoke t h e sound o f Low German w h i c h can be h e a r d , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , as one r e a d s t h e E n g l i s h . (Redekop, 98) Redekop c a l l s Wiebe's t e c h n i q u e " d i r e c t o v e r s e t t i n g " (98) and she l i k e n s i t t o a v e r y l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o a c c e n t u a t e r a t h e r t h a n negate t h e d i s p a r i t y between two s o c i a l / i d e o l o g i c a l w o r l d s . 8 F r i e d a ' s v o i c e o c c u p i e s a t h r e s h o l d between t h e c l o s e d , t r a d i t i o n a l w o r l d o f t h e 125 K a n a d i e r Mennonites o f Paraguay, and t h e more open, p r e s e n t - c e n t r e d E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w o r l d i n h a b i t e d by Wiebe's r e a d e r s . D e s p i t e i t s h y b r i d i t y , F r i e d a ' s language remains s t y l i s t i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t and m o n o l o g i c a l l y compact o v e r t h e e n t i r e d u r a t i o n o f h e r s t o r y . The q u a l i t y o f a d d r e s s i v i t y — t h e awareness o f an i n t e r l o c u t o r t o whom t h e d i s c o u r s e i s d i r e c t e d — e m e r g e s o n l y s u b t l y , b u t i s v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t , i n F r i e d a ' s monologue. She t w i c e mentions t h a t h e r g r a n d c h i l d r e n , Johann and F r i e d l , want t o know about Canada (7, 4 2 ) , and t h a t " o l d e r ones not from Paraguay" (142) wonder about l i f e on t h e Chaco, b u t i n no sense does F r i e d a ' s n a r r a t i v e g e t i t s main impetus from t h e s e v a g u e l y s k e t c h e d l i s t e n e r s . The young ones' q u e s t i o n s might s e t her memory i n m o t i o n , b u t once a c t i v a t e d , i t r u n s " o n l y t h r o u g h God's g r a c e " ( 7 ) . No human a u d i e n c e d e t e r m i n e s t h e shape o f F r i e d a ' s n a r r a t i v e . She speaks c o n s c i o u s l y as one who s t a n d s on t h e t h r e s h o l d o f t h e end o f h e r l i f e , and she t e l l s h e r s t o r y a f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o Paraguay, t h e p l a c e she r e f e r s t o as "the end o f t h e w o r l d " ( 1 4 1 ) . I f F r i e d a does not a d d r e s s her s t o r y d i r e c t l y and o p e n l y t o God, she a t l e a s t senses t h a t " h i s e a r h e a r s each word f a l l " ( 1 3 7 ) . U n l i k e most o f t h e o t h e r major c h a r a c t e r s , F r i e d a n e v e r f o r g e t s her m o r a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y t o God; her speech m a n i f e s t s h e r c o n s t a n t awareness o f God's j u d g i n g p r e s e n c e . 126 W i t h i n F r i e d a ' s monologue, a s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d number o f human v o i c e s g a i n a h e a r i n g . F r i e d a remains d e l i b e r a t e l y deaf t o a l l b u t a few a u t h o r i t a t i v e Mennonite v o i c e s , and t h e s e she t h o r o u g h l y a s s i m i l a t e s i n t o her own. I n f a c t , F r i e d a e x p l i c i t l y acknowledges t h e p r o c e s s o f making " o t h e r s ' " words her own.9 As a woman i n a t r a d i t i o n a l Mennonite s o c i e t y , F r i e d a has no v o i c e i n f o r m a l d e c i s i o n - making p r o c e s s e s . B e f o r e m a r r i a g e , she l i v e s under t h e a u t h o r i t y o f her f a t h e r ' s v o i c e ; a f t e r m a r r i a g e , s u b j e c t t o her husbands's. But F r i e d a makes a v o i c e f o r h e r s e l f by t a k i n g o v e r t h e i r u t t e r a n c e s . F o r example, i n t h e f i r s t o f s e v e r a l r e n d i t i o n s o f her f a t h e r ' s motto, she c l e a r l y a c c e p t s t h e wisdom o f what he says b u t l e a v e s no doubt t h a t t h e words b e l o n g t o him: E v e r y t h i n g seemed t o come so bunchy i n o u r f a m i l y and i t was enough t o make you t h i n k sometimes, my f a t h e r s a i d . "But t h i n k always l i k e t h i s , " he s a i d , " i t does come a l l from God, s t r e n g t h and s i c k n e s s , want and p l e n t y . " (10) L a t e r , d u r i n g a phase o f doubt and t e m p t a t i o n w i t h o u t f a t h e r o r husband nearby t o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t , F r i e d a a d o p t s her f a t h e r ' s words as her own: Then I knew what my f a t h e r s a i d each one o f us has t o t a k e and know f o r h i m s e l f : i t a l l comes f r o m God, s t r e n g t h and s i c k n e s s , want and p l e n t y . (46) No q u o t a t i o n marks s e p a r a t e F r i e d a ' s words from h e r f a t h e r ' s . From t h i s p o i n t onwards, F r i e d a t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n of her f a t h e r ' s motto. . 127 F r i e d a remains f i r m l y committed t o her own v e r s i o n o f t h e s a y i n g . L i k e h e r f a t h e r , she a c c e n t s "want" and " s i c k n e s s , " c a u s i n g t h e motto t o work as a s o u r c e o f s o l a c e i n t i m e s o f s e v e r e t r o u b l e . 1 0 By c o n t r a s t , Dennis W i l l i a m s ( W i l l m s ) p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t on t h e words " s t r e n g t h " and " p l e n t y , " t o j u s t i f y h i s r a p a c i t y i n b u s i n e s s and t o e x p l a i n t h e a c c i d e n t s o f b i r t h t h a t gave him h i s s t a r t i n g c a p i t a l : E s t h e r ' s man, Dennis W i l l m s s o l d C h e v r o l e t s , and a l l k i n d s o f o t h e r t h i n g s now t o o . He w r o t e h i s name " W i l l i a m s , " b u t even had some farms. He had t a k e n o v e r t o r u n them w h i l e t h e y had t h e war and now t h e y were h i s ; h i r e d p e o p l e r a n t h e f a r m s . . . "Na M u t t c h i , " he s a i d , "you always s a i d l i k e Grandpa, ' i t a l l comes from God.' So okay, b u t i t ' s not always j u s t s i c k n e s s and want, eh?" "Not a l w a y s , " I s a i d . "No." (149) The u t t e r a n c e " I t a l l comes from God, s t r e n g t h and s i c k n e s s , want and p l e n t y " becomes a s i t e o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e i n t h e t e x t . F r i e d a a g r e e s p o l i t e l y w i t h her s o n - i n - l a w , as her s t r i c t sense o f s o c i a l decorum d i c t a t e s she must. But her a c t i o n s , s p e a k i n g l o u d e r t h a n her words, d e c i s i v e l y r e p u d i a t e D e n n i s ' r e a c c e n t u a t i o n o f h e r f a t h e r ' s motto. She r e j e c t s t h e W i l l m s ' o f f e r t o j o i n them i n t h e i r l i f e of " s t r e n g t h " and " p l e n t y , " and r e t u r n s i n s t e a d t o t h e h a r d s h i p s o f l i f e i n Paraguay. I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o n o t i c e t h a t F r i e d a m e n t i o n s as i f i n p a s s i n g how Dennis W i l l i a m s m u l t i p l i e d h i s w e a l t h . Her s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , " w h i l e t h e y had t h e war," a l l u d e s t o a l a r g e r s t o r y w h i c h Wiebe assumes h i s r e a d e r s a l r e a d y 128 know:11 as a Kanadier, Dennis would have gained automatic exemption from m i l i t a r y service on r e l i g i o u s grounds and been able to take advantage of a war s i t u a t i o n which brought death, g r i e f and f i n a n c i a l r u i n to others. Despite t h e i r minor syntactic importance, the words "while they had the war" carry enormous thematic s i g n i f i c a n c e within the text as a whole, f o r they allude obliquely to the f a c t that Dennis has attained his wealth by feeding p a r a s i t i c a l l y on the s u f f e r i n g of others. Within the clause "while they had the war," Wiebe counterposes two systems of accentuation: Frieda's (her choice to place the clause i n a subordinate syntactic p o s i t i o n within the unity of her utterance) and his own (which weights her a l l u s i o n according to i t s thematic s i g n i f i c a n c e within the larger utterance of his text as a whole). Despite t h i s d i s p a r i t y between the stress patterns created by the character and the author, Frieda's speech sounds as " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l double-voiced discourse... s t y l i s e d Ich-Erzahlung" (Bakhtin 1984, 199). In Bakhtin's terms, Frieda's monologue functions as "a compositional substitute for the author's word....as a p o s i t i o n indispensable to him for carrying on the story" (Bakhtin 1984, 190). Frieda's story, with i t s c a r e f u l notation of dates, and i t s numerous cross-references to other stands of family history, provides readers with a r e l a t i v e l y synoptic view. Wiebe's p o s i t i o n i n g 129 of t h e f o u r p a r t s o f F r i e d a ' s n a r r a t i v e i n t h e n o v e l means t h a t r e a d e r s r e t u r n t o i t r e p e a t e d l y as t o "a c o n s t a n t p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e " ( K e i t h 1981a, 4 7 ) . Moreover, her f r a n k n e s s and s i m p l i c i t y d e f i n e a n o r m a t i v e m o r a l p o s i t i o n " a g a i n s t w h i c h o t h e r s may be measured" ( K e i t h 1981a, 4 7 ) . I l l How do o t h e r v o i c e s i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a compare w i t h F r i e d a F r i e s e n ' s ? W h i l e F r i e d a remains c l o s e d t o a l l b u t a few Mennonite v o i c e s , whose words she e i t h e r d e c i s i v e l y r e j e c t s o r a s s i m i l a t e s t h o r o u g h l y i n t o h e r own speech, L i e s e l D r i e d i g e r i s f a r more open t o t h e v o i c e s and languages o f o t h e r s , and can n e v e r q u i t e subdue c e r t a i n t r o u b l e s o m e a l i e n a c c e n t s t h a t pervade "her own" speech. W h i l e F r i e d a ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s remains f i r m l y r o o t e d i n t h e Low German l a n g u a g e , 1 2 L i e s e l abandons t h i s tongue a t t h e v e r y f i r s t o p p o r t u n i t y . A t t h e age o f n i n e , d u r i n g t h e sea passage -from Germany t o Paraguay, L i e s e l f l e e s from t h e v e r y sound o f t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' s u f f e r i n g , t h e e n d l e s s d i n of c r y i n g c h i l d r e n , " s c o l d i n g v o i c e s , murmurs, c o m p l a i n t s , shushes" (76) t h a t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h r o b o f t h e e n g i n e s , f i l l t h e s t a g n a n t a i r i n t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' o v e r c r o w d e d q u a r t e r s i n s t e e r a g e . To e s c a p e , L i e s e l sneaks, w i t h as much 130 d i g n i t y as she can m u s t e r , up t h e s t a i r s p a s t C Deck and B Deck, t h e a r e a s r e s e r v e d f o r c a b i n and t o u r i s t c l a s s , t o t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m of A Deck, where t h e F i r s t C l a s s p a s s e n g e r s l a u g h and dance under s p a r k l i n g c h a n d e l i e r s . I n t h i s e x a l t e d r e a l m L i e s e l h e a r s many u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , but t o h e r , b r i l l i a n t l a n g u a g e s , " S p a n i s h o r E n g l i s h o r even F r e n c h " (81) and r e f i n e d H i g h German. Compared t o t h e s e , her own p e o p l e ' s Low German sounds l i k e "heavy f e l t b o o t s some men s t i l l wore, so s t i n k i n g when t h e y s c h l u f f e d by" ( 8 1 ) . L i e s e l s u f f e r s from l i n g u i s t i c as w e l l as s o c i a l c l a u s t r o p h o b i a . She f e e l s t r a p p e d i n a language she c o n s i d e r s i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n f e r i o r , w i t h p e o p l e she b e l i e v e s a r e c u l t u r a l l y beneath h e r . W h i l e L i e s e l ' s f a t h e r i s h i g h l y e d u c a t e d , and t e a c h e s a t t h e L e n i n g r a d U n i v e r s i t y , most o f t h e o t h e r men on t h e s h i p a r e "such f a r m e r s " ( 7 7 ) . Yet c i r c u m s t a n c e s compel L i e s e l t o speak t h e same n a t i o n a l language as t h e s e ( t o her) d e t e s t a b l y i g n o r a n t p e o p l e . L i e s e l t h e r e f o r e d e v i s e s l i n g u i s t i c s t r a t e g i e s t o mark h e r s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e — a n d w i t h o u t knowing i t , her i m m a t u r i t y and her w i l l e d i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s . She r e f u s e s t o comply w i t h t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' p r e v a i l i n g a c c e n t u a l system. D u r i n g f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s , f o r example, i n s t e a d o f bowing her head and i m m e r s i n g h e r mind i n t h e words o f t h e "heavy songs" ( 7 5 ) , and b l e n d i n g h e r v o i c e i n t o t h e " v o i c e s g r o a n i n g i n harmony" ( 7 3 ) , L i e s e l adopts a d e t a c h e d , p l a y f u l 131 a e s t h e t i c a t t i t u d e t o e v e n t s . For h e r , f u n e r a l s a r e f e s t i v a l s o f music and t h e a t r e : Not t h a t L i e s e l minded f u n e r a l s . She had found t h e r e c o u l d be enjoyment t h e r e ; and, sometimes, i n c h u r c h s e r v i c e s . . . On t h i s sad e a r t h I am a p i l g r i m . And my j o u r n e y , o my j o u r n e y I s not l o n g . t h e n she would f e e l j u s t i m p o s s i b l y , a l m o s t t o o b e a u t i f u l l y , sad and even b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e f i r s t v e r s e she w o u l d remember t h a t t h e r e were o n l y t h r e e more and t h a t t h e y were not l o n g and she would be even sadder. But t h e n o f t e n B r o t h e r H o p p i t y p r e a c h e d . He was t h e o n l y p r e a c h e r who danced about b e h i n d t h e t a b l e o r ' whatever m a k e s h i f t p u l p i t t h e y had managed. H i s hands and t h e changes on h i s f a c e — a n d when she was c l o s e enough t o see h i s f e e t i t was b e s t by f a r . . . . H i s announcements about f u n e r a l s were a l s o u n s u r p a s s e d . She always watched him t h e n , e n t r a n c e d : w i l l he manage j u s t c h o k i n g a l i t t l e ; w i l l he be f o r c e d t o l o o k down and everyone w a i t i n g , w a i t i n g ; o r w i l l he s u d d e n l y b u r s t r i g h t out i n t o t e a r s ? B r o t h e r H o p p i t y . . . had a c t u a l l y c r i e d o n l y once, a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e p i d e m i c s when s i x c h i l d r e n had d i e d i n one n i g h t . . . . She had had no a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a n y t h i n g and so m i s s e d s a v o u r i n g a l t o g e t h e r what would happen u n t i l i t was p a s t . (73-4) Conspicuous i n t h i s passage i s t h e marked d i s p a r i t y between L i e s e l ' s c h i r p y t o n e and t h e s e r i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e t o p i c a t h a n d — d e a t h . Wiebe o f f s e t ' s two c o m p e t i n g p a t t e r n s o f a c c e n t s : one i m p a r t e d by t h e s y n t a c t i c c h o i c e s o f L i e s e l - t h e - d r a m a - c r i t i c , and t h e o t h e r a r i s i n g from t h e tremendous pathos i n h e r e n t i n t h e v e r y i d e a o f c h i l d r e n s u f f e r i n g and d y i n g . L i e s e l m e n t i o n s t h e deaths o f s i x c h i l d r e n o n l y i n a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e . F o r h e r , t h e i n c i d e n t has s i g n i f i c a n c e o n l y i n so f a r as i t makes p o s s i b l e t h e main e v e n t , B r o t h e r H o p p i t y ' s t e a r s . But Wiebe a l l o w s h i s a u d i e n c e t o r e a d a g a i n s t L i e s e l ' s a c c e n t : L i e s e l ' s language e x e m p l i f i e s 132 v a r i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h a t and F r i e d a ' s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e measures t h e d i s t a n c e between parody and s t y l i z a t i o n . L e i s e l h e r s e l f t r i e s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o parody t h e speech o f o t h e r s . She mimics t h e v o i c e o f "some o l d g r a c k l e l i k e S t i f f e r K l i e w e r " (72) who, i n a manner " p r e c i s e l y i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e s p o i l - s p o r t ways of o l d p e o p l e " (73) urges t h a t "a s i l l y o l d f u n e r a l " (72) s h o u l d postpone t h e p a r t y : " I t i s o f c o u r s e now c l e a r , " he would say and say, " t h a t i t was not t o be. That i t s h o u l d not be. Even i f we f o r g e t — a n d who c a n ? — w h a t has j u s t happened, l e t us remember what we have been t h r o u g h , and what i s s t i l l b e f o r e us. Yes, some c o u l d be happy, some, b u t as I s a i d b e f o r e , when t h i s m a t t e r f i r s t was l a i d b e f o r e us, f o r how many would t h e h a p p i n e s s — o h , some would be h a p p y ! — n o t mean o n l y a g r e a t e r s o r r o w because o f t h o s e , e s p e c i a l l y a l l t h o s e b e l o v e d l i t t l e ones, who a r e not here, whom t h e i r l o v e d ones w i l l not see, o r h o l d , a g a i n ? " And now t h e r e ' d e a s i l y be enough water t o c a r r y t h e day. Of c o u r s e . (72) L i e s e l c a r i c a t u r e s t h e speech o f t h e " o l d g r a c k l e , " 1 3 t h e i t a l i c i s e d words e x a g g e r a t i n g h i s a c c e n t s , and t h e b r e a k s and r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s lampooning h i s a t t e m p t s t o engage t h e sympathies o f h i s l i s t e n e r s . Yet L i e s e l cannot e n t i r e l y s u b o r d i n a t e t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " system o f a c c e n t s ; h i s words c o u n t e r - a t t a c k her a t t e m p t s t o n e u t r a l i s e t h e i r meaning and t h e i r power. The " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " speech s u c c e s s f u l l y defends i t s own a c c e n t u a l system because, as B a k h t i n w r i t e s o f n o v e l i s t i c p a t h o s , i t " c o n t i n u a l l y senses t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d by a l i e n d i s c o u r s e s , a l i e n p o i n t s o f v i e w " (1981, 133 394). Wiebe f i l l s t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " speech w i t h " s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s " 1 4 w h i c h pre-empt and d e f u s e i n advance a l l p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i o n s t o h i s argument: "Even i f we f o r g e t — a n d who can?--what has j u s t happened.... Yes, some c o u l d be happy, some, b u t . . . " ( 7 2 ) . H i s s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s c a p t u r e L i e s e l ' s v o i c e and s u b j e c t i t t o h i s own i n t e n t i o n s . 1 5 In a d d i t i o n t o s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s , t h e " o l d g r a c k l e " h a r n e s s e s t h e power o f p a t h o s - - " a l l t h o s e b e l o v e d l i t t l e ones, who a r e not h e r e , whom t h e i r l o v e d ones w i l l not see, o r h o l d , a g a i n " ( 7 2 ) . Even though t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " words appear c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y bound w i t h i n L i e s e l ' s u t t e r a n c e , t h e i r p a t h o s g e n e r a t e s "a c o u n t e r f o r c e " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 198) a g a i n s t L i e s e l ' s i n t e n t i o n s . They break out o f L i e s e l ' s c o n t r o l and speak t o t h e r e a d e r d i r e c t l y by d i s c l o s i n g c e r t a i n f a c t s which f u r t h e r t h e s t o r y , ( l i k e F r i e d a ' s w o r d s ) . Through a v o i c e c a p t u r e d by a n o t h e r v o i c e , Wiebe t e l l s h i s r e a d e r s t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e i l l and d y i n g and t h a t t h e i r f a m i l i e s a r e s u f f e r i n g i n t e n s e g r i e f and p r o f o u n d f e e l i n g s o f l o s s . T h i s s t o r y r e f l e c t s upon L i e s e l ' s c a l l o u s r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e o t h e r M e n n o n i t e s : i t i m p l i c i t l y t r a n s f o r m s L i e s e l ' s contemptuous remark, "And now t h e r e ' d be e a s i l y enough w a t e r t o c a r r y t h e day" (72-3) i n t o a bounded o b j e c t . Wiebe t h u s i n t e n s i f i e s h i s p a r o d y o f L i e s e l t h e p a r o d i s t . He l i b e r a t e s v o i c e s c a p t u r e d w i t h i n h e r v o i c e , and a l l o w s them t o i m p r i s o n t h e i r c a p t u r e r . And as 134 t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " v o i c e s e i z e s c o n t r o l , t h e f o c u s s h i f t s away from L i e s e l ' s hopes and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s and c e n t r e s on t h e m o r a l f a c t t h a t she would p u r c h a s e enjoyment knowing i t must i n t e n s i f y t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s . A l t h o u g h L i e s e l c a l l s her opponent " o l d g r a c k l e , " her b e h a v i o u r r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f t h e numerous p r e d a t o r y b l a c k b i r d s i n t h e n o v e l . 1 6 By f i l t e r i n g h i s s t o r y o f s u f f e r i n g and d e a t h t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s o f H o p p i t y H i e b e r t and t h e " o l d g r a c k l e , " w h i c h must i n t u r n pass t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r o f L i e s e l ' s de- p a t h e t i c i s i n g mind and words, Wiebe h o l d s t h e p a t h o s o f h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r a t arm's l e n g t h , two s t e p s removed from h i s own d i r e c t , unmediated d i s c o u r s e . The v o i c e s o f H i e b e r t and t h e " g r a c k l e " a r e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e i n t h a t t h e y a r e doubly-bounded i n t h e t e x t . Y e t t h e y f u n c t i o n as s u r r o g a t e s f o r Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l v o i c e . B a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between p o e t i c and n o v e l i s e d pathos e x p l a i n s why Wiebe r e s o r t s t o t h i s s t r a t e g y o f compounded i n d i r e c t i o n . In The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , B a k h t i n d e s c r i b e s p o e t i c p a t h o s as f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o i t s e l f and t o i t s o b j e c t . Indeed, t h e s p e a k e r c o m p l e t e l y immerses h i m s e l f i n such a d i s c o u r s e , t h e r e i s no d i s t a n c e , t h e r e a r e no r e s e r v a t i o n s . A d i s c o u r s e o f p a t h o s has t h e appearance o f d i r e c t l y i n t e n t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e . (394) A f t e r t h e e x c e s s e s o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f i c t i o n and melodrama, t h i s d i r e c t , m o n o l o g i c , p o e t i c p a t h o s i s no 135 l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e as a l i t e r a r y s t r a t e g y f o r " s e r i o u s " w r i t e r s i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . Wiebe knows t h a t " d i s c e r n i n g " a u d i e n c e s would be l i k e l y t o r e c o i l from any t o o - o v e r t t u g g i n g a t t h e i r h e a r t - s t r i n g s . Yet h i s m o r a l case a g a i n s t L i e s e l depends p r e c i s e l y on t h e s u c c e s s w i t h w h i c h he can c a l l f o r t h h i s r e a d e r s ' sadness and compassion. W i t h o u t such a r e s p o n s e , where would one f i n d a m o r a l o r e m o t i o n a l norm a g a i n s t w h i c h t o a s s e s s L i e s e l ' s g l i b d i s m i s s a l o f o t h e r s ' p a i n ? Because " l u c i d i t y t o d a y i s s t r i c t l y f o r morons" (183) a c c o r d i n g t o L i e s e l - t h e - l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c , Wiebe must r e s o r t t o d i a l o g i c o r " n o v e l i s e d " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 394) p a t h o s , w h i c h , i n B a k h t i n ' s words, does not have d i s c o u r s e s t h a t b e l o n g t o i t a l o n e — i t must borrow t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f o t h e r s . . . . [ I t ] always works i n t h e n o v e l t o r e s t o r e some o t h e r g e n r e , genres t h a t , i n t h e i r own unmediated pure form, have l o s t t h e i r own base i n r e a l i t y . I n t h e n o v e l a d i s c o u r s e o f pathos i s a l m o s t always a s u r r o g a t e f o r some o t h e r genre t h a t i s no l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e t o a g i v e n t i m e o r a g i v e n s o c i a l f o r c e — s u c h p a t h o s i s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f a p r e a c h e r who has l o s t h i s p u l p i t . . . . Everywhere, t h e d i s c o u r s e o f p a t h o s i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h o r i e n t a t i o n s and p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e u n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e a u t h o r as a u t h e n t i c e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e s e r i o u s n e s s and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h i s p u r p o s e , but w h i c h he must, a l l . t h e same, c o n d i t i o n a l l y r e p r o d u c e by u s i n g h i s own d i s c o u r s e . (1981, 394-95) To see t h e d i f f e r e n c e between n o v e l i s e d and p o e t i c p a t h o s , one has o n l y t o compare Wiebe's complex system o f r e f r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e k i n d o f n a i v e p a t h o s a r t i c u l a t e d i n C h a r l e s D i c k e n s ' r e n d i t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f L i t t l e N e l l . When 136 d i s p l a c e d from i t s o r i g i n a l e m o t i o n a l and t e x t u a l c o n t e x t , D i c k e n s ' passage becomes l a u g h a b l y m a u d l i n . 1 7 Wiebe guards a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s own t e x t may be p a r o d i e d by s i m i l a r a c t s o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n and d i s p l a c e m e n t by w r a p p i n g h i s a u t h o r i a l v o i c e i n l a y e r s o f o t h e r v o i c e s t o c r e a t e an i m p e n e t r a b l e p r o t e c t i v e cocoon around h i s own words. Anyone a t t e m p t i n g t o a p p r o p r i a t e Wiebe's words and " r e - v o i c e " them p a r o d i c a l l y f i n d s t h e i r own v o i c e a l r e a d y o b j e c t i f i e d and judged. Wiebe c r e a t e s a l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t w h i c h s h i e l d s h i s own v o i c e from t h e k i n d s o f d e c r o w n i n g r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n s t o w h i c h D i c k e n s ' famous t e a r - j e r k e r has been s u b j e c t e d . Wiebe's use o f s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s and p a t h o s i n C h a p t e r 5 w a r r a n t s c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n , f o r i t s u p p l i e s an i n f a l l i b l e g u i d e t o h i s p o s i t i o n , not o n l y i n r e l a t i o n t o L i e s e l ' s v o i c e b u t a l s o i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e v o i c e o f a p o w e r f u l f a c t i o n w i t h i n h i s own r e a d e r s h i p . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e n o v e l as a whole, L i e s e l ' s d i s c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s as one l o n g s i d e w a r d g l a n c e a t a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f r e a d e r . In L i e s e l ' s v o i c e , Wiebe pre-empts and denounces i n advance t h e v o i c e s o f t h o s e who would argue t h a t m o r a l i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y bad. L i e s e l f u n c t i o n s as a s u r r o g a t e f o r t h e "wrong r e a d e r , " t h e r e a d e r who judges t h e t e x t e n t i r e l y i n a e s t h e t i c t e r m s , i n a s t a t e a "suspended s e n s i t i v i t y " (80) t o w a r d m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . 1 8 Wiebe does not e x c l u d e r e a d e r s and w r i t e r s from t h e n e c e s s i t y t o make m o r a l 137 c h o i c e s . Through L i e s e l ' s a e s t h e t i c d e l i g h t i n f u n e r a l s , and I r e n e F r i e s e n ' s enjoyment o f Bob D y l a n , Wiebe p r e s e n t s images o f a u d i e n c e s who t a k e an v o y e u r i s t i c d e l i g h t i n o t h e r s ' p a i n — " s a d can be f u n " (210) p r o v i d e d one i s " c u r l e d i n a c h a i r w i t h a f u l l b e l l y " (210). L i k e Abe Ross i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , L i e s e l b e l i e v e s she b e l i e v e s n o t h i n g , and i m a g i n e s she has made a c l e a n escape from a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h her e a r l y r e l i g i o u s u p b r i n g i n g . 1 9 Yet she r e t a i n s i n some h i d d e n c o r n e r o f h e r psyche t h e memory o f a l o s t f a i t h and a l o s t language, and a s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f o t h e r s . H e a r i n g Jakob F r i e s e n speak, L i e s e l l e a r n s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e gaps, s i l e n c e s and o m i s s i o n s i n h i s speech: " I t sounded so h e r o i c , so p a t h e t i c a l l y h e r o i c i n what he d i d not m e n t i o n t h a t E l i z a b e t h f e l t s o m e t h i n g move i n her beyond t e a r s " ( 1 9 3 ) . M o m e n t a r i l y , L i e s e l becomes Wiebe's " r i g h t r e a d e r , " r e a d i n g a g a i n s t t h e a c c e n t s u p p l i e d by a s p e a k e r . Her e a r becomes a t t u n e d t o d i m e n s i o n s o f e x p e r i e n c e t h a t Jakob F r i e s e n , l i k e Wiebe, cannot d i r e c t l y a r t i c u l a t e t o h i s a u d i e n c e : She wanted t o g r o a n i n p a i n f o r what she u n d e r s t o o d o f him, o f h e r s e l f , and a t t h e same t i m e r a g e f l a r e d i n h e r a t t h e g u i l t and agony and r e g r e t c o v e r i n g , soaked t h r o u g h and t h r o u g h p e o p l e w h i l e t h e " g r e a t " p o e t s and n o v e l i s t s o f t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d mucked around wading and p a r a d i n g t h e i r own m i g h t y organs and v i s c e r a , p o s t u r i n g l i k e p u p p e t s , s h o o t i n g t h e m s e l v e s o f f a t t h e moon and i n f l a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t h e m a g n i f i c e n t modern c r u s a d e r s o f humanity, s e e r s and p r o p h e t s o f t h e s i x t i e s , because t h e y " d i s c o v e r e d " Dachau, " d i s c o v e r e d " V i e t n a m . Dachaus a r e everywhere; who c o u l d number t h e V i e t n a m s . In p e o p l e who b e l i e v e t h e y b e l i e v e n o t h i n g . (196-7) 138 Wiebe d i f f e r e n t i a t e s h i m s e l f from t h o s e " ' g r e a t ' p o e t s and n o v e l i s t s " (196-7) who e x p l o i t t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s f o r t h e i r own g a i n by u s i n g t h a t s u f f e r i n g as g r i s t f o r t h e i r a e s t h e t i c m i l l . U n l i k e C h a r l e s D i c k e n s , Wiebe wants t o move h i s a u d i e n c e "beyond t e a r s " ( 1 9 3 ) . And u n l i k e t h e Leonard Cohens o f t h e l i t e r a r y w o r l d , 2 0 Wiebe has no i n t e r e s t i n r o m a n t i c i s i n g t h e b l a c k s i d e s o f human n a t u r e . R a t h e r t h a n e v o k i n g t r a n s i t o r y a e s t h e t i c e p i p h a n i e s , Wiebe endeavours t o provoke a permanent change i n m o r a l t h i n k i n g — " t h i n k i n g d i f f e r e n t " ( 2 1 6 ) — w h i c h would l e a d t o h i s r e a d e r s ' a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n "a r e v o l u t i o n f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e " (215). IV F o r Wiebe, m o r a l g u e s t i o n s a r e always i n s e p a r a b l y bound up w i t h l i n g u i s t i c g u e s t i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e g u e s t i o n o f how J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o mutate s e m a n t i c a l l y when t h e y c r o s s t h e b o r d e r between one c o n t e x t and a n o t h e r . Sam Reimer d e s i r e s t o l i v e by J e s u s ' words, "Do good t o them t h a t hate you t h a t you may be c h i l d r e n of y o u r f a t h e r w h i c h i s i n heaven" ( 1 6 9 ) , but wonders "What d i d t h a t mean when you weren't h a t e d , r a t h e r someone a c r o s s an ocean and you knew about i t ? ( 1 6 9 ) . " How might J e s u s ' words "Do unto o t h e r s , as you would have them do unto you," t r a n s l a t e 139 i n t o c o n c r e t e a c t i o n i n c o n t e x t s where t h e p l u r a l i t y o f s o c i a l i d e n t i t y r e n d e r s t h e terms " s e l f " and " o t h e r " ambiguous? Who p r e c i s e l y i s t h i s " o t h e r " t o whom one i s m o r a l l y o b l i g e d ? In The B l u e Mountains of C h i n a . Wiebe p o s i t i o n s each major c h a r a c t e r i n a c r i s i s where he o r she must make a m o r a l c h o i c e : t o a c t i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e l f o r i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o t h e r p e o p l e ? To h e i g h t e n t h e d r a m a t i c i n t e n s i t y o f t h i s a g e - b i d m o r a l dilemma, Wiebe s i t u a t e s h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n c o n t e x t s where t h e b o r d e r between " s e l f " and " o t h e r " i s p r o b l e m a t i c . C h a p t e r 2, "Sons and H e i r s " e x p l o r e s t h e menippean theme o f t h e d i a l o g i z a t i o n o f t h e s e l f , t o s u g g e s t t h a t o p p r e s s i o n o f an o t h e r i n v o l v e s a s u p p r e s s i o n o f p a r t o f t h e s e l f . "Sons and H e i r s , " encodes t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f Jakob F r i e s e n V ( J a s c h a ) . In c o n t r a s t t o F r i e d a ' s l a n g u a g e , w h i c h draws t h e words o f o t h e r s i n t o i t s e l f t o a s s i m i l a t e them c o m p l e t e l y i n t o her own l a n g u a g e , Jakob's language b r e a k s a p a r t and e x p l o d e s o u t w a r d s , l e a v i n g no c o r e l a n g u a g e - o f - t h e - s e l f b e h i n d a t a l l . Under t h e impact of r a d i c a l changes i n R u s s i a ' s n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y , . Jakob's psyche s p l i t s open, j u s t as h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s body was s p l i t open by t h e sword o f a R u s s i a n b a n d i t . The R u s s i a n s e c r e t p o l i c e s e i z e n i n e t e e n - y e a r - o l d Jakob i n l i e u o f h i s t e m p o r a r i l y absent f a t h e r . They throw him i n t o p r i s o n , and. s u b j e c t him t o i n t e r r o g a t i o n under t o r t u r e , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h p e r i o d s o f t o t a l s o l i t u d e d u r i n g which he must c o n t e n d w i t h s e v e r e c o l d , hunger and cramp. A f t e r s i x weeks, t h e a u t h o r i t i e s r e l e a s e Jakob as u n e x p e c t e d l y as t h e y j a i l e d him. Weak and m e n t a l l y u n b a l a n c e d , he makes h i s way home t o h i s f a t h e r ' s farm i n Karatow C o l o n y , t o f i n d t h a t h i s f a m i l y has f l e d t o Moscow and h i s f a m i l i a r , c h a n g e l e s s w o r l d has t u r n e d u p s i d e down. F r e e of h i s f a t h e r ' s a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , r e l e a s e d from t h e s e v e r e c o n s t r a i n t o f t h e c o u n t l e s s "thou s h a l t n o t s " d i c t a t i n g h i s b e h a v i o u r and h o l d i n g h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i n i t s s i n g l e f i x e d shape, Jakob d i s c o v e r s what B a k h t i n has r e f e r r e d t o as t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n and a n o t h e r l i f e . . . He l o s e s h i s f i n a l i z e d q u a l i t y and ceases t o mean o n l y one t h i n g ; he c e a s e s t o c o - i n c i d e w i t h h i m s e l f . (1984, 116-7) D u r i n g Jakob's absence from Karatow, t h e GPU has implemented t h e Communist p o l i c y o f s o c i a l and economic e q u a l i t y . R u s s i a has c r o s s e d t h e t h r e s h o l d i n t o "the new age" (29) and Jakob's w o r l d has been p e r m a n e n t l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i g h t m a r i s h q u a s i - h o l i d a y w o r l d o f " l o o s e n e s s " and " u n - n e c e s s i t y " ( 3 5 ) . T h i s w o r l d conforms c l o s e l y t o B a k h t i n ' s model o f t h e c a r n i v a l w o r l d , where t h e l a w s , p r o h i b i t i o n s , and r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r u c t u r e and o r d e r o f t h e o r d i n a r y . . . a r e suspended.... What i s suspended f i r s t o f a l l i s h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e and a l l t h e forms o f t e r r o r , r e v e r e n c e , p i e t y , and e t i q u e t t e c o n n e c t e d w i t h i t - - t h a t i s , e v e r y t h i n g r e s u l t i n g from s o c i o - h i e r a r c h i c a l 141 i n e q u a l i t y o r any o t h e r form o f i n e q u a l i t y among p e o p l e . . . A l l d i s t a n c e between p e o p l e i s suspended, and a s p e c i a l c a r n i v a l c a t e g o r y goes i n t o e f f e c t : f r e e and f a m i l i a r c o n t a c t among p e o p l e . . . . A l l t h i n g s t h a t were once s e l f - e n c l o s e d , d i s u n i f i e d , d i s t a n c e d from one a n o t h e r by a n o n c a r n i v a l i s t i c w o r l d v i e w a r e drawn i n t o c a r n i v a l i s t i c c o n t a c t s and c o m b i n a t i o n s . (1984, 122-23) Jakob r e t u r n s from p r i s o n t o f i n d t h a t Escha, t h e R u s s i a n farmhand, now s l e e p s i n Jakob's bedroom i n t h e main h o f , a p l a c e h i t h e r t o r e s e r v e d f o r t h e "son and h e i r . " Under t h e new regime, e v e r y b o d y i s e q u a l . E s c h a no l o n g e r c o n f i n e s h i m s e l f t o h i s " p r o p e r p l a c e " i n . t h e b a r n w i t h t h e " o t h e r a n i m a l s , " b u t has t h e f r e e r u n o f t h e e n t i r e F r i e s e n e s t a b l i s h m e n t . Escha's e n t r y i n t o a l l t h e spaces from w h i c h he was f o r m e r l y b a r r e d a b o l i s h e s t h e d i s t a n c e s e p a r a t i n g him from Jakob. The i d e a o f s o c i a l e q u a l i t y d e s t r o y s t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f Jakob's i d e n t i t y . H i s p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n as "son and h e i r " ( " t h i s i s my hof t h i s i s mine I am t h e e l d e s t son t h i s i s mine" [15]) i s u s u r p e d by a farmhand s t r u t t i n g around l i k e a c a r n i v a l k i n g . Jakob and h i s f a m i l y have always dehumanised Escha, t r e a t i n g him as a n o t h e r work a n i m a l t o be used f o r t h e i r b e n e f i t . Jakob r e f e r s t o E s c h a as an ox ( 2 1 ) , a h o r s e ( 1 5 ) , a p i g ( 2 1 ) . Under o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , Jakob t h i n k s of h i m s e l f as p r o f o u n d l y d i f f e r e n t from Escha. H i s r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g has t a u g h t him t h a t "man i s not a c a r e f r e e b r u t e ; he i s a t h i n k i n g c r e a t i o n made i n t h e i m a g e . . . [ o f ] God" ( 3 9 ) . Jakob's f a m i l y has p l a c e d tremendous v a l u e on 142 g e n e a l o g y , w i t h o u t a c c e p t i n g i t s c o n c o m i t a n t — s e x u a l i t y . Such a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e body would t h r e a t e n t h e i r sense o f m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r o t h e r s . But t o r t u r e and extreme p h y s i c a l d e p r i v a t i o n i n p r i s o n have g i v e n Jakob an "overwhelming awareness" (17) o f h i s own body, an awareness w h i c h , w i t h o u t h i s f a m i l y t o h e l p him s u p p r e s s i t , remains a c u t e a f t e r h i s r e t u r n home. And when E s c h a c r o s s e s t h e p h y s i c a l t h r e s h o l d i n t o Jakob's own house, h i s p r e s e n c e a b o l i s h e s t h e d i s t a n c e between two a s p e c t s o f Jakob's i d e n t i t y . Escha p e r s o n i f i e s Jakob's p h y s i c a l i t y , r e p r e s s e d by y e a r s o f r i g o r o u s r e l i g i o u s c o n d i t i o n i n g . W i t h mounting h o r r o r J a c o b sees h i s own a n i m a l i t y m i r r o r e d i n Escha. Jakob p e r c e i v e s Escha as h i s p a r o d i c , d e c r o w n i n g d o u b l e . L o o k i n g g r o g g i l y i n t o t h e m i r r o r , Jakob sees h i s own f a c e "double i n g r o t e s q u e e x t e n d e d r e p e t i t i o n . . . a n d he wheeled t o E s c h a " ( 1 9 ) . He s t a r e s a t E s c h a , "eyes green i n each o t h e r ' s e y e s . Nose t o nose, e x a c t l y t h e same h e i g h t " ( 3 0 ) . Jakob knocks E s c h a down, and sees him l y i n g " l i k e a m i r r o r image" (38) f l a t on t h e ground. Wiebe d e p i c t s t h e two as "one a n i m a l " (38) w r e s t l i n g w i t h i t s e l f . Jakob hears h i s own name as Escha v o i c e s i t i n R u s s i a n — " J a s c h a . " J a s c h a and Escha m i r r o r one a n o t h e r i n name as w e l l as i n body. The language o f wiebe's t e x t r e f l e c t s t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f J a k o b ' s i d e n t i t y i n o t h e r ways. L i k e Jakob h i m s e l f , t h e t e x t o f "Sons and H e i r s " does not " c o - i n c i d e w i t h i t s e l f " ; i t l o o k s chopped up i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h F r i e d a ' s monologue. Wiebe b r e a k s up t h e p r i n t e d t e x t on t h e page by l e a v i n g empty s p a c e s , and by a l t e r n a t i n g between i t a l i c and roman t y p e - f a c e s . Jakob's i n n e r speech ( t h e i t a l i c i s e d passages w h i c h a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n t e r n a l l y fragmented) r e p e a t e d l y i n t e r r u p t s t h e main body o f t h e n a r r a t i v e i n w h i c h Jakob's v o i c e b l e n d s w i t h t h a t o f a n a r r a t o r . 2 1 Wiebe s i g n a l s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e r e l e a s e o f Jakob's " o t h e r s e l f " not o n l y t h r o u g h h i s r a s h , v i o l e n t a c t i o n s , b u t a l s o by t h e emergence o f h i s second v o i c e — t h e v o i c e o f b o d i l y i n s t i n c t s and p a s s i o n s . I n i t i a l l y , Jakob's second v o i c e remains mixed w i t h t h e v o i c e of t h e n a r r a t o r , t o s i g n i f y perhaps t h a t Jakob has not y e t g i v e n u t t e r a n c e , even i n t e r n a l l y , t o h i s own " o t h e r n e s s . " A t f i r s t , Jakob s a n c t i o n s o n l y h i s C h r i s t i a n i n n e r v o i c e ( t h e i t a l i c i s e d w o r d s ) . Yet Wiebe s i t u a t e s t h e s e words i n t h e t e x t i n such a way t h a t r e a d e r s p e r c e i v e them as a r e p l y , a r e a c t i o n t o f e e l i n g s Jakob has n o t y e t c o n f e s s e d , even t o h i m s e l f : The GPU f i e n d a t t h e desk whose f a c e o f q u e s t i o n q u e s t i o n q u e s t i o n q u e s t i o n had c h i s e l l e d i t s e l f i n t o him u n t i l he w o u l d have t o know i t even c o n t o r t e d , s p i t t e d and f r y i n g f o r e v e r i n h e l l b l e s s e d s a v i o u r make me pure t h a t i n heaven I may d i d not b o t h e r t o r a i s e h i s head... ( 1 2 ) 144 Not u n t i l t h e second i n s t a n c e of Jakob's i n n e r speech does he g i v e h i s second v o i c e any k i n d o f a h e a r i n g . T h i n k i n g t h a t t h e w o r l d has come t o an end and t h a t h i s f a m i l y has gone t o heaven, he c o n f e s s e s h i s s e x u a l c u r i o s i t y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e : q u e s t i o n s and q u e s t i o n s s i x and s i x and where were you b o r n who i s y o u r f a t h e r where i s y o u r f a t h e r where were vou O c t o b e r 6...do you go t o c h u r c h how many s i s t e r s do vou b e l i e v e t h e b i b l e . . . i e s u s has come a g a i n and t a k e n them and I am l e f t f o r h e l l . . . I never c o n f e s s e d when I saw...the R u s s i a n g i r l i n t h e water naked s q u a t t i n g and r i s i n g I never c o n f e s s e d t h a t I saw my s i s t e r when and wet p l a y i n g w i t h j e s u s has come a g a i n he w i l l come a g a i n w i l l you be r e a d y when t h e t r u m p e t sounds s i x t i m e s I was not r e a d y w i t h a l l my s i n s he has come o n l y s i n n e r s and t h e GPU where i s y o u r f a — (13-14) Wiebe embeds Jakob's s e x u a l c o n f e s s i o n i n a b r o k e n , h e t e r o g l o t i n n e r u t t e r a n c e . I t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t Jakob has " l o s t g r i p on. d u r a t i o n , on sequence" ( 1 2 ) . Temporal as w e l l as s p a t i a l d i s t a n c e has d i s a p p e a r e d . V o i c e s from d i f f e r e n t t i m e s r i o t t o g e t h e r i n h i s memory, t u r n i n g h i s psyche i n t o a c a r n i v a l i z e d space. In t h i s , h i s second, i n n e r speech, memories o f t h e GPU i n t e r r o g a t i o n m i n g l e w i t h q u e s t i o n s p u t by t h e c a t e c h i s t , and w i t h h i s own c o n f e s s i o n s and f o r m u l a i c r i t u a l answers. The v o i c e o f t h e s e l f has l o s t any semblance o f m o n o l o g i c i n t e g r i t y . Jakob's i n n e r speech now c o n s i s t s o f many b r o k e n , i n c o m p l e t e u t t e r a n c e s . Remembered words spoken by v o i c e s s e p a r a t e d i n t i m e , space and s o c i a l rank now q u a r r e l c h a o t i c a l l y w i t h each o t h e r i n h i s psyche. 145 Wiebe even s u g g e s t s t h a t Jakob's f i r s t v o i c e has never t r u l y been h i s own. When Jakob t r i e s t o r e c o v e r h i m s e l f by p r a y i n g , he can o n l y make f e e b l e v e r b a l g e s t u r e s towards t h e t h i n g s he had always a u t o m a t i c a l l y p r a y e d f o r o god h e l p be w i t h b l e s s t a k e c a r e o f h e l p b l e s s t a k e c a r e (34) Jakob's f i r s t v o i c e c o n s i s t s o f n o t h i n g more t h a n u t t e r a n c e s l e a r n e d by r o t e from h i s p a r e n t s , u t t e r a n c e s now d e c a y i n g i n t o i n c o h e r e n t f r a g m e n t s i n Jakob's overwrought mind. In t h e f i n a l s t a g e o f t h e d i a l o g i z a t i o n o f t h e s e l f , Jakob's second v o i c e emerges c o m p l e t e l y i n t o t h e open, f u l l y embodied i n t h e f i g u r e o f E s c h a . As E s c h a s p e a k s , Jakob hears " h i s own" words i n t h e mouth of an " o t h e r " whose a c c e n t s r e l e a s e t h e r e p r e s s e d h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f h i s speech. Escha g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e shadow-side o f Jakob's words by r e p e a t i n g them r e a c c e n t e d : [Jakob:] " I n our house--where"... [Escha:] "Yeah, our house, now" (14) Here Escha t r a n s l a t e s Jakob's words i n t o t h e language o f t h e "new age." I n p o s t - R e v o l u t i o n a r y R u s s i a , "our" no l o n g e r means "the F r i e s e n s ' " ; i t means " b e l o n g i n g t o everybody." Escha a l s o g i v e s v o i c e t o Jakob's s e c r e t doubts about t h e s a c r e d n e s s o f J e s u s ' name: [Jakob:] " A l l l e f t . . . what... J e s u s . . . . " [ E s c h a : ] "No j e s u s , t h e y j u s t r u n t o Moscow." (16) Escha c o n v e r t s t h e name " J e s u s " i n t o a p a r o d i c d o u b l e o f 146 i t s e l f , decrowned by t h e s h i f t from an u p p e r - c a s e t o a l o w e r - c a s e " J . " S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s i s not t h e - f i r s t t i m e t h e l o w e r - c a s e " j e s u s " has a p p e a r e d i n t h e t e x t . E s c h a m e r e l y r e p e a t s out l o u d what Jakob has a l r e a d y s e c r e t l y u t t e r e d t w i c e d u r i n g h i s second i n n e r speech ("jesus has come a g a i n . . . i e s u s has come a g a i n " [ 1 4 ] ) . Escha's v o i c e r e l a y s Jakob's i n n e r speech t o t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . By t r u m p e t i n g a l o u d Jakob's most s h a m e f u l , i n n e r l o n g i n g s and d o u b t s , Escha t u r n s Jakob's p s y c h e i n s i d e o u t . I n k i l l i n g Escha, Jakob k i l l s p a r t o f h i m s e l f . Wiebe e x p r e s s e s a complex m o r a l a t t i t u d e t o t h e Communist r e v o l u t i o n and t o t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n i t . He d e p i c t s p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y R u s s i a as a t r a v e s t y o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e , an i n s t a n c e where a g r e a t i d e a l i s dragged down by t h e b r u t a l i t y w i t h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h c a r r y i t i n t o e f f e c t . 2 2 By u s i n g r e l i g i o u s terms and images t o d e s c r i b e t h e Communist regime, Wiebe h i g h l i g h t s t h e e r r o r o f p l a c i n g f a i t h i n a human p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n God. "The c h u r c h [ i s ] now c o n v e r t e d t o s o v i e t o f f i c e s " ( 4 1 ) , and Commissar S e r e b r o , l i k e a " s h i n i n g happy a n g e l " ( 4 1 ) , h e l p s implement t h e Communist dream o f a heaven on e a r t h . Wiebe employs t h e v o i c e o f Jakob F r i e s e n V t o a r t i c u l a t e many o f t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n ; 147 he views t h i s r a d i c a l change from.the p e r s p e c t i v e o f one who o n l y s t a n d s t o l o s e by i t . Yet Wiebe a l s o c o u n t e r p o i n t s Jakob's e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a r i v a l v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s . W h i l e Jakob p l a c e s t h e emphasis on h i s own l o s s o f r a n k and w e a l t h , and on Escha's u n d e s e r v e d u s u r p a t i o n o f h i s p o s i t i o n , Wiebe c o v e r t l y h i g h l i g h t s Jakob's m o r a l c u l p a b i l i t y and Escha's g e n e r o s i t y and w i l l i n g n e s s t o f o r g i v e . Wiebe s i t u a t e s t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l f a c t s i n Jakob's p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n . Jakob c o n f e s s e s h i s c u l p a b i l i t y u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i n a d v e r t e n t l y , i n d i r e c t l y : [1] We were u n b e l i e v a b l e f o o l s . [2] To t h i n k S t a l i n would go on l e t t i n g them t a k e advantage o f t h o s e t e r r i f i e d by r e p o r t s and t h e s t u p i d l o c a l communists i n t o s e l l i n g and r u n n i n g o f f t o Canada.... [3] What a n a r c h y , d r o u g h t , f e a r l e f t c o u l d be had f o r t h e s p i t t i n g ; i n two y e a r s t h e y had c o n t r o l l e d t h e m i l l , owned f o u r f a r m s , e q u i p p e d , and managed t h e v i l l a g e s t u d f a r m where e i g h t C o s s a c k s worked, t h e b i g g e s t o p e r a t i o n i n Karatow C o l o n y . . . . A f t e r h a r v e s t i n 1928 t h e whole f a m i l y even t o o k a h o l i d a y i n Odessa, t r a v e l l i n g f i r s t c l a s s on t r a i n and s h i p . [4] That must have been t h e f i r s t t h i n g S e r e b r o h e a r d when he came t o t a k e o v e r . . . . (20) I n S e c t i o n 1, Jakob c o n f e s s e s t o t h e e r r o r o f h i s ways, a d m i t t i n g f a u l t not f o r d o i n g wrong b u t f o r g e t t i n g caught. I r o n i c a l l y , as Wiebe i n d i c a t e s i n S e c t i o n s 2 and 4, t h e G o d l e s s Communists' r e a d i n g t h e F r i e s e n ' s f a m i l y h i s t o r y c o i n c i d e s p r e c i s e l y w i t h a C h r i s t i a n r e a d i n g : b o t h r e g a r d t h e F r i e s e n s ' w e a l t h as a monument " b u i l t w i t h t h e b l o o d of t h e poor" ( 3 2 ) . In S e c t i o n 3, Jakob's words occupy a space 148 of overlap between two opposed speech genres: celebratory family history and confession. At the same time as he boasts about the spectacular r i s e of his family, Jakob inadvertently confesses to his family's ruthless perpetrations of s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e . Not only do the Friesens exploit economically-disadvantaged Russians such as Escha, they also p r o f i t from the fears, misfortunes and r e l i g i o u s convictions of t h e i r fellow Mennonites. Wiebe t r a n s l a t e s Jakob's family h i s t o r y into a confession by invoking moral c r i t e r i a that l i e outside Jakob's consciousness, c r i t e r i a which enter the text through a v a r i e t y of means. F i r s t , Wiebe employs the voices of minor characters who engage i n dialogue with Jakob. For example, one reads Jakob's boast i n the l i g h t of Serebro's explanation of his conversion from Mennonitism to Communism- - " [ I was] the younger son of a younger son l i v i n g i n the worker shacks while cousins l i v e d f a t " (32). Through Serebro, Wiebe indicates that Jakob's fortune depends on other family members' misfortune. Jakob's wealth has been gained not only by hard work and entrepreneurial s k i l l , but by taking advantage of the old, grossly unfair, Russian laws which decreed that a family's wealth and property must pass e n t i r e l y to the eldest son. Second, readers understand Jakob's utterances i n the 149 l i g h t o f i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d by o t h e r v o i c e s s p e a k i n g i n o t h e r c h a p t e r s , such as F r a n z Epp's o b s e r v a t i o n i n C h a p t e r 4 t h a t " F r i e s e n had t a k e n e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n and a n a r c h y and hunger c o u l d b r i n g " ( 6 5 ) . These v o i c e s w h i c h speak w i t h i n t h e a r e n a o f Wiebe's t e x t i n v i t e Wiebe's a u d i e n c e t o r e a d a g a i n s t Jakob's a c c e n t s , o r t o hear beyond such a c c e n t s a r e p r e s s e d , condemnatory v o i c i n g o f Jakob's words. A t h i r d way Wiebe c o n t r a d i c t s Jakob's v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s i s t h r o u g h a system o r "language" o f a n i m a l imagery. T h i s imagery p r o v i d e s an a u t h o r i t a t i v e key t o t h e m o r a l i d e n t i t y o f e v e r y c h a r a c t e r i n t h e n o v e l . When M u t t a c h i c a l l s F r i e d a ' s f a t h e r , I s a a k , a mouse f o r a c c e p t i n g h i s d i s i n h e r i t a n c e so meekly ( 2 7 ) , she u n w i t t i n g l y uses a system o f s i g n s which Wiebe e n t i r e l y c o n t r o l s . Images o f mice, d e e r , p r a i r i e dogs and o t h e r t i m i d , d e f e n c e l e s s a n i m a l s s u r r o u n d c h a r a c t e r s who s u f f e r f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r s (whether v o l u n t a r i l y o r o t h e r w i s e ) . 2 3 T h e i r m o r a l o p p o s i t e , t h o s e who d e l i b e r a t e l y t a k e advantage o f t h e g r i e f and m i s f o r t u n e o f o t h e r s , Wiebe s u r r o u n d s w i t h images o f b l o o d s u c k i n g , p a r a s i t i c a l , s c a v e n g i n g a n i m a l s : wolves ( 4 7 ) ; t h e b l a c k v u l t u r e o f C h a p t e r 4; B a l z e r "the b i g l e e c h " ( 6 0 ) ; L i e s e l and/as t h e g r a c k l e ; l i c e (110, 117); t h e b l o o d s u c k i n g C h i n e s e and Mennonites ( 1 2 3 ) ; m o s q u i t o e s s u c k i n g b l o o d from a dead a n t e l o p e ( 1 5 6 ) ; E m i l y Reimer i n h e r new T h u n d e r b i r d 150 bought w i t h her husband's l i f e i n s u r a n c e money ( 1 8 0 ) ; Hawk t h e b i k i e ( 2 0 2 ) ; and t h e many v a r i e t i e s o f s i n i s t e r b l a c k b i r d s — t h e crows and magpies o f Canada, t h e g r i f f o n s o f c e n t r a l A s i a , and t h e v u l t u r e s s a i l i n g i n c i r c l e s above t h e Paraguayan C h a c o — w h i c h e a t t h e b o d i e s o f t h e dead. I n r e p l y t o M u t t a c h i ' s contemptuous a c c u s a t i o n t h a t I s a a k F r i e s e n i s a mouse ( w h i c h , unbeknown t o h e r , f u n c t i o n s as a compliment w i t h i n Wiebe's s i g n i f y i n g s y s t e m ) , Wiebe uses Jakob's p e r i p h e r a l , a p p a r e n t l y i n c i d e n t a l i m p r e s s i o n s of h i s grandmother t o d e p i c t M u t t a c h i as "hunched," ( 1 6 ) , c l a d i n b l a c k , " f i n g e r s c r o o k e d " (16) l i k e t a l o n s , h e r "nose a l m o s t i n f o l d e d t o a beak" ( 2 5 ) . M u t t a c h i r e s e m b l e s a b l a c k s c a v e n g i n g b i r d squawking "mine...mine" ( 3 1 ) . A f o u r t h a u t h o r i a l c o u n t e r - l a n g u a g e e n t e r s t h e t e x t i n t h e form o f a l l u s i o n s and images from t h e B i b l e . M u t t a c h i s i t s a t her s p i n n i n g w h e e l , engaged i n c e a s e l e s s , o b s e s s i v e t o i l , making and u n r a v e l l i n g , making and u n r a v e l l i n g her y a r n a g a i n and a g a i n : nobody e l s e i s g o i n g t o e n j o y t h e b e n e f i t s o f her work. When t h e communists a r r i v e t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e F r i e s e n s ' p o s s e s s i o n s amongst t h e p o p u l a c e , she hoards a l l t h e h o u s e h o l d l i n e n on her own l a p . Wiebe does n o t r e v e a l t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f M u t t a c h i ' s s p i n n i n g and h o l d i n g o n t o c l o t h u n t i l C h a p t e r 8, "The C l o i s t e r o f t h e L i l i e s , " where Jakob F r i e s e n , coming u n e x p e c t e d l y upon a 151 r e f u g e i n t h e m i d s t o f s e v e r e b l i z z a r d , and t h i n k i n g o f h i s own p a s t a v a r i c e , r e c a l l s p a r t o f J e s u s ' Sermon on t h e Mount: "Think o f t h e l i l i e s . . . o f t h e f i e l d . They t o i l not n e i t h e r do t h e y s p i n , y e t y o u r h e a v e n l y F a t h e r c a r . . . " (108) , 2 4 As M u t t a c h i merges i n t o t h e s i n i s t e r b l a c k n e s s which r e a p p e a r s i n e v e r y c h a p t e r o f t h e t e x t , " b r u t i s h " Escha comes i n t o f o c u s as " f a i r e r t h a n e x p e c t e d " ( 3 0 ) . The names Jakob and Escha a l l u d e t o t h e B i b l i c a l s t o r y o f J a c o b and Esau. T h i s a l l u s i o n d i a l o g i z e s t h e t e x t i n t h a t i t t e s t s and a c t i v a t e s t h e r e a d e r ' s B i b l i c a l knowledge w h i c h i n t u r n o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e of e v e n t s i n t h e F r i e s e n ' s hof. In t h e B i b l i c a l s t o r y , Esau and J a c o b a r e b r o t h e r s . Esau, b e i n g t h e o l d e s t , i s t h e h e i r . But J a c o b b r i b e s Esau out o f h i s b i r t h r i g h t a t a moment when Esau i s weak w i t h extreme hunger, 2 5 and he s u b s e q u e n t l y t r i c k s t h e i r f a t h e r i n t o b e s t o w i n g h i s b l e s s i n g on him and making him l o r d o v e r E s a u . 2 6 A l t h o u g h a n g r y a t f i r s t , Esau f o r g i v e s J a c o b and embraces him as a b r o t h e r . 2 7 I n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , Escha i s o l d e r t h a n Jakob, and Wiebe h i n t s more t h a n once t h a t t h e y a r e b r o t h e r s , Escha b e i n g Jakob F r i e s e n I V s i l l e g i t i m a t e s o n . 2 8 W i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s l y making t h e c o n n e c t i o n between Escha's c o l o u r i n g and t h e d i s t i n c t i v e F r i e s e n r e d - b l o n d 152 l o o k s , Jakob V d e s c r i b e s Escha as " j u s t a b a s t a r d . . . h i s r e d d i s h - b l o n d h a i r g i v i n g some f l y - b y - n i g h t f a t h e r away" ( 1 9 ) . S e r e b r o a l l b u t s u g g e s t s t h e two a r e b r o t h e r s : "You a r e v e r y a l i k e , b i g , y o u r f a c e s - - y o u c o u l d a l m o s t — s t r a n g e " ( 3 3 ) . Jakob F r i e s e n IV s u p p o s e d l y has o n l y one son and h e i r , y e t t h e t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e r , "Sons and H e i r s , " r e f e r s t o more t h a n one. L i k e h i s B i b l i c a l namesake, Escha h a r b o u r s no r a n c o u r towards J a k o b , a l t h o u g h he c l e a r l y remembers b e i n g t r i c k e d and e x p l o i t e d by t h e F r i e s e n s . He a s k s f o r o n l y h a l f o f t h e money Jakob F r i e s e n IV l e f t b e h i n d f o r h i s "son and h e i r , " and he o f f e r s Jakob t h e o n l y g i f t he has t o g i v e — t h e R u s s i a n g i r l . When Jakob r e b u f f s t h i s o f f e r by s c r e a m i n g i n s u l t s , o b s c e n i t i e s and c u r s e s a t E s c h a , Wiebe i n d i c a t e s t h e m i l d n e s s o f t h e l a t t e r ' s r e p l y : "Shut up," E s c h a s a i d , s u d d e n l y q u i e t . " I t ' s easy. J u s t do what you want. What a r e you y e l l i n g f o r ? " ( 3 1 ) . F o r a s i n g l e b r i e f moment, Jakob g l i m p s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t E s c h a "ceases to,mean o n l y one t h i n g " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 117). In t h e h a y l o f t , Jakob sees a n o t h e r Escha, an E s c h a whose m a s c u l i n e p o t e n c y r e n d e r s him not b r u t i s h b u t a l m o s t g o d - l i k e : "immense naked man o f v a r i e d g i g a n t i c columns h a l f - g i l d e d , e r e c t i n t h e sun" ( 2 4 ) . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t E s c h a , t o o , has been c r e a t e d i n t h e image 153 o f God i m p l i c i t l y c o m p l i c a t e s t h e m o r a l i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e human body. "Sons and H e i r s " may be r e a d as an a l l e g o r y o f C h r i s t i a n d i s - i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s e l f , a p a r a b l e i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e dangers i m p l i c i t i n a l i e n a t i n g body from mind. Jakob F r i e s e n V, a s p i r i n g t o t h e C h r i s t i a n i d e a l o f p u r e s p i r i t u a l i t y , c o n s t r u c t s h i s own body as " o t h e r , " a h o s t i l e enemy t o be f e a r e d , d e s p i s e d and i f n e c e s s a r y , d e s t r o y e d i n " s e l f " - d e f e n c e . The c o m p l e x i t y o f Wiebe's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v o i c e s of h i s c h a r a c t e r s makes "Sons and H e i r s " one o f t h e most c o m p l i c a t e d c h a p t e r s i n an e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d n o v e l . C l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t b e a r s out B a k h t i n ' s p o i n t t h a t "a c o n c r e t e d i s c o u r s e may b e l o n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s and even t y p e s . . . [ a n d t h a t ] t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f v o i c e s i n d i s c o u r s e may change d r a s t i c a l l y . . . " (1984, 199). In so f a r as Wiebe employs Jakob's v o i c e t o f u r t h e r t h e s t o r y , t h e language o f "Sons and H e i r s " f u n c t i o n s as " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . . . u n o b j e c t i f i e d d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who c a r r i e s o u t ( i n p a r t ) t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 1 9 9 ) . 2 9 I n so f a r as Wiebe uses a n i m a l images and t h e v o i c e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s t o c a r r y h i s own v o i c e i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h Jakob's v o i c e , t h e t e x t e x e m p l i f i e s " v a r i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . . . t r a n s m i s s i o n o f someone e l s e ' s words w i t h a s h i f t i n a c c e n t " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 1 9 9 ) . 3 0 Wiebe's B i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s c o n s t i t u t e y e t a t h i r d d i a l o g i z i n g mode, i n w h i c h "the o t h e r d i s c o u r s e e x e r t s i n f l u e n c e from w i t h o u t " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 1 9 9 ) . 3 1 V In The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , Wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e communal s e l f and o t h e r by d r a w i n g l i n e s o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e on t h e b a s i s o f numerous c r i t e r i a : o c c u p a t i o n , age, gender, n a t i o n a l i t y , c h u r c h , c o l o n y , g e n e a l o g y , h i s t o r i c a l background, and language. Wiebe a l l o w s d i s p a r a t e p r i n c i p l e s of k i n s h i p t o r e l a t i v i s e one a n o t h e r , t o show t h a t , l i k e t h e m a r v e l l o u s "Red L i n e " s e p a r a t i n g t h e n o r t h e r n from t h e s o u t h e r n hemisphere, t h e e n t i r e network o f i n t e r s e c t i n g s o c i a l b o r d e r l i n e s a r e a l l j u s t "man-made" (85) l i n e s , p r o d u c t s o f human f e a r , s e l f - i n t e r e s t , unexamined v a l u e s and a s s u m p t i o n s . F o r h i s v i s i o n o f t h e s o c i a l w o r l d , Wiebe t u r n s back t o e a r l y A n a b a p t i s t f a t h e r s whose t e a c h i n g s s t r e s s e d "a l i t e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f J e s u s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e b r o t h e r h o o d of man" ( T i e s s e n 7 1 ) . T h i s v i s i o n o f u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n Wiebe's m o r a l r h e t o r i c : Wiebe s t a r t s w i t h t h e m o r a l axiom t h a t f a m i l y members c a r e f o r and h e l p each o t h e r ; he t h e n s t r e t c h e s t h e i d e a o f f a m i l y u n t i l i t i n c l u d e s t h e e n t i r e human r a c e . 155 A number o f c h a r a c t e r s g u i d e Wiebe's r e a d e r s toward t h i s v i s i o n o f u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p . F r i e d a , f o r example, l i v e s her e a r l y l i f e c o n f i n e d w i t h i n an e x t r e m e l y narrow s o c i a l c i r c l e , l i m i t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t o her p a r e n t s and her s i b l i n g s . But as she e n t e r s s c h o o l , matures, m a r r i e s , and b e a r s c h i l d r e n , who i n t u r n grow up and marry, her f a m i l y expands so g r e a t l y as t o r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n , who i s not k i n t o F r i e d a ? F r i e d a d i s c o v e r s r e l a t i o n s a l m o s t everywhere she goes. I l l n e s s f o r c e s h e r t o c r o s s man-made l i n e s o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e , and t o p l a c e her t r u s t i n p e o p l e she t h i n k s o f as " o t h e r . " In F e r n l a n d Z e n t r a l e — R u s s l a n d e r t e r r i t o r y — s h e f i n d s t h a t " R u s s l a n d e r s . . . w e r e n i c e , some j u s t l i k e K a n a d i e r " ( 1 4 5 ) . F u r t h e r a f i e l d , i n Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a , F r i e d a f i n d s p e o p l e t h e r e w i l l i n g t o b e f r i e n d h e r , and d o c t o r s w i l l i n g t o t r y t o c u r e h e r , even though she i s " f o r e i g n " t o them. These Good S a m a r i t a n f i g u r e s — F r i e d a ' s S p a n i s h d o c t o r , L i s t o v t h e courageous R u s s i a n l a n d l o r d who h i d e s t h e Mennonites from t h e GPU, and Wong Gordon t h e C h i n e s e g u i d e who h e l p s D a v i d Epp back t o R u s s i a — p l a y a v i t a l r o l e i n t h e n o v e l by i l l u s t r a t i n g t h a t t h o s e on t h e " o t h e r " s i d e a r e not o g r e s b u t o n l y human b e i n g s , some w i l l i n g t o r i s k t h e i r p e r s o n a l s a f e t y t o h e l p o t h e r s . In C h a p t e r 12, Samuel Reimer d i s c o v e r s h i s oneness w i t h p e o p l e from an " o t h e r " r a c e and an " o t h e r " l a n d . But t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f h i s s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n o c c u r s f a r more 156 s u d d e n l y and v i o l e n t l y t h a n does F r i e d a ' s . A f t e r a l i f e d e v o t e d " s e l f l e s s l y " t o h i s own f a m i l y ' s w e l f a r e and c o m f o r t , a l i f e d e l i b e r a t e l y c u t o f f from news o f t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d and i t s m i l l i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g " f o r e i g n e r s , " Samuel h e a r s God's c a l l t o " p r o c l a i m peace i n Vietnam" ( 1 5 8 ) . From t h a t moment, h i s own f a m i l y become f o r e i g n e r s , and, as he l e a r n s more and more about t h e h o r r o r s o f t h e war, t h e d i s t a n c e between Samuel and t h e V i e t n a m e s e " o t h e r " s t e a d i l y d i m i n i s h e s and e v e n t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r s . The s u f f e r i n g of t h e Vietnamese becomes Samuel's own s u f f e r i n g , as though t h e v e r y s k i n t h a t d e f i n e s t h e p h y s i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f h i s body, l i k e t h a t o f t h e napalmed c h i l d r e n , had been b u r n t away: He f e l t f l a y e d : s k i n n e d t o t h e agony o f t h e w o r l d b e f o r e t h e words [ o f t h e documents d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a r ] , t h e y e t more t e r r i b l e p i c t u r e s , b u t above a l l b e f o r e t h e humanness o f c h i l d r e n , women, men who must endure l i v i n g . And what c o u l d be thought when you saw l i t t l e ones b r o i l e d i n ' n a p a l m ? " (169) The s t r u g g l e between competing p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l w o r l d and t h e f i n a l l i f t i n g of t h e b a r r i e r between s e l f and o t h e r i s most c o m p e l l i n g l y d r a m a t i s e d i n t h e language o f t h e t e x t i n C h a p t e r 9, " D r i n k Ye A l l Of I t . " I n i t i a l l y , Wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s a c o n t r a s t between t h e narrow v i s i o n o f E r n a Epp, c o n c e r n e d s o l e l y f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f her baby, and D a v i d Epp, t h e " s e l f l e s s " husband m a s t e r m i n d i n g t h e escape o f an e n t i r e Mennonite v i l l a g e a c r o s s t h e f r o z e n Amur R i v e r t o C h i n a . However, David's d i a l o g u e w i t h G r e t a 157 Suderman b r i n g s him f a c e t o f a c e w i t h t h e m o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f d r a w i n g a r b i t r a r y l i n e s between the v i l l a g e s w h i c h make up t h e c o l o n y : G r e t a ' s b r o t h e r and s i s t e r , and t h e i r f a m i l i e s , l i v e i n v i l l a g e Number Four, a n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e l e f t b e h i n d t o b e a r t h e b r u n t o f t h e GPU r e t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e escape. G r e t a f o r c e s D a v i d t o c o n f e s s t h a t t h e y have b e t r a y e d t h o s e l e f t b e h i n d , t h a t i t i s n o t enough t o say "We cannot t h i n k o f Number F o u r ; can we g e t o u t ? How can we t h i n k o f what happens t o them; can we g e t o u t ? " ( 1 3 0 ) . F o r G r e t a , "we" i n c l u d e s t h o s e l e f t b e h i n d t o pay t h e p r i c e f o r t h e e s c a p e e s ' freedom. Through t h e d i a l o g u e between G r e t a and D a v i d , Wiebe i n d i c a t e s t h a t no s o c i a l group c o - i n c i d e s o n l y and e n t i r e l y w i t h i t s e l f . No p o s i t i o n on t h e s o c i a l map l a c k s a m b i g u i t y : " G r e t a , we a l l have p a i n . Who i s w i t h o u t ? " . . . . " G r e t a , we a l l - - " b u t she tugged a s i d e a t h i s t o n e . " A l l r i g h t , " he s a i d , " a l l r i g h t . I ' l l say i t . To you. Say t h a t a l l t h o s e l e f t i n t h e v i l l a g e s beyond t h e r i v e r , our b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s t h e r e , t h o s e we a l l sang w i t h 'Now Thank We A l l Our God' i n c h u r c h f e s t i v a l s , once, we We l e f t them i n t h e l u r c h , back t h e r e , on t h e o t h e r s i d e . " . . . "And i n t h e v i l l a g e you," she s a i d , "we a l l a g r e e d . . . " " I know t h a t : we a l l agreed. O t h e r s f l e d b e f o r e i n f a m i l i e s , but we d i d as a v i l l a g e . T h a t ' s why we're a l l t o g e t h e r ; we a r e h e r e o n l y as we a l l a r e , h e r e . We a r e n ' t Sudermans and Epps and R o g a l s k i s and Martens anymore, we a r e a l l one f a m i l y , and what we do i s f o r a l l . O t h e r w i s e what p o s s i b l e way can we l i v e w i t h o u r — " he s t o p p e d r i g h t t h e r e . Say t h i n g s he had never y e t worked t o t h e end i n t h o u g h t , d e a r God. (124-25) [emphasis added] As t h e b r o a d e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s own words b e g i n t o dawn i n D a v i d Epp's mind, Wiebe's j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f pronouns i n 158 the text warrants close attention. "Others," "those," "them," "you," and p a r t i c u l a r l y "we" and " a l l " c o l l i d e and burst open i n the mind of David Epp. And as t h e i r meanings begin to flow into one another, David discovers the l o g i c a l end-point of his argument: that "we are a l l one family, and what we do i s f o r a l l . " In "Drink Ye A l l Of I t , " Wiebe dramatises the oneness of humanity and the u n i v e r s a l i t y of g u i l t . He paints a world red i n tooth and claw, where every l i v i n g thing preys on every other, from the minute louse which drinks the blood of David's baby, through the animal and the human worlds, up to the huge "mountains [that] stood l i k e fangs along the horizon" (138), "black and jagged...in the heartless cold" (126). To escape from Russia, the Mennonites must run the gauntlet between bloodsuckers of a l l v a r i e t i e s , who s t r i p them of t h e i r few remaining possessions, and i n one case even demand a young Mennonite g i r l as payment. Nor does « Wiebe exempt the Mennonites themselves from the charge of preying on each other. Some hide morsels of food f o r t h e i r own personal use instead of pooling i t . Greta Suderman inadvertently smothers her own baby out of t e r r o r that i t s "cry w i l l poke through any snow-piled wall" (118) and betray the entire party as i t sneaks past the border guards. And Erna Epp, quick to spy a way to take advantage of Greta's misfortune, covets Greta's breastmilk for her own a i l i n g 159 baby. In r e p l y t o D a v i d ' s h i n t t h a t G r e t a c o n s i d e r a c t i n g as a w e t - n u r s e , she r e d u c e s M e n n o n i t e s and C h i n e s e a l i k e t o b l o o d s u c k e r s and s c a v e n g i n g w o l v e s : "Your l i t t l e D a v i d , y o u r p r e c i o u s l i t t l e l i v i n g D a v i d . . . . And my Jonka i n t h a t s h a l l o w h o l e b e i n g clawed r i g h t now out o f t h a t s h a l l o w h o l e by M a n c h u r i a n w o l v e s , w o l v e s l i k e t h e s e b l o o d s u c k e r s here o f C h i n e s e , o f M e n n o n i t e s t h a t j u s t want t h e l a s t b i t o f whatever i t i s y o u — " (123) L e s t r e a d e r s f e e l tempted t o d i s m i s s G r e t a ' s words as an o u t b u r s t o f h y s t e r i c a l g r i e f , Wiebe endorses her judgement by an i n s i s t e n t use o f metaphor. F o u r t i m e s w i t h i n t h e space o f one page he employs t h e d i s t i n c t i v e image o f t h e Mennonites s c r a m b l i n g a c r o s s "the elbow o f t h e g i a n t Amur" (129-30), an image w h i c h s t r e s s e s t h e r e s e m b l a n c e between t h e Mennonites and t h e l i c e w h i c h i n f e s t human b o d i e s : b o t h have no o p t i o n b u t t o s u s t a i n t h e i r own l i f e by s a p p i n g o t h e r l i v i n g t h i n g s . No-one, no m a t t e r how s c r u p u l o u s , i s g u i l t l e s s . 3 2 * B i o l o g i c a l law t r a n s l a t e s t o t h e o l o g i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h Wiebe's B i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s . The t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e r , " D r i n k Ye A l l Of I t , " t a k e n from Matthew's n a r r a t i v e o f t h e L a s t Supper, i n t r o d u c e s t h e i d e a o f human r e d e m p t i o n t h r o u g h J e s u s ' v o l u n t a r y s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . 3 3 Wiebe a l s o i n s e r t s s e c t i o n s o f P a u l ' s F i r s t E p i s t l e t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s . D a v i d Epp's mind, s l i g h t l y d e l i r i o u s due t o f e v e r and l a c k o f f o o d , wanders back and f o r t h i n t i m e , from t h e impending sacrament o f t h e L o r d ' s Supper ( t h e H o l y 160 Communion s e r v i c e ) , t o a boyhood memory o f h i s f a t h e r s a y i n g "Supper i s w a i t i n g , Mama w i l l have supper w a i t i n g " ( 1 2 6 ) , t o t h e passage from P a u l ' s E p i s t l e r e c a l l i n g J e s u s ' a c t i o n s and words a t t h e L a s t Supper, t o a number o f h i s own d i a l o g u e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e r s ' escape a c r o s s t h e Amur R i v e r . A l t h o u g h D a v i d remembers p a s t d i a l o g u e s i n an endeavour t o assuage h i s own g u i l t , h i s i n n e r speech keeps bumping up a g a i n s t t h e words o f P a u l ' s E p i s t l e : f o r I have r e c e i v e d from t h e L o r d t h a t w h i c h a l s o I d e l i v e r e d u n t o you t h a t t h e L o r d J e s u s t h e same n i g h t i n w h i c h he was b e t r a y e d t o o k ...But i t had t o be d o n e . . . s o . . . i n t h e f o r t y below when no g u a r d from Number Four c o u l d s t a n d o u t s i d e o r b e l i e v e a n y t h i n g c o u l d happen t h a t same n i g h t t h e y t o o k b r e a d and when he had g i v e n t h a n k s he b r a k e i t and s a i d t a k e e a t t h i s i s my body w h i c h i s b r o k e n f o r you t h i s do i n remembrance "But w e ' l l have t o e a t . . . " "The Bergen s l e i g h b r o k e , we have t o — " Y o u want t o b r e a k up and d r a g t h a t j u n k under t h e guns o f t h e GPU and a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d , d e a r God. (126-29) Wiebe's a l t e r n a t i o n o f i t a l i c i s e d and Roman t y p e - f a c e s s i g n i f i e s t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e Communion s e r v i c e and D a v i d ' s i n n e r speech, between w h i c h D a v i d ' s a t t e n t i o n jumps back and f o r t h . 3 4 A t c e r t a i n p o i n t s , t h e two streams o f words m o m e n t a r i l y b l e n d — i n "same n i g h t , " "took," " e a t , " and "break," f o r example. A t t h e s e s i t e s , where e v e r y d a y words i n t e r s e c t w i t h t h e Word, D a v i d ' s i n n e r speech jumps t h e r a i l s , as i t were. He not o n l y r e c a l l s 161 s n a t c h e s of h i s own d i a l o g u e s w i t h many d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , some h i s f e l l o w c o n s p i r a t o r s , some t h e v i c t i m s b e t r a y e d by h i s c o n s p i r a c y ; he a l s o h e a r s P a u l s ' E p i s t l e t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s as i f i t were a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y t o him. And i t i s P a u l ' s v o i c e , r e l a y i n g J e s u s ' words and a c t i o n s , w h i c h f i n a l l y d e t e r m i n e s D a v i d ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n and p e r s u a d e s him t o f o l l o w J e s u s ' example o f "the way t o l i v e f o r o t h e r s " ( 1 7 3 ) . I t i s not by chance t h a t Wiebe q u o t e s P a u l ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e L a s t Supper r a t h e r t h a n one o f t h e v e r s i o n s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e G o s p e l s . 3 5 U n l i k e t h e h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e s o f t h e L a s t Supper r e c o u n t e d i n Matthew (26:26-30), Mark (14:22-25) and Luke (22:19-20), P a u l ' s a c c o u n t f u n c t i o n s as m e t a h i s t o r y : i t p l a c e s t h e emphasis l e s s on what happened t h a n on how t h e L a s t Supper s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d and commemorated. P a u l r e l a y s J e s u s ' a c t i o n s and words w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t a b u s i n g t h e sacrament o f t h e L o r d ' s Supper: whosoever s h a l l e a t and d r i n k u n w o r t h i l y s h a l l be g u i l t y o f t h e body and b l o o d o f t h e L o r d but l e t a man examine h i m s e l f and so l e t him e a t o f t h a t b r e a d and d r i n k o f t h a t cup f o r he e a t s and d r i n k s u n w o r t h i l y e a t s and d r i n k s damnation unto h i m s e l f ( 1 3 0 ) . By e m p l o y i n g Paul's m e t a h i s t o r i c a l v o i c e , Wiebe c r e a t e s a b r i d g e between t h e d i s p a r a t e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h J e s u s ' v o i c e i s a u d i b l e . Wiebe a l l o w s r e a d e r s t o compare t h e " f i r s t " L a s t Supper, t h e C o r i n t h i a n s ' abuses o f t h e sacrament, t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t i n w h i c h D a v i d Epp and h i s 162 f e l l o w v i l l a g e r s commemorate J e s u s ' s a c r i f i c e , and t h e d i v e r s e c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h h i s r e a d e r s engage w i t h J e s u s ' words i n Wiebe's t e x t . P a u l ' s v o i c e warns a g a i n s t e x p l o i t i n g J e s u s ' s e l f - s a c r i f i c e f o r one's own e a r t h l y g a i n . He reminds t h e C o r i n t h i a n s (as w e l l as D a v i d Epp and r e a d e r s o f The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a ) t h a t t h e r i t e o f H o l y Communion r i t u a l l y r e - e n a c t s J e s u s ' s a c r i f i c e f o r t h e s i n s o f a l l o f h u m a n i t y — " t h i s i s my body w h i c h i s b r o k e n f o r you" ( 1 2 8 ) — and t h a t abuse of t h e sacrament c o n s t i t u t e s a h e i n o u s b e t r a y a l . J u s t as g r e e d and s e l f i s h n e s s make b l o o d s u c k e r s o f E r n s t B a l z e r , Dennis W i l l m s , and t h e Jakob F r i e s e n s , abuse o f t h e L o r d ' s Supper makes a p e r s o n " g u i l t y o f t h e body and b l o o d o f t h e L o r d " ( 1 3 0 ) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Wiebe i n v o k e s more o f P a u l ' s E p i s t l e t h a n he q u o t e s i n t h e n o v e l . The M e n n o n i t e s ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s — t h e y a r e c l o s e t o s t a r v a t i o n and have j u s t b e t r a y e d and abandoned a s e c t i o n o f t h e i r own c o n g r e g a t i o n — a l l u d e t o v e r s e s w h i c h l i e j u s t o u t s i d e I C o r i n t h i a n s 11:23-29, t h e passage w h i c h comes t o t h e s u r f a c e of D a v i d Epp's i n n e r speech. I n I C o r i n t h i a n s 11:21-22 and 11:34, P a u l warns a g a i n s t consuming t h e b r e a d and wine o f t h e E u c h a r i s t t o s a t i s f y b o d i l y hunger and t h i r s t ; and i n I C o r i n t h i a n s 11:18 and 11:33, a g a i n s t e m p l o y i n g t h e r i t e as a mechanism of d i v i s i o n and e x c l u s i o n w i t h i n the' c o n g r e g a t i o n . D e s p i t e t h e i r o b v i o u s r e l e v a n c e t o D a v i d Epp's s i t u a t i o n , Wiebe 163 r e f r a i n s from q u o t i n g t h e s e v e r s e s i n t h e n o v e l , h i s o m i s s i o n t e s t i n g and a c t i v a t i n g t h e B i b l i c a l knowledge o f h i s a u d i e n c e . As e l s e w h e r e , Wiebe employs a l l u s i o n as a d i a l o g i z i n g s t r a t e g y . By c r e a t i n g an o p e n i n g w h i c h a l l o w s r e a d e r s t o supplement t h e B i b l i c a l q u o t a t i o n he s u p p l i e s , Wiebe encourages h i s r e a d e r s t o engage i n d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h i s t e x t . W i t h i n Wiebe's l a r g e r m o r a l argument, D a v i d Epp's a c t i o n has p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h a t i t h e l p s make c o n c r e t e a fundamental d i s t i n c t i o n between two k i n d s o f C h r i s t i a n s : t h o s e who v a l u e J e s u s ' s e l f - s a c r i f i c e as a k i n d of " f i r e escape" (201) u s e f u l f o r e v a d i n g punishment i n h e l l f o r t h e i r s i n s , and t h o s e who v i e w J e s u s as a model o f how t o l i v e c o n c e r n f o r o t h e r s , a way of s a v i n g o t h e r p e o p l e from "the h e l l o f t h e i r b e i n g b o r n , l i v i n g and d y i n g " ( 1 5 5 ) . Not o n l y does D a v i d t u r n back i n a p h y s i c a l sense t o R u s s i a ; he a l s o t u r n s back t o t h e m o r a l paradigms o f f e r e d by J e s u s ' a c t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h o s e who come a f t e r D a v i d Epp, such as h i s son, D a v i d I I I , . Samuel Reimer and John Reimer, t u r n back t o D a v i d Epp's " f u t i l e " a c t i o n as a c o n c r e t e example o f how t o l i v e one's C h r i s t i a n c o n c e r n f o r o t h e r p e o p l e . I r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s immediate r e s u l t , D a v i d ' s a c t i o n has l a s t i n g i n s p i r a t i o n a l v a l u e . I t t r a n s l a t e s t h e paradigm o f J e s u s ' a c t i o n s i n t o t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c o n t e x t s . 164 VI The n a r r a t i v e i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a r e p e a t e d l y t u r n s back on i t s e l f , d e s p i t e t h e forward-moving c h r o n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e . As i n a l l Wiebe's n o v e l s , r e a d e r s can i n t e g r a t e t h e n a r r a t i v e fragments a c c o r d i n g t o two c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s — o n e l i n e a r , t h e o t h e r c y c l i c . S h e r r i l l E. Grace i d e n t i f i e s t h e same s t r u c t u r a l t e n s i o n i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, w h i c h she a n a l y s e s i n terms o f T z v e t a n Todorov's d i s t i n c t i o n between " h o r i z o n t a l . . . n a r r a t i v e o f c o n t i g u i t y " and " v e r t i c a l . . . n a r r a t i v e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n s " (Grace 9 ) . 3 6 Todorov's model a l s o p r o v e s h i g h l y a p p l i c a b l e t o The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a because i t f a c i l i t a t e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n e x t r i c a b l e c o n n e c t i o n between Wiebe's n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , h i s d r a m a t i c r e - a c c e n t i n g o f t h e t e x t and h i s r a d i c a l C h r i s t i a n v i s i o n o f a l l h i s t o r y . Todorov m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l t h o u g h b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l n a r r a t i v e t y p e s u s u a l l y o c c u r i n c o m b i n a t i o n , c e r t a i n genres a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a predominance o f one s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e o v e r t h e o t h e r ; f o r example, a d v e n t u r e s t o r i e s come n e a r e s t t o an e n t i r e l y h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r e , w h i l e d e t e c t i v e o r m y s t e r y s t o r i e s o f f e r t h e p u r e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f v e r t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d n a r r a t i v e (Grace 9 ) . T r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e , w i t h i t s p r o f o u n d c o n c e r n 165 w i t h c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence and l i n e a r c a u s a l i t y , c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r v e r y pure form o f h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r i n g . Wiebe s u b v e r t s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r e o f h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a because such a s t r u c t u r e i s s u e s l o g i c a l l y from a t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y p r o f o u n d l y i n i m i c a l t o h i s most fundamental m o r a l p o s t u l a t e : t h a t J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s have a t r a n s - h i s t o r i c a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y . 3 7 I f h i s t o r y e q u a l s u n r e m i t t i n g change, i f i t u n f o l d s as a sequence o f u n p r e c e d e n t e d , i r r e v e r s i b l e , u n r e p e a t a b l e e v e n t s , t h e n t h e passage o f t i m e pushes J e s u s f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r "away," as i t were, making h i s words and a c t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g l y tenuous and l i m i t e d i n t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o subsequent ages. Wiebe's s u b v e r s i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l n a r r a t i v e d r a m a t i s e s t h a t i n t i m e as w e l l as i n s p a c e , moving "'away' i s not so s i m p l e " ( 6 1 ) . Everywhere, and a t a l l t i m e s , t h e M e n n o n i t e s a r e dogged by u n i v e r s a l human problems such as d e a t h and s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e , and t h e " b e a u t i f u l mocking b l u e " (126) o f U t o p i a n dreams. 3 8 A l t h o u g h The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a d e a l s o s t e n s i b l y w i t h h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t h e n a r r a t i v e works a c c o r d i n g t o a f o r m u l a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e d e t e c t i v e o r m y s t e r y s t o r y . The s a l i e n t f e a t u r e o f t h e d e t e c t i v e s t o r y i s t h a t t h e p r e c i s e r e l e v a n c e o f each i n c i d e n t , each word, each group o f words, does not become e n t i r e l y c l e a r u n t i l t h e denouement, a t w h i c h t i m e t h e b r i l l i a n t s l e u t h m a r s h a l s a l l t h e e v i d e n c e and r e v e a l s The T r u t h t o t h e c a s t o f c h a r a c t e r s assembled i n o r out o f c o u r t . The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a r e s e m b l e s a m y s t e r y s t o r y i n t h a t r e a d e r s hear t h e t e s t i m o n i e s o f t h e w i t n e s s e s b e f o r e t h e y know t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c r i m e . Wiebe o f f e r s t h e f a c t s o p e n l y b u t not t h e u n i v e r s a l key t o t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e ; r e a d e r s hear t h e v o i c e s of w i t n e s s e s , w i t h o u t knowing t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e c r i m e . John Reimer p e r f o r m s t h e same f u n c t i o n as t h e b r i l l i a n t d e t e c t i v e i n t h e m y s t e r y s t o r y : he d e f i n e s t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n , t h e o n l y p e r s p e c t i v e from w h i c h The T r u t h can be known, t h e " r i g h t way" t o a c c o r d w e i g h t and meaning t o t h e words o f t h e t e x t . A l t h o u g h John Reimer a r t i c u l a t e s The T r u t h i n c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e w i t h p e o p l e g a t h e r e d around him a t t h e r o a d s i d e , t h e a u t h o r i t y o f h i s v o i c e so f a r exceeds t h a t o f h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r s t h a t The T r u t h does not emerge a t t h e p o i n t o f g e n u i n e d i a l o g i c c o n t a c t between v o i c e s . I n s t e a d , John Reimer engages o n l y i n " p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 8 1 ) . 3 9 H i s announcement o f "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n o f . . . s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e " (215) demarcates t h e s i t e upon w h i c h a l l t h e p i e c e s o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l n a r r a t i v e " s t a c k up a l o n g a v e r t i c a l l i n e " (Todorov, q t d . i n Grace 9 ) . Suddenly, l i k e a r e v e l a t i o n , i t becomes c l e a r t h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e f i t s t o g e t h e r v e r t i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n h o r i z o n t a l l y . 4 0 E v e r y c h a r a c t e r f a c e s t h e same m o r a l dilemma, e v e r y i n c i d e n t r e p r o d u c e s t h e same s e t o f p a r a d i g m a t i c elements,. and e v e r y v o i c e answers t h e same m o r a l q u e s t i o n : "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n o f h i s [ J e s u s ' ] day as i t i s i n o u r s was and i s s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e " ( 2 1 5 ) . 4 1 The v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a i s a l o g i c a l a r t i s t i c c o r o l l a r y o f Wiebe's b e l i e f t h a t t h e B i b l e o f f e r s a s e t o f u n i v e r s a l paradigms f o r a l l h i s t o r y , and t h a t J e s u s , because he had t o c o n t e n d w i t h t h e "permanent f a c t o r s i n h i s t o r y " 4 2 , o f f e r s a p e r m a n e n t l y v a l i d model o f t h e r i g h t way t o l i v e . To d i s c o v e r "where we a r e i n t r u t h , " and what " i s and i s t o be," Wiebe t u r n s back i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a t o "our o r i g i n s , " not m e r e l y t o t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' h i s t o r y o v e r t h e l a s t hundred y e a r s b u t t o t h e o r i g i n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y when J e s u s showed "the way," t h e d i r e c t i o n , t h e p a t h , t o h i s f o l l o w e r s . The t i t l e o f t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r , "On The Way," not o n l y r e f e r s i n a l i t e r a l manner t o t h e highway a l o n g w h i c h John Reimer w a l k s , i t a l s o a l l u d e s t o J e s u s ' words i n t h e G o s p e l o f S a i n t John: " I am t h e way" (John 14:6). Wiebe, John Reimer and S a i n t John f u n c t i o n as l i n k s i n a. c h a i n of v o i c e s r e l a y i n g t h e words o f J e s u s down t h r o u g h h i s t o r y t o Wiebe's r e a d e r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t s . L i k e John Reimer, Wiebe t a k e s t h e Word o f God o u t o f t h e p h y s i c a l and 168 s o c i a l confinement o f c h u r c h b u i l d i n g s and c l o s e d C h r i s t i a n communities i n t o an open space where i t i s f r e e l y a c c e s s i b l e t o whoever d e c i d e s t o s t o p and engage w i t h t h e t e x t . And Reimer's d e c i s i o n t o w a l k n o r t h towards t h e I n d i a n r e s e r v e s , not west toward t h e s e r e n e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e b l u e Rocky M o u n t a i n s , h i n t s a t " t h e way" Wiebe w i l l l i v e h i s c o n c e r n f o r Canada's o p p r e s s e d i n d i g e n o u s " o t h e r s " i n h i s next n o v e l . 169 NOTES TO CHAPTER 4: THE BLUE MOUNTAINS OF CHINA 1. Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, 8. 2. John Newlove, " B l a c k N i g h t Window," E p i g r a p h t o The B l u e Mountains of C h i n a . ( T o r o n t o and M o n t r e a l : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1970). U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , page numbers a p p e a r i n g i n p a r e n t h e s e s i n C h a p t e r 4 r e f e r t o t h i s e d i t i o n . 3. See M i k h a i l B a k h t i n , Problems of D o s t o e v s k y ' s P o e t i c s , 110. 4. B a k h t i n p o i n t s out t h a t "the mere p r e s e n c e o f s p e c i f i c language s t y l e s , s o c i a l d i a l e c t s and so f o r t h " (1984, 182) does not g u a r a n t e e t h a t a t e x t f u n c t i o n s d i a l o g i c a l l y . "What m a t t e r s , " he a r g u e s , " i s t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e a t w h i c h t h e s e s t y l e s and d i a l e c t s a r e j u x t a p o s e d o r c o u n t e r p o s e d i n t h e work" (1984, 182). 5. See F r a n z Epp's a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e t h e b l a c k v u l t u r e on p. 56, and Jakob F r i e s e n I V s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s t r a n g e r ' s u t t e r a n c e on p. 114-5. 6. C f . Ina F e r r i s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f Wiebe's s t r a t e g i e s f o r s u b j e c t i n g t h e r e a d e r t o "a p r o c e s s o f r e l e n t l e s s d i s o r i e n t a t i o n " i n " R e l i g i o u s V i s i o n and F i c t i o n a l Form: Rudy Wiebe's The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , " i n W.J. K e i t h , A V o i c e i n t h e Land (Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981) 89. 7. T h i s q u a l i t y o f n o n - i n t e r s e c t i o n d e r i v e s i n p a r t from t h e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s o f The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a were w r i t t e n f o r s e p a r a t e p u b l i c a t i o n . See " B l a c k V u l t u r e , " The Mennonite, 82, (20 June 1967), 410-15. R e p r i n t e d i n C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g . 14 ( J u l y 1967), 20-5, and Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d 6 (21 J u l y 1867), 2-6. "Over t h e Red L i n e , " The Mennonite, 82, (18 J u l y 1967), 464-67. R e p r i n t e d i n C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g . 14 ( A u g u s t 1967), 20-3, and Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d . 6 (September 1967), 4-6. "The W e l l , " The Mennonite. 82, (15 August 1967), 502-5. R e p r i n t e d i n C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g . 14 (September 1967) 20-3, Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d 6 (6 O c t o b e r 1967), 4-6, and P l u c k 1 ( S p r i n g 1968). "The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a : My L i f e : T h a t ' s As I t Was," M o s a i c . I I I / 3 ( S p r i n g 1970), 154-61. 8. " I f t r a n s l a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s an e f f o r t t o c o r r e l a t e two w o r l d s , t h e n l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s d e l i b e r a t e l y d e f e a t t h i s purpose by d r a w i n g t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e absence o f s y n c h r o n y " (Redekop 100). 170 9. The word " o t h e r s ' " appears i n i n v e r t e d commas because Wiebe has p r o b l e m a t i z e d t h e boundary between t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f s e l f and o t h e r . 10. See pp. 50, 92, 145. 11. He has a l r e a d y t o l d t h i s s t o r y i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. 12. See F r i e d a ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e cowboys: "He was l a u g h i n g and s w e a r i n g a t t h e o t h e r two. I t h i n k i t was s w e a r i n g b u t maybe i t was F r e n c h , o r R u s s i a n " ( 4 3 ) ; and h e r c o n f e s s i o n t h a t even a f t e r t h i r t y y e a r s i n Paraguay she knows v e r y l i t t l e S p a n i s h ( 1 4 8 ) . 13. The t e r m " o l d g r a c k l e " i s e n c l o s e d i n i n v e r t e d commas t o s i g n i f y t h a t i t i s L i e s e l ' s , n o t Wiebe's, e p i t h e t . 14. B a k h t i n d e f i n e s "the word w i t h a s i d e w a r d g l a n c e " i n Problems o f D o s t o e v s k y ' s P o e t i c s , 196. 15. The " o l d g r a c k l e " speaks " d i s c o u r s e w i t h a s i d e w a r d g l a n c e a t someone e l s e ' s word," Type I I I . 3 . C i n B a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y (1984, 199). However t h i s d i s c o u r s e i s t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h i n L i e s e l ' s d i s c o u r s e , w h i c h f i t s i n t o Type I I I . 2 . a , p a r o d i c d i s c o u r s e . Through t h e g r a c k l e ' s sideways g l a n c e s , Wiebe p a r o d i e s L i e s e l t h e p a r o d i s t . 16. Wiebe r e i n f o r c e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t L i e s e l r e s e m b l e s a b l a c k b i r d by h a v i n g her t i e a b l a c k shawl around h e r h i p s t o c r e a t e what she t h i n k s i s an e l e g a n t t r a i l i n g e f f e c t b e h i n d , l i k e t h e t a i l o f a b i r d (74, 7 6 ) . See t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f Wiebe's use o f a n i m a l imagery i n s e c t i o n IV o f t h i s c h a p t e r . 17. See The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r , p. 273 f o r Wiebe's d r a m a t i s a t i o n o f t h e extreme v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f D i c k e n s ' n a r r a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f L i t t l e N e l l t o p a r o d i c t r e a t m e n t . 18. Wiebe h i n t s t h a t L i e s e l a d o p t s an a e s t h e t i c p e r s p e c t i v e t o escape from her own s u f f e r i n g , r e f r a c t e d i n t h e t e x t t h r o u g h t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e w e a l t h y F i r s t C l a s s p a s s e n g e r s who watch h e r b e i n g f i s h e d out o f t h e s h i p ' s i n d o o r swimming p o o l : " 'immigrants i n s t e e r a g e . . . s k i n and b o n e . . . w i t h o u t . . . p o o r . . . d r e a d f u l c o n d i t i o n ' " ( 8 4 ) . 19. "Are you s t i l l a M e n n o n i t e ? " "No. I — n o t any more." (191) 171 20. Leonard Cohen's B e a u t i f u l L o s e r s , d i s c u s s e d by E l i z a b e t h Cereno and h e r f r i e n d , R a c h e l , i s Wiebe's prime example o f a r t t h a t e x p l o i t s s u f f e r i n g . See pp. 183-84. 21. T h i s method o f b l e n d i n g t h e v o i c e s o f n a r r a t o r and p r o t a g o n i s t , and a l l o w i n g t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s i n n e r speech t o b r e a k t h r o u g h a t s t r a t e g i c moments, d e v e l o p s out o f Wiebe's n a r r a t i v e p r a c t i c e i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . C f . P i e r r e S p r i e t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f f i r s t p e r s o n and t h i r d p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e i n "Rudy Wiebe's The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a : t h e Polyphony o f a P e o p l e o r t h e L o n e l y V o i c e o f t h e F r i n g e ? , " M u l t i p l e V o i c e s : Recent Canadian F i c t i o n , P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I V t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium o f t h e B r u s s e l s C e n t r e f o r Canadian S t u d i e s , 29 November-1 December, 1989, Ed. Jeanne D e l b a e r e (Sydney: Dangaroo P r e s s , 1990) 59-68. 22. Wiebe v o i c e s t h i s judgement most e x p l i c i t l y t h r o u g h D a v i d Epp's i n n e r speech i n C h a p t e r 9: I t w i l l be good w i t h no r i c h o r p o o r . No hungry. No one f i g h t i n g any more, everyone l i v i n g f o r everyone e l s e , w o r k i n g i n peace and harmony on t h e common l a n d , t o g e t h e r t o t h e f i e l d s i n t h e morning, t o g e t h e r e a t i n g our b r e a d and l i v i n g i n q u i e t and s i n g i n g of our l a n d , w i t h a l w a y s enough t o e a t and work, everyone our f r i e n d s , everyone w o r k e r s . (127) 23. I n a passage o f d i a l o g u e w h i c h sounds a t f i r s t l i k e an i n t e r l u d e between s e c t i o n s o f " s e r i o u s " d i a l o g u e , Wiebe p r o v i d e s an e x p l i c i t key t o t h e a n i m a l imagery p e r v a d i n g t h e n o v e l . H a v i n g t r o d d e n on s o m e t h i n g i n t h e d a r k b e s i d e t h e r o a d , John Reimer remarks t o Jakob F r i e s e n IV t h a t "they" (presumably p r a i r i e dogs--Wiebe c r e a t e s a l l e g o r i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s by not s u p p l y i n g t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f t h e pronoun) d i e i n l a r g e numbers "on t h e way" ( 2 1 8 ) , because when one o f a p a i r i s a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l e d by a c a r , t h e o t h e r r e f u s e s t o abandon i t , and t a r r i e s on t h e r o a d t r y i n g t o guard t h e o t h e r o r decoy f u r t h e r d a n g e r s ; when a c a r comes "the l i v e one f e e l s t h e shadow o v e r i t and s i t s up" ( 2 1 8 ) . John Reimer and Jakob F r i e s e n IV pass on t o t h e t o p i c o f t h e s c a v e n g i n g b l a c k b i r d s who e a t t h e b o d i e s o f t h e dead a n i m a l s . T h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n draws a c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e between two c a t e g o r i e s o f a n i m a l s . 24. Matthew 6:28. The v e r s e b e g i n s w i t h t h e words "Why t a k e ye t h o u g h t f o r r a i m e n t ? " 25. G e n e s i s 25:22-34. 26. G e n e s i s 27. 27. G e n e s i s 33:1-16. 172 28. Z a i l i g P o l l o c k comes t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n , "The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a : A S e l e c t i v e Genealogy," E s s a y s i n Canadian W r i t i n g 26 (Summer 8 3 ) : 72, n.5. 29. Type I I I . l . c i n B a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y (1984, 199). 30. Type I I I . 2 . e i n B a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y (1984, 199). 31. Type I I I . 3 i n B a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y (1984, 199). 32. Of a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e n o v e l , F r i e d a perhaps comes c l o s e s t t o a b l a m e l e s s l i f e . Y e t F r i e d a ' s e a r l i e s t memory, t h e f i r s t e v e n t she r e c o u n t s a f t e r t h e s t o r y o f h e r own b i r t h , i s o f a newly-employed f i e l d - w o r k e r s t r u c k dead by a b o l t of l i g h t n i n g t h a t would o t h e r w i s e have k i l l e d her mother w o r k i n g nearby. F r i e d a remarks t h a t t h e man had " t h r e e l i t t l e ones, s m a l l e r t h a n me" ( 8 ) , t o convey h e r vague c h i l d h o o d i n k l i n g t h a t her mother l i v e s because t h e o t h e r s ' f a t h e r d i e d . T h i s i s not t o say t h a t Wiebe equates F r i e d a w i t h " E r n s t B a l z e r , " t h e b l a c k v u l t u r e . On. t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p a r a l l e l f o r t u n e s o f F r i e d a and B a l z e r s e r v e o n l y t o mark t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s . F r i e d a f e e l s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n who have l o s t t h e i r f a t h e r ; B a l z e r o n l y r e j o i c e s not t o have l o s t h i s own s k i n . U n t i l . D a v i d Epp s e n i o r reminds him t h a t "Mrs F r i e s e n was p r a y i n g t o o " ( 6 6 ) , B a l z e r s p a r e s no t h o u g h t f o r t h e u n f o r t u n a t e s c a p e g o a t t o whom he owes h i s s a f e t y , nor f o r t h e f a m i l y whom he has heard t h r o u g h t h e door " c r y i n g and p l e a d i n g , b e g g i n g l i k e c h i l d r e n " ( 6 5 ) . 33. Matthew 26:27-28: "And he t o o k t h e cup, and gave t h a n k s , and gave i t t o them, s a y i n g , D r i n k ye a l l o f i t ; F o r t h i s i s my b l o o d o f t h e new t e s t a m e n t , w h i c h i s shed f o r many f o r t h e r e m i s s i o n o f s i n s . " 34. A c c o r d i n g t o Magdalene Redekop, P a u l ' s words a r e not l i t u r g i c a l ( 1 0 7 ) . However, P a u l ' s words c a r r y t h e words o f J e s u s , which a r e r e p e a t e d as p a r t o f t h e r i t e o f H o l y Communion. 35. W h i l e t h e i t a l i c i s e d q u o t a t i o n s come from P a u l ' s E p i s t l e , t h e t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e r , " D r i n k Ye A l l Of I t , " comes from Matthew 26:27. 36. See " S t r u c t u r i n g V i o l e n c e : 'The E t h i c s o f L i n g u i s t i c s ' i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear ." Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 104 ( S p r i n g 8 5 ) : 7-23. Grace draws on T z v e t a n Todorov, "The Quest o f N a r r a t i v e , " The P o e t i c s o f P r o s e , t r a n s . R i c h a r d Howard ( I t h a c a , N.Y.: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977). 173 37. As George H i l d e b r a n d d e m o n s t r a t e s , Wiebe a l s o drawn on t h e t h e o r y and methodology o f B i b l i c a l t y p o l o g y , w h i c h reads t h e New Testament as a t u r n i n g back t o t h e O l d Testament, and views t h e e v e n t s o f t h e O l d Testament as a s e r i e s o f p r e f i g u r a t i o n s o f e v e n t s r e c o u n t e d i n t h e New Testament. See "The A n a b a p t i s t V i s i o n o f Rudy Wiebe: A Study i n T h e o l o g i c a l A l l e g o r e s i s , " d i s s . , M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1982. 38. F r i e d a sees "the C y p r e s s H i l l s [which] l a y on t h e p r a i r i e l i k e b l u e d u s t , f a r away" ( 4 5 ) ; Dennis W i l l i a m s sees t h e Canadian " R o c k i e s , t h e i r snow b u r n i n g b l u e a g a i n s t t h e e v e n i n g sky" ( 2 0 0 ) ; D a v i d Epp l o o k s back a c r o s s t h e Amur t o t h e R u s s i a n v a l l e y from w h i c h he has j u s t e s c a p e d t o see t h e " f a i n t clumps o f smoke l i k e b l u e mounds on t h e r i g i d a i r " (130). 39. B a k h t i n d e f i n e s " p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e s " as f o l l o w s : "Someone who knows and p o s s e s s e s t h e t r u t h i n s t r u c t s someone who i s i g n o r a n t o f i t and i n e r r o r , t h a t i s , i t i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a t e a c h e r and p u p i l " (1984, 8 1 ) . 40. In My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe d e f i n e s "mystery" as " t h a t which i s h i d d e n t o some and r e v e a l e d t o o t h e r s " ( 1 5 9 ) . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t r e a d e r s who share Wiebe's t h o r o u g h knowledge and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e w o u l d d i s c e r n q u i t e e a r l y t h e v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e n a r r a t i v e and t h e m o r a l dilemma common t o e v e r y e p i s o d e . 41. My i t a l i c s . 42. Quoted by John H. Yoder, e p i g r a p h t o The P o l i t i c s of J e s u s (Grand R a p i d s , M i c h i g a n : Eerdmans, 1972). 174 CHAPTER 5: THE TEMPTATIONS OF BIG BEAR Redeeming Canada's P a s t . . I In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, Wiebe t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n t o Western C a n a d i a n h i s t o r y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d when t h e Dominion government was "opening t h e g r e a t West" 1 t o w h i t e s e t t l e r s and e n c l o s i n g t h e N a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n on r e s e r v e s . Wiebe's s t o r y c e n t r e s on t h e Cree C h i e f B i g Bear, branded a t r o u b l e m a k e r by o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s because he r e f u s e d f o r t h e l o n g e s t t i m e t o s i g n any t r e a t y o r s e t t l e on a r e s e r v e , and l a t e r c o n v i c t e d o f t r e a s o n - f e l o n y f o r h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h I n d i a n s who k i l l e d n i n e Whites a t F r o g L a k e . 2 In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r , Wiebe o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e . D u r i n g t h e t w e l v e y e a r s c o v e r e d i n t h e n o v e l ' s main n a r r a t i v e , from B i g Bear's r e f u s a l t o s i g n T r e a t y Number S i x i n 1876, t o h i s d e a t h i n 1888, 3 B i g Bear r e s i s t s t h e t e m p t a t i o n s o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e and f u l s o m e s u r r e n d e r , t h e o n l y o p t i o n s r e c o g n i s e d by t h e o t h e r g r e a t . c h i e f s . B i g Bear a l o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e most c r u c i a l b a t t l e s t a k e p l a c e on t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p l a n e r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h y s i c a l , and t h a t h i s p e o p l e ' s p o l i t i c a l s u r v i v a l depends on t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . B i g Bear urges t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s t o f o r g e t t h e i r , s u p e r f i c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s and band t o g e t h e r as a r e l i g i o u s community. Only i f t h e y speak w i t h a s i n g l e m i g h t y v o i c e empowered by t h e "Only One" can t h e y e n t e r i n t o e q u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h " t h a t one W h i t e s k i n t h a n whom t h e r e i s none h i g h e r " (TBB 1 9 7 ) . A F i v e v a r i e t i e s o f d i a l o g u e w a r r a n t c l o s e a t t e n t i o n i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear: c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , f o r m a l s y n c r i s i s , t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " between a u t h o r and n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s t h r o u g h w h i c h Wiebe engages i n d i a l o g u e i n t h e w i d e r c u l t u r a l a r e n a , and t h e d i a l o g u e between t h e t e x t and i t s r e a d e r s . These s e v e r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d i a l o g u e i n and a r o u n d Wiebe's f o u r t h n o v e l s u g g e s t t h a t he more and more concedes t h a t meaning comes i n t o b e i n g d i a l o g i c a l l y , t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n between v o i c e s s p e a k i n g w i t h one a n o t h e r i n t h e e v o l v i n g c o n t e x t o f human h i s t o r y . T h i s d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e o f f e r s Wiebe a chance t o s u b v e r t dominant m o n o l o g i c systems o f s c i e n t i f i c , h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s t r u t h . I n The Temptations o f B i g Bear, he c o n t r a d i c t s o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y and t h e A n g l o - p r o t e s t a n t p o l i t i c a l e t h o s w h i c h s u p p o r t s i t . Y e t Wiebe c h a l l e n g e s t h e s e m o n o l o g i c systems not t o o v e r t h r o w 176 monologism as such, b u t as a p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p t o p r o m o t i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e . Wiebe " u n e a r t h s " B i g Bear's l i f e from t h e "the g i a n t s l a g - h e a p l e f t by t h e h e r o i c w h i t e h i s t o r y " 5 i n o r d e r t o i n t e g r a t e i t i n t o h i s own Mennonite system o f v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . A w h o l e - h e a r t e d embrace o f t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w o u l d weaken t h e l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f Wiebe's C h r i s t i a n c o n v i c t i o n s . How can one remain committed t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t one's own r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s r e m a i n a b s o l u t e , permanent and u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d , w h i l e a t t h e same a d m i t t i n g t h e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i t y o f a l l t r u t h ? What happens t o Wiebe's C h r i s t i a n v i s i o n once he c o n f r o n t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s a b s o l u t e s a r e v u l n e r a b l e t o p a s t and f u t u r e m i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n ? F o r Wiebe, t h e d i a l o g i c u n i v e r s e h o l d s t h e p r o s p e c t o f e x i s t e n t i a l t e r r o r as w e l l as t h a t o f i d e o l o g i c a l freedom. Wiebe's a m b i v a l e n c e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e t e x t o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r i n a t e n s i o n between d i a l o g i z i n g and m o n o l o g i z i n g mechanisms. On a l l f i v e i n t e r s e c t i n g p l a n e s on w h i c h d i a l o g u e o c c u r s , c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s c o n t e n d a g a i n s t c e n t r i p e t a l , as i f Wiebe's w r i t i n g were s u b j e c t t o a law demanding t h a t e v e r y d i a l o g i z i n g a c t i o n has an e q u a l and o p p o s i t e m o n o l o g i z i n g r e - a c t i o n . 177 I I C o m p o s i t i o n a l l y Marked D i a l o g u e s "Ceremony was a l l " ( 1 0 ) , r e f l e c t s G o v e r n o r M o r r i s i n t h e o p e n i n g scene o f t h e n o v e l . Much o f t h e d r a m a t i c i n t e r e s t i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear c e n t r e s on a s e r i e s o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g c e r e m o n i a l and r i t u a l o c c a s i o n s — t h e f a r e w e l l ceremony a t F o r t P i t t , B i g B e a r ' s t r e a t y - s i g n i n g ceremony a t F o r t Walsh, B i g Bear's T h i r s t Dance, t h e b u f f a l o hunt, t h e c h u r c h s e r v i c e a t F r o g Lake, t h e f o r m a l c o u n c i l s o f t h e I n d i a n s , and f i n a l l y B i g B e a r ' s t r i a l . I n t h e Dominion Government's " n o n - v i o l e n t " t a k e - o v e r o f t h e Canadian West, ceremonies and r i t u a l s have as much h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e as major m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e s and c o u n t e r - a t t a c k s . They a r e h i g h l y t h e a t r i c a l p u b l i c o c c a s i o n s when t h e r i v a l s o c i a l f a c t i o n s t r y t o i n a u g u r a t e o r d e f e n d t h e power o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s o v e r e i g n d i s c o u r s e s , t o g a i n o r r e s i s t t h e hegemonic c o n t r o l o f o t h e r s . Wiebe e x p r e s s e s a p r o f o u n d c o n c e r n w i t h v o i c e i n t h e s e scenes o f f o r m a l d i a l o g u e . He d r a m a t i s e s t h e d i s t i n c t k i n d s o f power a c t i v a t e d by v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e v o i c e — t h e m y s t e r i o u s c h a r i s m a o f an i n d i v i d u a l v o i c e , t h e p o l i t i c a l e f f i c a c y o f a communal v o i c e , t h e hegemony o f a group o f White c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s termed "the Queen's v o i c e . " Wiebe's c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked c e r e m o n i a l and r i t u a l 178 d i a l o g u e s w a r r a n t d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n because t h e y encode manoeuvres i n an u n d e c l a r e d v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l ' w a r . D u r i n g ceremonies and r i t u a l s , 6 r i g i d r u l e s , t a b o o s , and e t i q u e t t e come i n t o e f f e c t , p r o h i b i t i n g d i a l o g u e a l t o g e t h e r o r k e e p i n g i t w i t h i n p r e - d e t e r m i n e d l i m i t s . These r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a i n s t f r e e d i a l o g u e , most c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e e l a b o r a t e p r o t o c o l s o f t h e c o u r t r o o m , c r e a t e a p r o t e c t i v e " f r a m i n g c o n t e x t " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 344) f o r a s a c r e d word, a b u f f e r zone s e p a r a t i n g an a u t h o r i t a t i v e language from t h e zone o f f a m i l i a r c o n t a c t w i t h r i v a l speech g e n r e s . Thus, s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s c r e a t e s a f e h a b i t a t s f o r s p e c i a l words. A t l e a s t , such i s t h e case i f t h e ceremony o r r i t u a l proceeds a c c o r d i n g t o p l a n — w h i c h i t a l m o s t n e v e r does i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear. B i g Bear h i j a c k s Governor M o r r i s ' s f a r e w e l l ceremony a t F o r t P i t t ; he l a u g h s out l o u d and speaks i n s i g n language o v e r t h e v o i c e o f t h e judge d u r i n g h i s t r i a l ; L e i f C r o z i e r p e n e t r a t e s B i g B e a r ' s f i e l d of v i s i o n d u r i n g t h e T h i r s t Dance, and Wandering S p i r i t b r e a k s i n t o t h e Maundy Thursday mass a t F r o g Lake. Wiebe makes c o n c r e t e t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l war f o u g h t i n t h e West by showing W h i t e s and I n d i a n s c a r n i v a l i z i n g one a n o t h e r ' s ceremonies and r i t u a l s i n an a t t e m p t t o decrown t h e o t h e r ' s a u t h o r i t a t i v e word. 179 In scenes o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked r i t u a l and c e r e m o n i a l d i a l o g u e , Wiebe d i s p l a y s an a c u t e s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r l o c u t o r y c o n d u c t . He pays m e t i c u l o u s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r s s u r r o u n d i n g and p e r v a d i n g each v e r b a l exchange. Wiebe's s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s — t h e t i m i n g and t o n e o f a speech, t h e p o s t u r e and d r e s s of t h e s p e a k e r , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' adherence t o o r f l o u t i n g o f decorum, and t h e i r c h o i c e o f an a d d r e s s e e — t h e s e c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s do not s e r v e a m e r e l y c o r r o b o r a t i v e o r d e c o r a t i v e f u n c t i o n . They a r e t h e v e r y s u b s t a n c e o f t h e a c t i o n i t s e l f . 7 In t h e o p e n i n g scene a t F o r t P i t t , f o r example, B i g Bear's mere p r e s e n c e bumps t h e c l o s i n g ceremony o f f i t s a n t i c i p a t e d c o u r s e . H i s a t t e n d a n c e , a f t e r y e a r s o f r e f u s i n g t o t a l k a t a l l w i t h t h e government's c o m m i s s i o n e r s , causes Governor M o r r i s t o b r e a k decorum d u r i n g t h e c r u c i a l o p e n i n g moments o f t h e ceremony. M o r r i s ' s f i r s t words a d d r e s s B i g Bear, when c e r e m o n i a l p r o p r i e t y d i c t a t e s t h a t he s h o u l d a t t h a t p o i n t make h i s f o r m a l r e p l y t o Sweetgrass's warm and f l a t t e r i n g words o f welcome. B i g Bear s e i z e s c o n t r o l o f t h e d i a l o g u e by not r e s p o n d i n g t o Governor M o r r i s . A t t h e moment when M o r r i s v e r y o b v i o u s l y e x p e c t s him t o r e p l y , B i g Bear c r e a t e s "a s i l e n c e so d e l i b e r a t e " (19) t h a t M o r r i s ' s d i g n i t y and composure b e g i n t o c r u m b l e : "every s t r e t c h i n g second d r a i n e d him s t a n d i n g a t a t t e n t i o n f a r t h e r i n t o 180 i n s i g n i f i c a n c e " ( 1 9 ) . I n a l i t e r a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f James McKay's e a r l i e r remark, "Wait t i l l you hear his v o i c e " ( 1 5 ) , Governor M o r r i s w a i t s . B i g Bear f o r c e s him t o w a i t . And, as M o r r i s knows, t o w a i t upon someone s i g n i f i e s one's d e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r w i l l and one's acknowledgement o f t h e i r power. When B i g Bear speaks f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , h i s words emerge out o f a d i s c o n c e r t i n g s i l e n c e o f h i s own making, not i n o b e d i e n c e t o Governor M o r r i s ' s cue. U n l i k e Sweetgrass and t h e o t h e r c h i e f s , who c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h M o r r i s ' s e f f o r t s t o s t e e r t h e d i a l o g u e i n t o " s a f e " a r e a s , B i g Bear f o l l o w s no- one e l s e ' s p r e d e t e r m i n e d s c r i p t . B a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " p a s s i v e " and " a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g " p r o v e s u s e f u l f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f B i g B e a r ' s i n t e r l o c u t o r y s t r a t e g i e s , and f o r d e s c r i b i n g B i g Bear's f u n c t i o n as a d i a l o g i z i n g d e v i c e i n t h e t e x t . B a k h t i n d e s c r i b e s p a s s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g as p u r e l y r e c e p t i v e , c o n t r i b u t [ i n g ] n o t h i n g new t o t h e word under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , o n l y m i r r o r i n g i t , s e e k i n g , a t i t s most a m b i t i o u s , m e r e l y t h e f u l l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h a t w h i c h i s a l r e a d y g i v e n i n t h e word. (1981, 281) An a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , by c o n t r a s t , a s s i m i l a t e s t h e word under c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t o a new c o n c e p t u a l system, t h a t o f t h e one s t r i v i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d , e s t a b l i s h e s a s e r i e s o f complex i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s , consonances and d i s s o n a n c e s w i t h t h e word and e n r i c h e s i t w i t h new e l e m e n t s . (1981, 282) Some o f S w e e t g r a s s ' s remarks a t F o r t P i t t e x e m p l i f y p a s s i v e 181 u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Sweetgrass p a r r o t s t h e recommendations o f t h e government c o m m i s s i o n e r s — " I want t o d i g up a s m a l l p i e c e o f l a n d and grow f o o d . We s h o u l d a l l do t h a t " ( 3 5 ) . The extreme b a l d n e s s of S w e e t g r a s s ' s e x p r e s s i o n warns t h a t he has no a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l i f e , l e t a l o n e o f t h e immense s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l a d j u s t m e n t s i t w i l l i n v o l v e . He m e r e l y r e p e a t s t h e words o f an " o t h e r , " i n t h e language o f t h e " o t h e r , " w i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s l a t e t h e words i n t o h i s own t r a d i t i o n a l framework o f v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . I n s t e a d o f t e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and v e r a c i t y o f t h e words, he t r u s t i n g l y a c c e p t s them a t f a c e v a l u e , seeming a l m o s t t o i m a g i n e t h a t t h e d i g g i n g of a h o l e w i l l prompt f o o d t o s p r i n g i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y out o f t h e ground. Sweetgrass f o l l o w s a k i n d o f u n w r i t t e n s c r i p t d e v i s e d l a r g e l y by t h e G o v e r n o r , not a s c r i p t g e n e r a t e d by any p r o c e s s o f e q u a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n between t h e two i n t e r l o c u t o r y p a r t i e s . He t h u s engages o n l y i n a f o r m a l i z e d p s e u d o - d i a l o g u e , where he u n d e r s t a n d s t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s ' words and t h e terms o f t h e t r e a t y o n l y i n a p a s s i v e manner, a manner w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o B a k h t i n , " i s no u n d e r s t a n d i n g a t a l l " (1981, 281). L i k e S w e e t g r a s s , B i g Bear r e p e a t s words spoken by t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s , b u t h i s r e v o i c i n g s t r i v e s towards an a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o t h e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s . B i g Bear annexes t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s i n t o (what p a s s e s f o r ) 182 t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n d i s c o u r s e s , q u o t i n g v e r b a t i m t h e words and p h r a s e s o f t h e c u l t u r a l " o t h e r , " b u t t e s t i n g t h e i r meaning a c c o r d i n g t o whether t h e y f i t — o r do not f i t — i n t o h i s own c u l t u r e ' s r e l i g i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w o r l d . Governor M o r r i s f o r e s e e s t h e r e s e r v e I n d i a n s " l i v i n g as t h e y have always l i v e d , b u t w i t h t h e Queen's g i f t i n a d d i t i o n " ( 2 8 ) . B i g Bear responds w i t h : "The Governor says we w i l l l i v e as we have always l i v e d . I have a l w a y s l i v e d on t h e E a r t h w i t h my p e o p l e , I have always moved as f a r as I w i s h e d t o see. We t a k e what t h e e a r t h g i v e s us when we need a n y t h i n g , and we l e a v e t h e r e s t f o r t h o s e who f o l l o w u s . What can i t mean, t h a t I and my f a m i l y w i l l have a ' r e s e r v e o f one square m i l e ' ? What i s t h a t ? " (29) James McKay t e l l s B i g Bear t h a t he must "Choose t h e p l a c e s where you w i s h t o l i v e . They w i l l be r e s e r v e d f o r you f o r e v e r " ( 2 8 ) . B i g B e a r ' s r e p l y r e n d e r s McKay's s t a t e m e n t a b s u r d : "No one can choose f o r o n l y h i m s e l f a p i e c e o f t h e Mother E a r t h . She i s . And she i s f o r a l l t h a t l i v e , a l i k e " ( 2 8 ) . By r e c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g and r e a c c e n t i n g t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f McKay and M o r r i s , B i g Bear p e n e t r a t e s t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e I n d i a n s ' p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m . Through B i g B e a r , Wiebe shows t h a t a l l q u e s t i o n s o f l a n d r i g h t s depend on a p r i o r q u e s t i o n : w h i c h s o c i e t y c o n t r o l s t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s whereby t r u t h comes i n t o b e i n g ? To q u i b b l e , as have t h e o t h e r c h i e f s , o v e r t h e s i z e o f t h e r e s e r v e o r t h e amount o f money t o be p a i d , i s t o s i g n a l a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l 1 8 3 p o s t u l a t e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e t r e a t y and t h u s t o s u r r e n d e r t o White hegemonic c o n t r o l . B i g Bear argues not a g a i n s t t h e number o f a c r e s , b u t a g a i n s t t h e c o n c e p t o f l a n d as a c r e a g e , a p r i v a t e l y ownable, c o m m e r c i a l l y e x p l o i t a b l e , m a t e r i a l commodity. He a t t a c k s not t h e number o f d o l l a r s t o be p a i d i n compensation f o r t h e l a n d , b u t t h e monstrous i d e a o f r e d u c i n g t h e G r e a t S p i r i t ' s s a c r e d g i f t t o a d o l l a r v a l u e . S t a u n c h l y r e j e c t i n g t h e p r e m i s e s on w h i c h t h e terms o f t h e t r e a t y a r e based, B i g Bear s u r r e n d e r s n e i t h e r p h y s i c a l t e r r i t o r y nor i d e o l o g i c a l ground. As w e l l as b e i n g a h i s t o r i c f i g u r e , B i g Bear f u n c t i o n s as a r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e whereby Wiebe exposes t h e a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f c e r t a i n axioms w h i c h dominate t h i n k i n g about t h e l a n d and t h e s o c i a l o r d e r i n t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y Canada. L i k e t h e O j i b w a c h i l d r e n i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , B i g Bear o f f e r s Wiebe a means o f a r t i c u l a t i n g a p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h l i e s o u t s i d e t h e v i e w c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a d o p t e d by a m a j o r i t y o f Wiebe's f e l l o w C a n a d i a n s . B i g Bear r e s e m b l e s t h e r o g u e s , clowns and f o o l s d e s c r i b e d by B a k h t i n , 8 who e s t r a n g e a u d i e n c e s from t h e i r h a b i t u a l a s s u m p t i o n s about t h e n a t u r a l and t h e s o c i a l w o r l d s . B i g B e a r ' s q u e s t i o n s , " m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s " and j o k e s p e r s i s t e n t l y d e - n a t u r a i i z e t h e s t a n d a r d s o f o r d e r and common-sense w h i c h M o r r i s i n a u g u r a t e s a t F o r t P i t t , and w h i c h a m a j o r i t y o f Wiebe's r e a d e r s , a c e n t u r y l a t e r , would p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r a x i o m a t i c . By 184 d r a m a t i s i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y and t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y t h a t p r e v a i l s i n h i s own t i m e , Wiebe opens t h e w a y . f o r f u t u r e i d e o l o g i c a l change. But Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e s t o r e B i g Bear's a u t h e n t i c v o i c e o n l y i n so f a r as B i g Bear a g r e e s w i t h Wiebe's Mennonite v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . In t h e above speeches, B i g Bear c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e s a Mennonite v i s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e l a n d , humanity and t h e d e i t y . Such a r e a d i n g o f B i g B e a r ' s major speeches g a i n s s u p p o r t from Wiebe's own o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a n and Mennonite C h r i s t i a n o u t l o o k s : The concept o f r e c e i v i n g t h e l a n d b o g g l e d t h e I n d i a n mind. T h i s i s a l s o a b a s i c C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f — t h a t t h e l a n d and what i t p r o d u c e s you don't m a k e — t h e seed, t h e r a i n , t h e sun. You a r e t h a n k f u l f o r what i t does. You don't push i t around. You work w i t h i t . (VL 207) The B i b l i c a l p r o p h e t s and B i g Bear had a g r e a t d e a l i n common, t h e sense of a h e r i t a g e t h a t has been s o l d o u t , t h a t t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e o r n e g l e c t has s i m p l y been l e f t : and t h e v o i c e v e r y c l e a r l y says t h a t you cannot n e g l e c t your i n h e r i t a n c e l i k e t h i s , t h e g i f t s o f — t h e Cree c a l l i t "the Main One," t h e Jews "Jehovah"; you cannot do t h a t and e x p e c t t o g e t away w i t h i t " (VL 1 5 2 ) . 9 As w e l l . a s a r t i c u l a t i n g a Mennonite v i s i o n t h a t p a s s e s f o r an a u t h e n t i c a l l y " o t h e r " I n d i a n one, B i g B e a r ' s " a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g " r e l e a s e s two k i n d s o f " o t h e r v o i c e d n e s s " i n White t a l k . F i r s t , Wiebe uses B i g Bear t o unmask t h e r a c i s m and d e c e i t h i d d e n b e n e a t h t h e d i g n i f i e d t o n e s o f t h e Governor's c e r e m o n i a l v o i c e . When B i g Bear's l a u g h t e r b r e a k s c e r e m o n i a l decorum, M o r r i s f o r g e t s t h a t a l l I n d i a n s must be 185 r e f e r r e d t o p o l i t e l y as " b r o t h e r s " and c a l l s B i g Bear a "big-mouth savage" ( 2 2 ) . Second, Wiebe uses B i g Bear as a h y b r i d i z i n g d e v i c e , a means o f r e l e a s i n g t h e i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y o f M o r r i s ' s u t t e r a n c e s : Governor M o r r i s : ..."When you h e a r my v o i c e you a r e l i s t e n i n g t o y o u r G r e a t Mother t h e Queen".... B i g Bear: "The Queen speaks t o u s ? " Governor M o r r i s : Yes. You have h e a r d her v o i c e , whom God b l e s s and p r e s e r v e l o n g t o r e i g n o v e r us." There was a momentary s i l e n c e . B i g Bear: "The Queen i s — a woman." [The I n d i a n s e r u p t i n t o ] . . . i m m e n s e l a u g h t e r . . . . But t h e G o v e r n o r , t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s , t h e p o l i c e s t o o d r i g i d w i t h d a r k e n e d f a c e s . The G o v e r n o r swung around t o Erasmus, h i s v o i c e s h i v e r i n g , " T e l l t h a t — t h a t — I d i d n ' t come h e r e t o have my S o v e r e i g n Queen i n s u l t e d by some big-mouth savage." (21-22) As i n t h e p r e v i o u s examples o f r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n , B i g Bear a s s e r t s h i s r i g h t t o g o v e r n t h e meaning o f t h e "Governor's" words. He annexes t h e s i g n i f i e r "Queen-as-woman" i n t o an I n d i a n s e m i o t i c system i n w h i c h "woman" c o n n o t e s p h y s i c a l weakness, i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y , and v o i c e l e s s n e s s i n f o r m a l c o u n c i l s e s s i o n s . From t h e I n d i a n s ' p o i n t o f v i e w , G o v e r n o r M o r r i s i n a d v e r t e n t l y s u b v e r t s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f h i s v o i c e i n t h e v e r y a c t o f p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t a u t h o r i t y . As B i g B e a r ' s i n t e n t i o n s ( e x p r e s s i n g Wiebe's e v a n g e l i c a l C h r i s t i a n i n t e n t i o n s ) i n v a d e M o r r i s ' s words, t h o s e words become c o n t e s t e d t e r r i t o r y , l i k e t h e l a n d . B i g Bear f a c e s a f o r m i d a b l e opponent i n A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s , v e t e r a n o f many a d i p l o m a t i c coup, and h e r o i c m a s t e r o f t r e a t y s i g n i n g c e r e m o n i e s . M o r r i s c e r t a i n l y u n d e r s t a n d s 186 t h e c r u c i a l r o l e o f ceremony i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s e c u r i n g economic, l e g a l , and hegemonic c o n t r o l o v e r t h e I n d i a n s . I n r e p l y t o t h e k i n d o f w i l d west h i s t o r i c a l romances w h i c h would v i e w M o r r i s ' s d i p l o m a t i c s k i l l s as a t r a v e s t y o f h e r o i s m , Wiebe s t r e s s e s t h a t M o r r i s has p l a y e d a l e s s glamorous b u t no l e s s v i t a l r o l e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f h i s c o u n t r y t h a n have t h e g u n s l i n g i n g heroes o f A m e r i c a ' s I n d i a n wars: i n j u s t f o u r y e a r s , he has " p e r s o n a l l y n e g o t i a t e d t h r e e t r e a t i e s t h a t gave h i s c o u n t r y more l a n d s t h a n any one n e g o t i a t o r i n h i s t o r y , anywhere on e a r t h , b l o o d l e s s l y " ( 2 6 ) . Wiebe c h a r a c t e r i s e s M o r r i s as an a c c o m p l i s h e d p a r o d i s t . H i s c e r e m o n i a l v o i c e rewards c l o s e a n a l y s i s . "We have a g r e e d on e v e r y t h i n g , " i n s i s t s M o r r i s , The Cree a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l t r i b e o f p l a i n s I n d i a n s ; t h i s has been t h e f o u r t h t i m e t h a t I have met my Cree b r o t h e r s w i t h a t r e a t y i n my hand. And s t a n d i n g here on t h i s - - u h , s i t t i n g — o n t h i s ground I c a s t my eyes t o where t h e sun r i s e s , down t o t h e g r e a t l a k e s and I see a b r o a d r o a d l e a d i n g from t h e r e t o t h e Red R i v e r , I see i t s t r e t c h i n g on t o F o r t E l l i c e , I see i t b r a n c h i n g t h e r e . . . . A b r o a d r o a d , and a l l a l o n g i t I see t h e G o v e r n o r and t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s o f t h e Queen t a k i n g t h e I n d i a n by t h e hand, s a y i n g , we a r e b r o t h e r s , we w i l l l i f t you up, we w i l l t e a c h you t h e c u n n i n g o f t h e w h i t e man. A l l a l o n g t h e r o a d I see I n d i a n s g a t h e r i n g , I see gardens g r o w i n g and houses b u i l d i n g . I see them r e c e i v i n g money from t h e Queen's c o m m i s s i o n e r s , I see them e n j o y i n g t h e i r h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g as b e f o r e . . . " . ( 2 7 - 8 ) M o r r i s ' s language d e f l e c t s a t t e n t i o n away from d i s c r e p a n c i e s between I n d i a n and White r e l i g i o n , a t a c t i c 187 w h i c h a l l o w s him t o v a l o r i z e h i s own words by p r e t e n d i n g t h e y come from t h e I n d i a n s ' supreme d e i t y . M o r r i s p l a c e s emphasis on t h e number f o u r , f o r example, t o i m p l y t h a t he s h a r e s t h e Cree p e o p l e ' s sense o f t h e s p e c i a l r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h a t number. I n t h e o f t - r e p e a t e d " I see" c o n s t r u c t i o n , he dons t h e v e r b a l g u i s e o f t h e shamanic v i s i o n a r y i n an a t t e m p t t o i n s e r t h i m s e l f i n t o t h e r o l e o f s o l e o f f i c i a l m e d i a t o r between t h e Cree p e o p l e and t h e i r G r e a t S p i r i t . M o r r i s couches h i s n a r r a t i v e o f p a s t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s , and h i s a c c o u n t of t h e Government's w i s h e s c o n c e r n i n g f u t u r e h i s t o r y , i n t h e form o f a d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d p r o p h e c y . M o r r i s e x p l o i t s t h e i n t e n s e l y r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k of h i s a u d i e n c e . By m i m i c k i n g p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e , he enhances t h e r h e t o r i c a l p o t e n c y o f h i s words and t h u s i n v e s t s them w i t h t h e power n o t j u s t t o p r e d i c t b u t t o c o n t r o l t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y . I r o n i c a l l y , M o r r i s ' s pseudo- d i v i n e p r o p h e c i e s become s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g i n t h a t t h e y h e l p b r i n g about White d o m i n a t i o n i n t h e West. 1 0 M o r r i s adopts a number o f m i m i c k i n g s t r a t e g i e s d e s i g n e d t o b l i n d t h e I n d i a n s t o t h e v a s t g u l f w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d from t h a t dominant i n White s o c i e t y . The o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s between E n g l i s h and Cree remind everyone p r e s e n t a t t h e ceremony t h a t t h e two n e g o t i a t i n g p a r t i e s a r e c u l t u r a l l y a l i e n t o one another.. To d i s g u i s e h i s f o r e i g n n e s s , and more e a s i l y w i n t h e I n d i a n s ' 188 t r u s t , Governor M o r r i s uses " p i c t u r e language": Red and White hands c l a s p e d i n f r i e n d s h i p , h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s i n t h e form o f a r o a d , t h e White man l i f t i n g t h e I n d i a n up i n t o c i v i l i s a t i o n . Wiebe's s o u r c e f o r A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s ' s speech i s M o r r i s ' s own p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d o f t h e t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s , e n t i t l e d The T r e a t i e s o f Canada w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f M a n i t o b a and t h e North-West T e r r i t o r i e s . Comparison of M o r r i s ' s o r i g i n a l w i t h Wiebe's a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e speech r e v e a l s some twenty changes o f v a r i o u s l e n g t h s and l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . 1 1 One s e t o f changes c o n f i r m s t h a t Wiebe c h a r a c t e r i s e s M o r r i s as a p a r o d i s t . Wiebe " I n d i a n i s e s " M o r r i s ' s speech f u r t h e r t h a n i n t h e o r i g i n a l by removing a b s t r a c t and L a t i n a t e d i c t i o n and s u b s t i t u t i n g more c o n c r e t e e x p r e s s i o n s d e r i v i n g from t h e I n d i a n s ' d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e . F o r example, Wiebe r e p l a c e s t h e word " E a s t " ( M o r r i s 231) w i t h "where t h e sun r i s e s " ( 2 7 ) ; and he a l t e r s " r e t a i n i n g t h e i r o l d mode o f l i v i n g " ( M o r r i s 2 3 1 ) , t o " l i v i n g as t h e y have always l i v e d " ( 2 8 ) . I n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , by d e p a r t i n g from a v e r b a t i m q u o t a t i o n o f h i s s o u r c e , Wiebe h e i g h t e n s t h e q u a l i t y o f m i m i c r y i n t h e G o v e r n o r ' s language. I n t h e d i a l o g u e between B i g Bear and "Govenor" M o r r i s , two p a r o d i s t s f a c e each o t h e r i n a d u e l . They b o t h succeed i n d e t h r o n i n g one a n o t h e r ' s s a c r e d d i s c o u r s e s by c a p t u r i n g 189 t h e language o f t h e o t h e r as a bounded o b j e c t i n t h e i r own u t t e r a n c e s , and s u b j e c t i n g t h e o t h e r ' s language t o a new a u t h o r i a l w i l l . However, because Wiebe l e a v e s no doubt as t o which s p e a k e r he s u p p o r t s , t h e t e x t c o n t i n u e s t o f u n c t i o n as m o n o l o g i c d i s c o u r s e . Gary S a u l Morson's d i s c u s s i o n o f parody and meta-parody o f f e r s a u s e f u l c r i t e r i o n f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between p o l y p h o n i c and m o n o l o g i c parody. Morson r e s e r v e s t h e t e r m "parody" f o r t e x t s t h a t f u n c t i o n m o n o l o g i c a l l y , t h o s e d o u b l e - v o i c e d t e x t s o r u t t e r a n c e s t h a t c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e w h i c h o f t h e i r c o n f l i c t i n g v o i c e s i s t o be r e g a r d e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e . The a u d i e n c e o f p a r o d y — t h a t i s , t h e r e a d e r s who i d e n t i f y t h e t e x t as a p a r o d y — k n o w f o r s u r e w i t h w h i c h v o i c e t h e y a r e e x p e c t e d t o a g r e e . (Morson 81) In "meta-parody," by c o n t r a s t , t h e t e x t f u n c t i o n s p o l y p h o n i c a l l y : each v o i c e may be t a k e n t o be p a r o d i c o f t h e o t h e r ; r e a d e r s a r e i n v i t e d t o e n t e r t a i n each o f t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n p o t e n t i a l l y e n d l e s s s u c c e s s i o n . I n t h i s s e n s e , such t e x t s r e m a i n f u n d a m e n t a l l y open, and i f r e a d e r s s h o u l d choose e i t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as d e f i n i t i v e , t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o d i s c o v e r t h a t t h i s c h o i c e has been a n t i c i p a t e d and i s i t s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f parody. (Morson 81) I f B i g Bear and M o r r i s each p a r o d y t h e o t h e r , why i s i t t h a t r e a d e r s a r e not caught i n an e n d l e s s o s c i l l a t i o n between two " c o n t r a d i c t o r y h e r m e n e u t i c d i r e c t i v e s " (Morson, 81) as would be t h e case i f t h e t e x t f u n c t i o n e d p o l y p h o n i c a l l y as meta- parody? The answer i s t h a t . Wiebe i n t r o d u c e s an e x t e r n a l a d j u d i c a t o r : t h e B i b l e . He a p p o r t i o n s a u t h o r i t y t o t h e 190 v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t by m e a s u r i n g them a g a i n s t t h e v o i c e s o f J e s u s and t h e A p o s t l e s . The E p i g r a p h from A c t s 17, t o g e t h e r w i t h v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f J e s u s ' Sermon on t h e Mount, f u n c t i o n as t h e deus ex machina w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e outcome o f t h e s t r u g g l e between v o i c e s and languages i n t h e t e x t . Wiebe c o n s i s t e n t l y , i n v o k e s t h e B i b l e t o v a l o r i z e B i g Bear's speech and t o decrown M o r r i s ' s p a r o d i c l a n g u a g e . F o r example, M o r r i s a p p r o p r i a t e s ' t h e f a m i l y k i n s h i p terms used by t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s t o d e f i n e s o c i a l i d e n t i t y and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s : terms such as " b r o t h e r s , " "the Grandmother," "the G r e a t Mother," and her "Red c h i l d r e n " f e a t u r e p r o m i n e n t l y i n h i s speech. W i t h i n M o r r i s ' s u t t e r a n c e , t h e s e terms f u n c t i o n p a r o d i c a l l y : M o r r i s uses t h e language o f a n o t h e r t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s own p u r p o s e s . But when Wiebe, i n t u r n , a p p r o p r i a t e s M o r r i s ' s u t t e r a n c e , he c o n s t i t u t e s M o r r i s ' s parody as a bounded o b j e c t , a t r a v e s t y o f t h e s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s o f f e r e d i n A c t s 17. The I n d i a n terms o f k i n s h i p e n t e r an a l l i a n c e w i t h a p a t r o n t e x t , Wiebe's e p i l o g u e from A c t s 17. Wiebe t h u s causes t h e d i s c o u r s e p a r o d i e d by M o r r i s t o e x e r t "a c o u n t e r f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r ' s [ M o r r i s ' s ] i n t e n t i o n s " (1984, 198). Wiebe f u r t h e r s u b v e r t s M o r r i s ' s speech by a d d i n g one c r u c i a l B i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n t o t h e p s e u d o - p r o p h e t i c " I see" speech (quoted e a r l i e r ) . Whereas The T r e a t i e s o f Canada 191 r e c o r d s M o r r i s as s a y i n g " I see a b r o a d r o a d l e a d i n g from t h e r e t o t h e Red R i v e r . . . i t i s wide and p l a i n t r a i l " ( M o r r i s 231), Wiebe s u b s t i t u t e s " I see a b r o a d r o a d l e a d i n g from t h e r e t o t h e Red R i v e r . . . a b r o a d r o a d " ( 2 8 ) . Wiebe's a l t e r a t i o n b r i n g s t o b e a r a s e c t i o n o f J e s u s ' Sermon on t h e Mount w h i c h warns s p e c i f i c a l l y about m o r a l pragmatism and f a l s e p r o p h e t s : E n t e r ye a t t h e s t r a i g h t g a t e : f o r wide i s t h e g a t e and b r o a d i s t h e way, t h a t l e a d e t h t o d e s t r u c t i o n , and many t h e r e be w h i c h go i n t h e r e a t : Because s t r a i g h t i s t h e g a t e , and narrow i s t h e way, w h i c h l e a d e t h unto l i f e , and few t h e r e be t h a t f i n d i t . Beware o f f a l s e p r o p h e t s , w h i c h come t o you i n sheep's c l o t h i n g , b u t i n w a r d l y t h e y a r e r a v e n i n g w o l v e s . (Matthew 7:13-15) In t h e a c t of commending h i m s e l f and t h e immense b e n e f i t s o f h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e I n d i a n s , M o r r i s u n w i t t i n g l y q u o t e s t h e words o f J e s u s . M o r r i s a c c i d e n t a l l y d o u b l e s t h e meaning of h i s own u t t e r a n c e , t u r n i n g i t i n t o an i n a d v e r t e n t c o n f e s s i o n of m o r a l c u l p a b i l i t y . B i g Bear, t o o , u n w i t t i n g l y echoes, p a r a p h r a s e s , and a l l u d e s t o s e c t i o n s o f t h e B i b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n t e x t s i n f u s e d w i t h g r e a t p a t h o s . R e a d i n g B i g B e a r ' s speeches, E l i Mandel hears "not so much I n d i a n speech...but B i b l i c a l speech. I hear t h e cadences o f t h e B i b l e , and a p r o p h e t i c v o i c e " ( 1 5 1 - 2 ) . Each t i m e B i g Bear c a l l s f o r peace, u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p , and p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y between a l l i n d i v i d u a l s under t h e unmediated a u t h o r i t y o f t h e supreme d e i t y , 1 2 h i s v o i c e i s v a l o r i z e d by Wiebe's e p i l o g u e from A c t s 17. B i g B e a r ' s moving a d d r e s s t o t h e c o u r t a f t e r h i s t r i a l , when i t can make no l e g a l d i f f e r e n c e , c a r r i e s t h e v o i c e o f J e s u s i n t o t h e f i e l d o f t h e t e x t . B i g Bear's " F o r g i v e them, t h e y a r e hungry and t e r r i f i e d , f o r g i v e them! Have you no c h i l d r e n ? (397) echoes J e s u s ' " F a t h e r , f o r g i v e them; f o r t h e y know not what t h e y do" (Luke 23:34). W h i l e t h e B i b l e o n l y u n d e r c u t s M o r r i s ' s m o r a l a u t h o r i t y , i t c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n f o r c e s B i g B e a r ' s . 1 3 I l l S y n c r i s i s Wiebe's c o n c e r n w i t h v o i c e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f f o r m a l l y as w e l l as t h e m a t i c a l l y i n t h e n o v e l : t h e war i n t h e West t a k e s t h e form o f a war between v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t . As i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , t h e t e x t s e r v e s as a f i e l d where u t t e r a n c e s made a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and i n d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s can e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h each o t h e r . More i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e c o r d s o f t h o s e u t t e r a n c e s come t o g e t h e r i n t h e space o f t h e t e x t . Wiebe g a t h e r s documentary m a t e r i a l s from a r c h i v a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s Canada and as f a r a f i e l d as New Y o r k , and p u t s them t o g e t h e r between t h e c o v e r s of a s i n g l e t e x t i n o r d e r t o p r o p a g a t e new meanings. The number and v a r i e t y o f v o i c e s and languages exceeds 193 t h a t i n any o t h e r o f Wiebe's n o v e l s , as Wiebe e x p l o r e s f u r t h e r t h e a r t i s t i c and r h e t o r i c a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e f o r m a l s y n c r i s i s f i r s t used i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a . Whereas The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a c o n s i s t s o f t h i r t e e n s e c t i o n s , The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear c o n s i s t s o f t h i r t y . Each o f i t s s i x c h a p t e r s d i v i d e s i n t o f o u r , f i v e , o r s i x p a r t s , some o f w h i c h c o n t a i n a number o f s u b s e c t i o n s , each dominated by a p a r t i c u l a r v o i c e s p e a k i n g a d i s t i n c t s o c i a l d i a l e c t . The whole r e s e m b l e s a mosaic o f " v o i c e - z o n e s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 434), "a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f heterogeneous l i n g u i s t i c and s t y l i s t i c f o r m s " (1981, 48) i n w h i c h Western Canada speaks " i n a l l i t s v o i c e s , i n a l l t h e languages and s t y l e s o f t h e e r a " (1981, 4 9 ) . 1 A But a t t h e same t i m e as Wiebe adopts t h i s d i a l o g i c form, he c o u n t e r v a i l s i t s p o s s i b l e e f f e c t and c o n s o l i d a t e s power a t t h e c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . D e s p i t e t h e s p e c t a c u l a r d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i a l v o i c e , Wiebe d e v i s e s measures t o guard a g a i n s t any p o s s i b l e l o s s of s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e n o v e l . A l t h o u g h more v o i c e s speak i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear t h a n i n any o t h e r o f Wiebe's n o v e l s , Wiebe r a n k s t h e s e v o i c e s more c l e a r l y and l e s s awkwardly t h a n p r e v i o u s l y , g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s r e a d e r s may become m o r a l l y d i s o r i e n t e d a m i d s t t h e w e l t e r o f v o i c e s and 194 languages a u d i b l e i n t h e t e x t . L i k e a l l Wiebe's n o v e l s , The Temptations o f B i g Bear c o n t a i n s two p a r a d i g m a t i c c h a r a c t e r s : a p r o p h e t i c t e a c h e r - f i g u r e who c o n d u c t s t h e Word o f God i n t o t h e t e x t , and a p r o t a g o n i s t who s t r u g g l e s t o a c t u a l i z e t h e Word i n h i s own c o n c r e t e a c t i o n s and u t t e r a n c e s . C r i t i c s f i n d f a u l t w i t h Wiebe's f i r s t t h r e e n o v e l s f o r h i s f a i l u r e t o f l e s h out h i s t e a c h e r - f i g u r e s and h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o s u b j e c t t h e i r s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l d o c t r i n e s t o any r i g o r o u s t e s t i n g . I n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, however, Wiebe f i n a l l y appeases t h e c r i t i c s on t h i s m a t t e r : t e a c h e r and p r o t a g o n i s t combine i n t h e f i g u r e o f B i g Bear, who, as t h e t i t l e o f t h e n o v e l s u g g e s t s , must endure a s e r i e s o f g r u e l l i n g s p i r i t u a l , m o r a l , and p h y s i c a l t e s t s . And t h e s o v e r e i g n Word, i n s t e a d o f e n t e r i n g t h e t e x t o n l y v i a t h e speech o f a c h a r a c t e r , s t a n d s s e n t i n e l a t t h e p o r t a l o f t h e t e x t i n t h e form o f an e p i g r a p h . As C o r a l Ann H o w e l l s p o i n t s o u t , "the e p i g r a p h from A c t s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f f e r s us t h e key t o t h e whole s y s t e m o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n i n t h e n o v e l " (1982, 161). Wiebe keeps t h e e x c e r p t from A c t s 17 o u t s i d e t h e main body o f t h e n o v e l . He t a k e s f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i t s p r e s e n c e . Moreover, he p r o t e c t s h i s s o v e r e i g n d i s c o u r s e from any dangerous d i a l o g i z i n g f o r c e s w h i c h might l u r k i n t h e shadowy r e c e s s e s o f h i s t e x t . L i k e a l l a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , Wiebe's e p i g r a p h "remains s h a r p l y demarcated, compact and i n e r t " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 343). Wiebe " p e r m i t s no p l a y w i t h t h e c o n t e x t f r a m i n g i t , no p l a y w i t h i t s b o r d e r s , no g r a d u a l and f l e x i b l e t r a n s i t i o n s , no s p o n t a n e o u s l y c r e a t i v e s t y l i z i n g v a r i a n t s o f i t " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 343). By p o s i t i o n i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n word o u t s i d e t h e main body of t h e t e x t , Wiebe h o l d s c a r n i v a l i z i n g f o r c e s f i r m l y a t bay. In C a n a d i a n c u l t u r a l l i f e i n t h e l a s t t h i r d o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear c e r e m o n i a l l y re-opens a d e b a t e c e r e m o n i a l l y c l o s e d a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . From t h e Government's p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e ceremony a t F o r t P i t t marks t h e c l o s u r e o f n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e g u a l d i a l o g u e between t h e Ottawa Government and t h e I n d i a n s . The t r e a t y c o n t a i n s t h e Queen's " l a s t words" ( 3 3 ) . Wiebe, however, c o n t r a d i c t s t h e o f f i c i a l meaning o f t h e " c l o s i n g " ceremony a t F o r t P i t t by u s i n g i t t o "open" t h e a c t i o n of an a l t e r n a t i v e v o i c i n g o f h i s t o r y . L i k e B i g B e a r , who r e p e a t e d l y s t y m i e s Governor M o r r i s ' a t t e m p t s t o c l o s e t h e c e r e m o n i a l p r o c e e d i n g s , Wiebe f l o u t s t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ' measures t o r e p r e s s d i a l o g u e . H i s t o r y does not f a l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o s e p a r a t e epochs, a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f s o c i e t y have a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n p r o m o t i n g t h e myth t h a t i t does. I t i s a p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y t o p r o c l a i m t h a t any s t r u g g l e — w h e t h e r p h y s i c a l o r v e r b a l — i s o v e r , o r , by t h e same t o k e n , t o i n s i s t t h a t i t c o n t i n u e s . Wiebe's p u b l i c a t i o n o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear i n 1973 t e s t i f i e s t h a t t h e c o n t e s t between r i v a l a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e s and hegemonic languages c o n t i n u e s a hundred y e a r s a f t e r t h e d a t e o f t h e i r o f f i c i a l c l o s u r e . IV G r e a t D i a l o g u e A h i g h l y mutable and a t t i m e s c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between t h e a u t h o r and t h e n a r r a t o r s i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear, because Wiebe speaks i n a d u a l v o i c e as " h a l f - b r o t h e r and h a l f - c a p t o r " (300) o f t h e o t h e r v o i c e s which speak i n t h e t e x t . B a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f P u s h k i n ' s Onegin o f f e r s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e d o u b l e d " d i a l o g i c a n g l e " o f t h e a u t h o r i a l v o i c e : The a u t h o r not o n l y r e p r e s e n t s t h i s language b u t i s a l s o i n f a c t s p e a k i n g i n i t . . . . A l l t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , w i t h a l l t h e i r d i r e c t e x p r e s s i v e means a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l , t h e m s e l v e s become t h e o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . . . . But a t t h e same t i m e t h e s e r e p r e s e n t e d languages t h e m s e l v e s do t h e work o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e . ( B a k h t i n 1981, 46-7) Two degrees o f l i n g u i s t i c o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n may c o - e x i s t w i t h i n a s i n g l e t e x t . L i k e P u s h k i n , Wiebe d i r e c t s h i s r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n t o two d i s t i n c t p l a n e s o f r e f e r e n t i a l i t y t h e w o r l d o f n o n - v e r b a l f a c t s and t h e w o r l d o f l i n g u i s t i c f a c t s . On t h e one hand, The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r f u n c t i o n s as a p o l y p h o n i c h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e whose l i n g u i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y r e f l e c t s t h e d i v e r s i t y o f 197 e x p e r i e n c e on a t h r e s h o l d between c u l t u r e s d u r i n g a t i m e o f r a d i c a l h i s t o r i c a l t r a n s i t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t e x t f u n c t i o n s as a m o n o l o g i c empire i n w h i c h s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y r e s i d e s w i t h a s i n g l e s p e a k e r . Wiebe t e l l s B i g B e a r ' s s t o r y assuming t h a t few o f h i s r e a d e r s know much about t h e h i s t o r y o f Western Canada. 1 5 He d e s c r i b e s B i g Bear as "almost t o t a l l y unknown" ( V i i 154). T h e r e f o r e , as Wiebe s t a t e s i n an o u t l i n e o f t h e n o v e l , one o f h i s a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s must be t o "make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y h i s t o r i c f a c t s a r e c l e a r " (RWP 26.15.3). One o f two main means by w h i c h Wiebe a c c o m p l i s h e s t h i s end i s by t r a n s c r i b i n g (and p r e t e n d i n g t o t r a n s c r i b e ) words spoken o r w r i t t e n by "a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w h i t e [who] h e l p s us t o see from h i s o r her a n g l e " (RWP 2 6 . 1 5 . 3 ) . 1 6 I n such i n s t a n c e s , Wiebe must a l l o w r e a d e r s t o l o o k t h r o u g h t h e language o f t h e n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s , as t h r o u g h a pane o f t r a n s p a r e n t g l a s s , a t a w o r l d o f h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s h i t h e r t o unknown. Thus, i n so f a r as Wiebe h a r n e s s e s t h e v o i c e s o f o t h e r s as an e x p o s i t o r y d e v i c e , he speaks r a t h e r t h a n o b j e c t i f i e s t h e i r language. The c h a r a c t e r ' s n a r r a t i o n f u n c t i o n s as " t r a n s p a r e n t " s t y l i z a t i o n , o r i n B a k h t i n ' s t e r m s , a " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e , u n o b j e c t i f l e d d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who c a r r i e s o u t ( i n p a r t ) t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 1 9 9 ) . 1 7 198 When Wiebe q u o t e s ( o r p r e t e n d s t o q u o t e ) p r e - e x i s t i n g u t t e r a n c e s f o r p u r p o s e s o f e x p o s i t i o n , he a d o p t s an a t t i t u d e o f p o l i t i c a l p a s s i v i t y . He eschews t h e r o l e o f a c t i v e c r e a t o r o f t h e t e x t i n o r d e r m e r e l y t o t r a n s c r i b e o t h e r p e o p l e ' s s t o r i e s . Wiebe a l l o w s h i s n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s so g r e a t a degree o f autonomy t h a t i f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear p u r p o r t e d t o be a s c h o l a r l y h i s t o r i c a l t e x t , r e v i e w e r s would say t h a t t h e a u t h o r had not a s s i m i l a t e d h i s s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s s u f f i c i e n t l y . "Why s h o u l d I r e w r i t e t h o s e documents, t h o s e d i a r y e n t r i e s ? , " he a s k s , " I don't need t o r e i n v e n t them.... He [ t h e p r e v i o u s s p e a k e r ] has, once and f o r a l l , s a i d i t " (Neuman 237). But as R o b e r t K r o e t s c h o b s e r v e s i n " U n e a r t h i n g Language," Wiebe does r e w r i t e t h e documents (Neuman 237). The p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s Wiebe employs p l a y more t h a n a s i n g l e r o l e i n t h e t e x t . On t h e n o n - v e r b a l p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e , o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s f u n c t i o n as a medium o f e x p o s i t i o n (a s i g n i f i e r ) ; on t h e v e r b a l p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e t h e y f u n c t i o n as t h e o b j e c t of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (a s i g n i f i e d ) . 1 8 Wiebe g i v e s v o i c e t o two a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s t h r o u g h o u t The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r : one v o i c e d e l e g a t e s o t h e r s t o t e l l a s t o r y , a second v o i c e makes a judgement on t h e s p e a k e r s . Wiebe's d u a l o r i e n t a t i o n d o u b l e s t h e " d i a l o g i c a n g l e " w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i s and t h e o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s . H e . s u b j e c t s o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s t o an 199 ambiguous o r r a p i d l y a l t e r i n g degree o f o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n . P o r t i o n s o f t h e t e x t s t r a d d l e o r o s c i l l a t e r a p i d l y back and f o r t h a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r l i n e between p a r o d y and s t y l i z a t i o n as Wiebe r e a l i z e s two d i s t i n c t a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s , one p u l l i n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n , a n o t h e r p u l l i n g a g a i n s t i t . From t h e f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s o f A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s ' s " I see" speech, i t i s c l e a r t h a t Wiebe i n t e n d s r e a d e r s t o v i e w h i s language as a bounded o b j e c t . However, a c o m p a r i s o n o f Wiebe's v e r s i o n o f t h e speech w i t h t h e v e r s i o n r e c o r d e d i n The T r e a t i e s o f Canada c o n f i r m s t h a t on a n o t h e r l e v e l , Wiebe uses M o r r i s t o t r a n s m i t a body o f b a s i c h i s t o r i c a l d a t a t o h i s r e a d e r s . Wiebe l i t e r a l l y speaks M o r r i s ' s language, by a d d i n g d e t a i l s w h i c h make M o r r i s ' s summary o f h i s t o r i c a l events c l e a r e r , more c o n c i s e and more comprehensive. F o r example, Wiebe changes " I met t h e Crees a t C a r l t o n " ( M o r r i s 2 3 2 ) , t o " I met t h e S a l t e a u x a t t h e N o r t h - w e s t A n g l e , t h e Cree a t Q u ' A p p e l l e , a t E l l i c e , a t C a r l t o n " ( 2 8 ) . M o r r i s ' s "road" goes s i m p l y "by P e l l y t o C a r l t o n " ( M o r r i s 231); Wiebe changes h i s s o u r c e by a d d i n g "and on t o h e r e , F o r t P i t t , and t o W h i t e f i s h Lake and on i n t o t h e f a r l a n d o f t h e Chipewyans" ( 2 8 ) . These d e t a i l s argue t h a t Wiebe not o n l y o b j e c t i f i e s M o r r i s ' s p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e b u t a l s o h a r n e s s e s i t as an e x p o s i t o r y d e v i c e . 200 The C a n a d i a n V o l u n t e e r s e r v e s as a second example o f t h e way Wiebe b o t h o b j e c t i f i e s and speaks t h e language of a n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , a c o m p l i c a t i o n a r i s e s because t h e V o l u n t e e r , a l t h o u g h a t t i m e s p a r o d i e d by Wiebe, does much o f Wiebe's work as a p a r o d i s t o f o t h e r speech g e n r e s . The V o l u n t e e r lampoons newspaper r e p o r t s , G e n e r a l M i d d l e t o n ' s m i l i t a r y t e x t book, Fenimore Cooper's f r o n t i e r romances, and t h e o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d o f e v e n t s : As t h e I n d i a n h e l d t h e p o s i t i o n w h i l e t h e g e n e r a l r e t i r e d , t h e c r e e k and v a l l e y were p r o m p t l y named "Stand Up C o u l e e . " I have seen t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t as I have seen t h e p l a c e and I d a r e s a y G e n e r a l S t r a n g e d e f e a t e d B i g B e a r — t h e enemy i s always l i c k e d - — b u t why t h e n d i d t h e g e n e r a l r e t i r e e i g h t e e n m i l e s t o F o r t . P i t t ? (315) Near t h e end o f t h e V o l u n t e e r ' s s e c t i o n , however, Wiebe " p u l l s r a n k , " as i t were, on t h e V o l u n t e e r and c o n s t i t u t e s t h i s n a r r a t o r ' s speech as a c o n c r e t e bounded o b j e c t , a s i g n i f i e d o f a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . The V o l u n t e e r r e l a t e s w i t h r e l i s h t h e h u n t i n g and t o r t u r i n g o f t h e M e t i s , P i e r r e B l o n d i n . T h i s anecdote f i n i s h e d , he sums up t h e e n t i r e campaign i n language w h i c h shocks r e a d e r s i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t ( i n c o n t r a s t t o Wiebe), t h e V o l u n t e e r f i n d s t h e f a l s i t y o f t h e r e c o r d s l e s s l a m e n t a b l e t h a n l i f e ' s r e f u s a l t o l i v e up t o them: As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i n t h r e e months o f war I don't t h i n k t h e m i l i t a r y a l l t o l d a c t u a l l y f i n i s h e d more t h a n t h i r t y maybe t h i r t y - f i v e o f t h e b a s t a r d s , b r e e d s and I n d i a n s p u t t o g e t h e r . The o f f i c i a l r e p o r t says e i g h t y - f o u r , b u t you know what you can do w i t h t h a t . (328) A t h i r d example o f t h e s p e a k e r s ' d u a l r o l e s p o i n t s t o 201 the importance of r e p e t i t i o n i n The Temptations of Big Bear. Edgar Dewdney's analysis of Big Bear and the o v e r a l l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n guides readers towards an understanding of the story as a whole. In f a c t , c r i t i c s have r e l i e d heavily on Dewdney's u n o f f i c i a l l e t t e r , 1 9 because he brings the i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t into focus. He offers many valuable insights into the issues at stake, the strategies and interests of the various p a r t i e s involved, Big Bear's character, and his h i s t o r i c a l and p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Dewdney's l e t t e r affords a c l e a r , synoptic view, which comes as rather a r e l i e f a f t e r several chapters where one f e e l s one cannot see the f o r e s t f o r the trees. However, Dewdney unwittingly repeats some facts which readers already know, for example, that the Indians are starving because the buffalo are dying out. At t h i s point, Dewdney's language, hitherto a near-transparent medium, suddenly arrests attention and becomes Wiebe's main r e f e r e n t i a l object. No longer oriented e x c l u s i v e l y towards facts which l i e outside the world of language, Dewdney's discourse enters into combative dialogue both with Big Bear and with Wiebe. Their voices struggle against one another to confer meaning on the Indians' starvation. Wiebe r e g i s t e r s that Big Bear "began to hear children crying...he heard many children i n the North crying" (92) with hunger. When Dewdney speaks on the same t o p i c , what claims the reader's f i r s t attention i s not the f a c t of starvation i t s e l f , but the manner i n which Dewdney 202 d e s c r i b e s i t : Our p o l i c e and agents have worked v e r y h a r d on t h e s t a r v a t i o n and d e v e l o p e d a w o r k a b l e system whereby t h e y g i v e out r a t i o n s f o r one day o n l y on a l t e r n a t e d a y s , b u t you w i l l n o t e t h a t t h e t o t a l c o s t i s s t i l l v e r y h i g h e s p e c i a l l y when you buy from l o c a l s u p p l i e r s . I n d i a n s a r e accustomed t o an a l m o s t p u r e f r e s h meat d i e t and i t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e how d e b i l i t a t i n g f l o u r and s a l t bacon a r e u n t i l you o b s e r v e l i f e i n a b e g g i n g camp. D e b i l i t a t i o n i s not o f c o u r s e a l l bad; f o r i t checks t h e i r d e s i r e f o r f i g h t i n g , but, you might n o t e t h e s c r o f u l a and d e a t h s t a t i s t i c s . ( I l l ) T h i s q u o t a t i o n from Dewdney's u n o f f i c i a l r e p o r t i l l u s t r a t e s how v i t a l a r o l e r e p e t i t i o n p l a y s i n t h e dynamic o f Wiebe's t e x t . 2 0 Whenever t h e n a r r a t i v e c i r c l e s back on i t s e l f t o r e p e a t a f a c t o f f e r e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h a t f a c t becomes a s i t e o f d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e between t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who g i v e i t v o i c e . R e p e t i t i o n , a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h e x p o s i t i o n o f "new" f a c t s causes t h e t e x t ( a t f i r s t r e a d i n g ) t o o s c i l l a t e between a m o n o l o g i c and a p o l y p h o n i c mode, as i t s h i f t s t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n c o n s t a n t l y back and f o r t h between two p l a n e s o f r e f e r e n t i a l i t y , one i n t h e w o r l d o f n o n - v e r b a l f a c t s , t h e o t h e r i n t h e w o r l d o f language. The same p r i n c i p l e comes i n t o p l a y whenever a n a r r a t i n g v o i c e r e - a r t i c u l a t e s some p o r t i o n of> t h e knowledge t h e r e a d e r b r i n g s t o t h e t e x t from o u t s i d e . T h e r e f o r e , on t h e second and subsequent r e a d i n g s o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, when t h e r e a d e r a l r e a d y knows a l l t h e b a s i c h i s t o r i c a l d a t a , t h e e n t i r e n a r r a t i v e works i n t h e manner o f Dewdney's r e p e t i t i o n . Wiebe e x p l o i t s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e r e a d e r ' s 203 p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . He r e c o g n i z e s t h a t p e o p l e " l i v e i n t o " (115) an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f words and t h e w o r l d . Repeated r e a d i n g s o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r s h i f t a t t e n t i o n more and more t o w a r d s t h a t p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e where language i t s e l f i s t h e o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . L i v i n g i n t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear i n v o l v e s h e a r i n g Wiebe's j u d g i n g v o i c e g r o w i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y - more dominant u n t i l i t a l l b u t drowns out t h e s t o r y - t e l l e r ' s v o i c e . The n o n - v e r b a l p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e f a d e s i n t o t h e background. I t comes t o s e r v e as a s t a g e upon w h i c h t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e t a k e s p l a c e . Wiebe v i e w s h i s t o r y as a b a t t l e f i e l d where v o i c e s c l a s h and v i e t o c o n f e r meaning on t h e p a s t . R e p e t i t i o n a l s o t r a n s f o r m s c e r t a i n u t t e r a n c e s i n t o s i t e s o f d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e . One o f Wiebe's f a v o u r i t e s t r a t e g i e s i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear i s t o r e p e a t a word o r a p h r a s e i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s t o r i n g a number o f changes on i t s meaning. F o r example, he r e p e a t s t h e t e r m "the good I n d i a n " s e v e r a l t i m e s , p a s s i n g i t from mouth t o mouth. "The good I n d i a n " f i r s t a p p e a r s i n Governor M o r r i s ' s r e p l y t o B i g B e a r ' s f o r e b o d i n g o f h a n g i n g : "The good I n d i a n needed t o f e a r no I n d i a n law: t h e good I n d i a n now needs t o f e a r no Queen's law" ( 2 6 ) . I n c a s e r e a d e r s have not a l r e a d y h e a r d t h e common s a y i n g "the o n l y good I n d i a n i s a dead I n d i a n , " t h e C a n a d i a n v o l u n t e e r b r i n g s t h a t s a y i n g t o 204 t h e i r a t t e n t i o n . Coming a c r o s s t h e c o r p s e o f an I n d i a n w a r r i o r , t h e Canadian v o l u n t e e r s a r d o n i c a l l y remarks "he i s a good I n d i a n now" ( 3 2 1 ) . The V o l u n t e e r ' s u t t e r a n c e r e t r o a c t i v e l y d i a l o g i z e s M o r r i s ' s : i f "the o n l y good I n d i a n i s a dead I n d i a n , " M o r r i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e argument he i n t e n d s t o r e f u t e , f o r i f o n l y dead I n d i a n s a r e good, i t f o l l o w s t h a t o n l y dead I n d i a n s need not f e a r t h e Queen's law: B i g Bear i s t h e r e f o r e c o r r e c t i n t h i n k i n g t h a t a l l l i v e I n d i a n s do need t o f e a r t h e Queen's law. A t h i r d v o i c e i m p a r t s a n o t h e r change t o t h e meaning o f "the good I n d i a n . " W i l l i a m McLean t e s t i f i e s a t B i g Bear's t r i a l : " W e l l , some say t h a t t h e dead I n d i a n s a r e t h e o n l y good ones, b u t i n h i s l i f e I c o n s i d e r e d him [ B i g B e a r ] a good I n d i a n " ( 3 7 0 ) . McLean c o n f e r s a m o r a l meaning on t h e t e r m "good," and i n t h e p r o c e s s he c a p t u r e s t h e v o l u n t e e r ' s u t t e r a n c e as a bounded o b j e c t . Whereas M o r r i s equated "good" w i t h " t r a c t a b l e " and "law a b i d i n g , " and t h e C a n a d i a n v o l u n t e e r equated "good" w i t h "dead," McLean employs t h e word "good" t o r e f e r t o B i g B e a r ' s i n t e l l i g e n c e , h i s f a i r - m i n d e d n e s s , and h i s a t t e m p t s t o a v e r t v i o l e n c e a t F o r t P i t t and F r o g Lake. A f t e r McLean's s t a t e m e n t i n c o u r t , t h e t e x t p e r m i t s no f u r t h e r changes t o t h e meaning o f t h e t e r m . As w i t h t h e word "peace" i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, and w i t h " g r a c e , " "God," and " C h r i s t " i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . Wiebe redeems words w h i c h have f a l l e n i n t o p r o f a n e c o l l o q u i a l speech g e n r e s . A f t e r l e t t i n g "the good I n d i a n " l i v e a c o n t i n g e n t 205 and s e m a n t i c a l l y p r o t e a n l i f e i n t h e t e x t , Wiebe f i n a l l y shepherds t h e t e r m i n t o an a u t h e n t i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n speech genre, and p l a c e s "the good I n d i a n " under s e m a n t i c a r r e s t . The f a t e o f "the good I n d i a n " a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r i o r i t i e s . U n l i k e h i s p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , who use r e p e a t e d r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n t o c e l e b r a t e t h e i n f i n i t e s e m a n t i c openness and d i a l o g i c i t y o f words, 2 1 Wiebe's r e p e t i t i o n s work c o n s i s t e n t l y i n one p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n , towards r e c o v e r i n g o r redeeming a s u p p r e s s e d C h r i s t i a n v o i c e and meaning. That t a s k a c c o m p l i s h e d , Wiebe c l o s e s o f f p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f u t u r e change. In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, as i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a , Wiebe e x p l o i t s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of words o n l y t o a r r e s t t h e i r s e m a n t i c e v o l u t i o n a t a n o t h e r p o i n t ; he a c t i v a t e s p o l y p h o n y w i t h an u l t i m a t e aim o f r e a l i z i n g a m o n o l o g i c r h e t o r i c a l i n t e n t . As an e v a n g e l i c a l C h r i s t i a n , Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h an empire o f God's word. B a k h t i n ' s e s s a y , "The Problem o f Speech Genres," o f f e r s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e x a m i n i n g Wiebe's i m p e r i a l i s t i c endeavour. B a k h t i n ' s t h e o r y o f p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y speech genres c r e a t e s an i m p l i c i t a n a l o g y between n o v e l s and p o l i t i c a l e m p i r e s : as i m p e r i a l i s t i c n a t i o n s s e i z e c o n t r o l o f h i t h e r t o i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l s t a t e s , n o v e l i s t s t a k e p o s s e s s i o n o f o t h e r s ' 206 u t t e r a n c e s , and i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e i r t e x t s . 2 2 As a consequence, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s l o s e t h e i r - immediate r e l a t i o n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y and t o t h e r e a l u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s . . . They e n t e r i n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y o n l y v i a t h e n o v e l as a whole. ( B a k h t i n 1986, 62) . Wiebe embeds e x i s t i n g p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s o f r e a l p e o p l e i n h i s t e x t , q u o t i n g newspaper r e p o r t s , l e t t e r s , F r a n c i s D i c k e n s ' d i a r y , and B i g B e a r ' s T r e a t y document i n t h e s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e o f h i s n o v e l . As w e l l as o p e n l y q u o t i n g , Wiebe s i l e n t l y i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s i n t o t h e t e x t o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear . He q u o t e s s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s not acknowledged i n t h e t e x t as " o t h e r , " f o r example, a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a from D a v i d Mendelbaum's The P l a i n s Cree. In a d d i t i o n , Wiebe a t t r i b u t e s c e r t a i n u t t e r a n c e s t o o t h e r s w h i c h he has a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n h i m s e l f f o r example, K i t t y MacLean's " j o u r n a l . " Whether q u o t e d o v e r t l y , o r t a c i t l y , o r f i c t i t i o u s l y , t h e s e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s become s u b j e c t t o Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l w i l l as soon as he annexes them i n t o t h e empire of h i s n o v e l . Wiebe d e s c r i b e s t h e aims o f h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n s i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h S h i r l e y Neuman and R o b e r t K r o e t s c h : INTERVIEWER: So t h i s d i s t r u s t [ o f o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y ] was p a r t o f t h e d e c i s i o n t o d r o p l i t e r a l , u n a l t e r e d documents i n t o The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear and Scorched-Wood P e o p l e ? WIEBE: Yeah, I t h i n k once you have t a k e n t h i s a n g l e , t h i s a t t i t u d e o f t e l l i n g t h e m i n o r i t y s t o r y , t h e n you drop i n t h e m a j o r i t y documents and see how s t u p i d t h e y 207 sound o r what k i n d s o f i r o n i c changes you can r i n g on them. I t ' s , amazing how i r o n i c i t sometimes becomes. E s p e c i a l l y when you know why I n s p e c t o r D i c k e n s was so l a c o n i c , f o r example. I mean, i f he s a i d t h r e e words more, he'd g i v e h i m s e l f away. H i s t o t a l incompetence, r i g h t ? He has t o be l a c o n i c . "Bad w e a t h e r , t r a v e l l e d . " I t was l i k e he was g o i n g on a t r i p t o London.... I have a sense o f t r y i n g t o get a t t h e t r u t h o f t h i n g s - - I t h i n k t h e t r u t h s o f t h i n g s can be g o t t e n a t s t i l l — by s e t t i n g t h e diamond o f t h e document i n t h e a r t i f i c i a l s e t o f t h e f i c t i v e s i t u a t i o n . The diamond s h i n e s so much more c l e a r l y , i t shows i t s t r u e n a t u r e . (Neuman 230, 237 ) 2 3 Viewed i n t h e s e t e r m s , t h e "found" p o r t i o n s o f Wiebe's n o v e l f a l l i n t o an o v e r t l y i m p e r i a l i s t i c c a t e g o r y o f d i s c o u r s e — p a r o d y . Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l w i l l c o l o n i z e s t h e r e a l o r f i c t i o n a l p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e , a n n e x i n g i t i n t o t h e empire o f h i s n o v e l . T h i s r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n r e l e a s e s meanings r e p r e s s e d by t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r and by t h e f o r m e r c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e u t t e r a n c e was h e a r d . O t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s f u n c t i o n as r e f r a c t i n g media f o r Wiebe's m o r a l judgements. As t h e n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s t e l l t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s t o r i e s , t h e r e a d e r ( h a v i n g been o f f e r e d a m o r a l t o u c h s t o n e i n t h e e p i g r a p h ) can see t h a t t h e s p e a k e r s u n w i t t i n g l y condemn o r redeem t h e m s e l v e s , p r e c i s e l y as t h e y do on a second r e a d i n g o f The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a . Wiebe o b j e c t i f i e s t h e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e o f o t h e r s , c o n s t i t u t e s them as bounded o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f h i s s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e , t h e n o v e l . Wiebe's p a r o d i c s t r a t e g i e s e f f e c t i v e l y s u b v e r t t h e h i e r a r c h y o f v o i c e s whose g e n e s i s he r e c o u n t s . The 208 Temptations o f B i g Bear d e p i c t s t h e r i s e t o dominance o f "white t a l k " i n t h e C a n a d i a n West. M e t o n y m i c a l l y , B i g Bear's demise makes c o n c r e t e t h e i n s i d i o u s p r o c e s s whereby a p r o v e r b i a l l y " s i l e n t " p e o p l e a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y s i l e n c e d by t h e a l i e n White r a c e , who s i l e n c e a s p e c t s o f t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e p r o c e s s . 2 4 I n 1876, B i g Bear's p r o p h e t i c v o i c e i s a tremendous c r y e c h o i n g o v e r t h e v a l l e y , and a g a i n w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ; as i f a g a i n and a g a i n i n any language t h e words o f t h e m s e l v e s would r e f u s e t o s t o p s o u n d i n g . (23) Nine y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1885, B i g Bear s i t s s i l e n t i n a s m a l l room packed t i g h t w i t h t h e words o f P r o t e s t a n t (Orange) Anglo-Canada: t h e r e was n o t h i n g b u t t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f t h i s f r i g h t f u l orangeness t i g h t e n i n g , down on them, s q u e e z i n g him w i t h them i n t o one i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , t i n y squashed cube. (384) L i k e t h e M e n n o n i t e s i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, t h e Cree, t h e B l a c k f e e t , t h e S i o u x , and o t h e r t r i b e s a l l f i n d t h e m s e l v e s s u d d e n l y swept i n t o t h e a r e n a o f B r i t i s h I m p e r i a l and U n i t e d S t a t e s h i s t o r y . I n t h i s new c o n t e x t , t h e y f e e l t r a p p e d and m a r g i n a l i z e d i n t h a t l a r g e r s t o r y o f t h e White Grandmother and t h e White F a t h e r , "those two who have d i v i d e d e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s between them" ( 1 0 2 ) . Time- h a l l o w e d a c t i o n s such as h o r s e - s t e a l i n g and s c a l p i n g one's enemies, a c t i o n s w h i c h f o r m e r l y s i g n i f i e d h e r o i s m and manhood, become c r i m e s p u n i s h a b l e by d e a t h . W i t h o u t t h e m s e l v e s c h a n g i n g , t h e I n d i a n s ' a c t i o n s and u t t e r a n c e s become f i r s t s e m a n t i c a l l y ambiguous and t h e n e n t i r e l y t r a n s l a t e d , as t h e a l i e n s o c i e t y p r o g r e s s i v e l y e n f o r c e s i t s i n t e r p r e t i o n s . "The Queen's v o i c e " t r a n s l a t e s "good" I n d i a n s i n t o "bad." "What has become o f t h e F i r s t P e o p l e ? " (205) B i g Bear asks h i s f e l l o w c h i e f s a t C a r l t o n . The d r a m a t i c l a p s e i n t o s t a t i s t i c s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g B i g B e a r ' s g r e a t c r y answers t h e q u e s t i o n : t h e F i r s t P e o p l e and t h e i r g r e a t words have been c a p t u r e d and t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o mute o b j e c t s o f White knowledge. I f t h e y s u r v i v e a t a l l , t h e y s u r v i v e as p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s i n t h e empire o f "the Queen's v o i c e " and o f o t h e r forms o f p o w e r f u l "White t a l k . " D e s p i t e t h e i r c h a r i s m a t i c power, B i g B e a r ' s words remain p o l i t i c a l l y i m p o t e n t because Whites c o n t r o l t h e r u l e s o f o f f i c i a l d i a l o g u e . Whites d e c i d e on "the p r o p e r manner" (13) o f p r e s e n t i n g " j u s t c l a i m s " ( 1 3 ) ; Whites d e c i d e whether e v i d e n c e q u a l i f i e s as a d m i s s i b l e o r i n a d m i s s i b l e i n c o u r t ; Whites d e c i d e t h a t B i g Bear cannot speak i n h i s own d e f e n c e u n t i l a f t e r t h e j u r y has r e a c h e d i t s v e r d i c t and t h e judge pronounced t h e s e n t e n c e . W i t h o u t t h e a i d o f communications t e c h n o l o g y and a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , h i g h l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y , t h e I n d i a n s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s "under o r g a n i z e d a t t a c k and i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c d e f e n c e " (308) i n a war o f words. But a c e n t u r y l a t e r , Wiebe e n l i s t s t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f p r i n t t o p r a c t i s e t h e same a p p r o p r i a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s as t h e 2 1 0 agents o f White i m p e r i a l i s m he d e p i c t s , a n n e x i n g o t h e r s ' words i n t o t h e domain o f h i s a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . " "The Queen's v o i c e " f i n d s i t s e l f s u d d e n l y a b s o r b e d i n t o a m i c r o c o s m i c i m p e r i a l domain r u l e d by t h e Word o f God, w h i c h r e l e a s e s B i g Bear's words and a c t i o n s from t h e i r imprisonment i n v a r i o u s n o n - C h r i s t i a n and p s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n forms o f "White t a l k . " A l t h o u g h Wiebe s u b v e r t s t h e h i e r a r c h y i n a u g u r a t e d by A n g l o - Canada, he does not r e s t o r e t h e u s u r p e d N a t i v e h i e r a r c h y o f d i s c o u r s e s . In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear t h e a u t h o r i t y and meaning o f B i g Bear's words depends no l o n g e r on t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f White law, a n t h r o p o l o g y , l i n g u i s t i c s , h i s t o r y o r commerce, and p r o b a b l y even l e s s on " a u t h e n t i c " I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e . D e - c o l o n i z i n g o n l y so t h a t he may r e - c o l o n i z e , Wiebe i n t e r p r e t s t h e meaning o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e and words i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e v a l u e s a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h o s e p o r t i o n s o f t h e B i b l e w h i c h a r e c e n t r a l t o h i s own Mennonite b e l i e f . I n t h r e e s h o r t s e m i - f i c t i o n a l frame s t o r i e s , "Where i s t h e V o i c e Coming From?," 2 5 "Bear S p i r i t i n a S t r a n g e L a n d , " 2 6 and "On t h e T r a i l o f B i g B e a r , " 2 7 Wiebe r e v e a l s t h a t t h e enemy w i t h i n t h e t e x t s t a n d s f o r t h e enemy o u t s i d e t h e t e x t . Wiebe s t r e s s e s t h a t h i s t o r i a n s , and i n d e e d a l l who speak and p e r f o r m i n t e r p r e t i v e a c t s o f any k i n d , occupy what B a k h t i n would c a l l t h e " c h r o n o t o p e " o f h i s t o r y . 2 8 B i g Bear and Wiebe l i v e i n t h e same s t o r y i n w h i c h " u n e a r t h i n g " 211 f o l l o w s i n h i s t o r i c a l sequence a f t e r " b u r i a l . " I n a l l t h r e e s t o r i e s , Wiebe emphasises t h a t no i n t e r p r e t e r i s a m e r e l y p a s s i v e s p e c t a t o r o f h i s t o r y ; a l l l i v e i n a w o r l d shaped by. h i s t o r y , and must a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n h i s t o r y . I f B i g Bear and h i s p e o p l e seem v o i c e l e s s i n Canada's n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , t h e i r s i l e n c e does not r e s u l t from some s i n g l e , f i n i s h e d , i r r e v e r s i b l e a c t o f s u p p r e s s i o n c o n f i n e d t o a p a s t t i m e , b u t from s u s t a i n e d , i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d s i l e n c i n g mechanisms o p e r a t i n g i n Wiebe's own h i s t o r i c a l present.. To l i b e r a t e the. " l a r g e r meaning" o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e from "beneath t h e g i a n t s l a g l e f t by t h e h e r o i c w h i t e h i s t o r y " (VL 134), Wiebe must do b a t t l e w i t h t h e same i n s t i t u t i o n a l and i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s as B i g Bear f o u g h t a g a i n s t a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . "Where i s t h e V o i c e Coming From?," "Bear S p i r i t i n a S t r a n g e Land," and "On t h e T r a i l o f B i g B e a r , " document i n s e m i - f i c t i o n a l form Wiebe's d u e l s w i t h t h e o f f i c i a l t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c u s t o d i a n s of t h e p a s t . As w e l l as s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e " l a r g e r meaning" o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e i n t h e s u p p r e s s e d o t h e r - v o i c e d n e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l documents, Wiebe a l s o seeks t h a t meaning i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . F o r example, i n "On t h e T r a i l o f B i g B e a r " , Wiebe l i s t s L e o n a r d B l o o m f i e l d , t h e l i n g u i s t , as one o f h i s s o u r c e s (VL 138). B l o o m f i e l d ' s two major p u b l i c a t i o n s on t h e Cree language, S a c r e d S t o r i e s o f t h e Sweetgrass Cree (1930) and P l a i n s Cree 212 T e x t s (1934), p r e s e r v e Cree s t o r i e s not as s a c r e d t h e o l o g i c a l t r u t h s nor as a u t h o r i t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t as a body o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c d a t a . B l o o m f i e l d p r e s e r v e s t h e Cree words t h e m s e l v e s v e r y c a r e f u l l y , b u t i n d o i n g s o , he a n n u l s t h e i r hegemonic power, changes r a d i c a l l y t h e i r s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s , and s u b j e c t s t h e i r meanings t o an a l i e n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . From t h e I n d i a n s ' p o i n t o f view, t h e s t o r i e s d i e on t h e i r j o u r n e y a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r i n t o White c u l t u r e . B l o o m f i e l d k i l l s them i n t h e v e r y a c t o f r e s c u i n g them from e x t i n c t i o n . When Wiebe • . - r e a p p r o p r i a t e s B l o o m f i e l d ' s d e s a c r a l i s e d " s a c r e d s t o r i e s , " however, he does not t r y t o r e c o v e r t h e i r o l d " a u t h e n t i c " s i g n i f i c a n c e . R a t h e r , he t r a n s l a t e s t h e " t r u t h " about B i g Bear out o f one E u r o c e n t r i c v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l system i n t o a n o t h e r . 2 9 Wiebe s c r a p e s t h e s t o r i e s b a r e o f B l o o m f i e l d ' s i n f l u e n c e o n l y i n o r d e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e a n o t h e r i m p e r i a l i s t i c form o f "White t a l k . " In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, no l e s s t h a n i n B l o o m f i e l d ' s p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e Cree s a c r e d s t o r i e s r e m a i n i m p r i s o n e d . Wiebe a c c o r d s them s i g n i f i c a n c e o n l y i n so f a r as he can h a r n e s s t h e i r power t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s own d i s t i n c t i v e l y Mennonite a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s . 3 0 A s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s i n t h e case o f B i g Bear's s a c r e d b u n d l e , C h i e f ' s Son's Hand, t h e t a n n e d b e a r ' s paw wrapped i n many l a y e r s o f c l o t h w h i c h B i g Bear c o n s u l t s 213 whenever he needs d i v i n e g u i d a n c e . In "Bear S p i r i t i n a S t r a n g e Land," Wiebe r e c o u n t s h i s arduous j o u r n e y i n s e a r c h of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s a c r e d o b j e c t , w h i c h he f i n d s housed, " n a t u r a l l y , " i n New York c i t y , i n t h e American Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y . Wiebe d e s c r i b e s t h e museum as a p r i s o n , r e p l e t e w i t h u n i f o r m e d g u a r d s , b a r r i e r p o i n t s , w i n d o w l e s s rooms, a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t i n g and bad v e n t i l a t i o n . S e c u r i t y i s t i g h t . V i s i t i n g hours a r e l i m i t e d . L i k e inmates o f a j a i l , t h e o b j e c t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d by s e r i a l numbers i n s t e a d o f names. The o b j e c t s a r e c a l l e d whatever t h e museum says t h e y a r e c a l l e d . They now mean w h a t e v e r t h e museum s a y s t h e y mean. T he museum has t r a n s l a t e d " C h i e f ' s Son's Hand" i n t o "50.2-3739 A-M"; B i g B e a r ' s " s p i r i t g i f t " i n t o "the Mendelbaum s m a l l e r s t u f f " (VL 146). And t h e museum n a t u r a l i s e s t h e meanings i t imposes by r i t u a l i s i n g t h e v i s i t o r ' s approach t o t h e o b j e c t s , c o n t r o l l i n g p e r c e p t i o n and e n f o r c i n g " p r o p e r " p r o t o c o l s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The museum c o n s t r u c t s a s u b j e c t - p o s i t i o n f o r t h e v i s i t o r t o occupy. I t d e c l a r e s j o u r n e y s i n t o o t h e r n e s s s t r i c t l y t a b o o . White and Cree r i t u a l s c o l l i d e f o r a moment i n Wiebe's mind, s p l i t t i n g . h i s v o i c e and d r a m a t i s i n g t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h i s r e l a t i o n t o b o t h B i g B e a r and Mendelbaum ( t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t who " r a n s a c k e d [ t h e s e ] r i c h e s o f p r a i r i e P e o p l e " (VL 1 4 8 ) ) . 3 1 Wiebe speaks s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y as B i g Bear's " h a l f - b r o t h e r and h a l f - c a p t o r " (TBB 300). H i s v o i c e 214 s p l i t s i n two: one v o i c e s h a r i n g B i g B e a r ' s b e l i e f i n a G r e a t S p i r i t — ( " t h e G r e a t S p i r i t who b i g B e a r , and I a l s o , b e l i e v e shaped t h e u n i v e r s e " (VL 1 4 8 ) ) — w h i l e a n o t h e r v o i c e a d m i t s , " w e l l , I'm no p r i m i t i v e ; I c a n ' t d e f y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " (VL 146). P o l y p h o n y r e s o l v e s i n t o h i e r a r c h y , however, as t h e s t o r y n e a r s i t s end. Wiebe i n t e r p r e t s B i g B e a r ' s l i f e , and can empathise i m a g i n a t i v e l y w i t h him, o n l y from w i t h i n a M e n n o n i t e b e l i e f system w h i c h p l a c e s supreme v a l u e on each i n d i v i d u a l ' s d i r e c t p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h God. Wiebe d w e l l s on t h e image o f C h i e f ' s Son's Hand p r e s s i n g on t h e back o f B i g B e a r ' s neck because i t makes c o n c r e t e t h e i d e a t h a t God " i s n o t f a r from any o f us" ( A c t s 1 7 ) . U n l i k e more t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n w h i c h m e r e l y adds a human i n t e r e s t element t o dominant contemporary h i s t o r i c a l m y t h o l o g y ( o r , as Muecke would p u t i t , " c e l e b r a t e s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e p o w e r f u l i n t h e language o f t h e p o w e r f u l " [ B e n t e r r a k e t . a l . 1 2 5 ] ) , Wiebe's h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n c o n t r a d i c t s a number o f h i s t o r i c a l and o t h e r " t r u t h s " w h i c h u n d e r p i n s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e i n h i s own h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t . Through p a r o d y and "hidden p o l e m i c , 1 , 3 2 The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear r e p l i e s t o t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h i s t o r i a n s , l i n g u i s t s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , and e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r e s e r v i n g and d i s s e m i n a t i n g — o r as t h e case may be, r e p r e s s i n g — t h e p a s t o f what Wiebe can c a l l "my p l a c e " (VL 134). V H e t e r o g l o s s i a By p u b l i s h i n g s e c t i o n s o f t h e documented p a s t i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear , Wiebe l i b e r a t e s t h e p r i m a r y e v i d e n c e from t h e dungeon o f a s i n g l e c o n t e x t . He removes t h e r e c o r d s from t h e c o n f i n e s o f r e s e a r c h l i b r a r i e s , museums, and a r c h i v e s .wjiere t h e y have been c l o i s t e r e d f o r many y e a r s , s a f e from t h e r a v a g e s o f t i m e and t o o much p u b l i c h a n d l i n g . I n i t s thousands o f c o p i e s , Wiebe's n o v e l d i s s e m i n a t e s t h e documented p a s t i n t o a w i d e r p u b l i c domain, i n t o b o o k s t o r e s , l e n d i n g l i b r a r i e s and c l a s s r o o m s , where i t may r e a c h a more c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e a u d i e n c e t h a n t h e s m a l l band o f s c h o l a r s who u s u a l l y a c t as o f f i c i a l c u s t o d i a n s o f t h e p a s t . The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear d i a l o g i z e s h i s t o r y i n t h a t i t a b o l i s h e s " e p i c d i s t a n c e " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 14) by b r i n g i n g t h e p a s t i n t o t h e zone o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e u n f i n i s h e d , open-ended p r e s e n t , where i t s meaning remains open t o n e g o t i a t i o n . I n "The A r t i s t as a C r i t i c and a W i t n e s s , " Wiebe r e c o g n i s e s t h a t meaning comes i n t o b e i n g t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between a t e x t and i t s r e a d e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n cases where an a u t h o r s t i m u l a t e s " a c t i v e " u n d e r s t a n d i n g . 3 3 P o t e n t i a l l y , meaning can m u l t i p l y i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o 216 t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h a t e x t i s i n t e r p r e t e d : There i s p r o b a b l y no such t h i n g as one a b s o l u t e , c o r r e c t meaning t o a work o f a r t . . . . I t s meaning depends on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e work o f a r t and t h e b e h o l d e r . T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n may be v e r y a l i v e o r a l m o s t n i l , d e p e n d i n g on such w i d e l y v a r y i n g f a c t o r s as t h e b e h o l d e r ' s knowledge o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n s used i n t h a t a r t . . . . A r t ' s e f f e c t on you depends a good d e a l on y o u r k n o w l e d g e — o r even on y o u r d i g e s t i o n . . . . Among p e o p l e o f r e a s o n a b l y s i m i l a r background and e m o t i o n a l o u t l o o k i t w i l l a f f e c t them t h e same way. (VL 40) The f u r o r e w h i c h e r u p t e d i n t h e Mennonite community o v e r Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many t a u g h t Wiebe how l i t t l e an a u t h o r can c o n t r o l h i s r e a d e r s ' r e s p o n s e s , even when t h o s e r e a d e r s b e l o n g t o h i s own. r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous m i n o r i t y community. Wiebe t e l l s Donald Cameron how v e r y q u i c k l y he came t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t e x t s t a k e on a l i f e o f t h e i r own once t h e y l e a v e t h e p r e s s e s and go o u t i n t o t h e w i d e r s o c i a l w o r l d : T h i s book has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h you any more, man. A guy s i t t i n g and r e a d i n g i t i n h i s own p r i v a t e l i v i n g room, t h a t book and h i m — t h a t o p e r a t e s by i t s e l f . (Cameron 155) P o t e n t i a l l y , t h e r e c o u l d be as many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear as t h e r e a r e r e a d e r s o f t h e t e x t , because, as, M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t p u t s i t , " a l l u t t e r a n c e s r a r e h e t e r o g l o t i n t h a t t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f a m a t r i x o f f o r c e s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o recoup" ( B a k h t i n 1981, 428). Meaning comes i n t o b e i n g p a r t l y t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f " a n a c r i s i s , " 3 4 t h e d i a l o g i c engagement between v o i c e s i n s i d e w i t h v o i c e s o u t s i d e t h e t e x t , b o t h o f w h i c h meet i n t h e psyche o f t h e r e a d e r . Wiebe t h e r e f o r e f a c e s a c o n f l i c t o f a u t h o r i a l i n t e r e s t s . He wants t o l i b e r a t e t h e meaning o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e from t h e m o n o l o g i c A n g l o - C a n a d i a n h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n , t h a t i s , from t h e meaning imposed on i t by- o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y . Yet because t h i s d i a l o g i z a t i o n s e r v e s o n l y as a s t a g e i n a p r o c e s s whereby Wiebe r e - i n t e g r a t e s B i g Bear's l i f e i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e m o n o l o g i c o r d e r , Wiebe must d e a l w i t h t h e g u e s t i o n o f m i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o r w r o n g - r e a d i n g o f h i s own t e x t . Wiebe p u t s new e v i d e n c e about B i g Bear's l i f e b e f o r e a j u r y made up o f a l l who r e a d t h e n o v e l . He does not want t h e meaning o f t h a t e v i d e n c e t o s p l i n t e r i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d c o n t e x t u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d r e a d i n g s . The i n t e r n a l h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f t h e t e x t e x a c e r b a t e s t h e danger of m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . When Wiebe a p p r o p r i a t e s o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s , he n e i t h e r e x t i n g u i s h e s t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r nor s u r r e n d e r s e n t i r e l y t o them. ( I n f a c t , Wiebe's purpose i s p r e c i s e l y t o expose t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h o s e o t h e r s . ) So i t i s o n l y by m a i n t a i n i n g a p l u r a l i t y o f i n - t e n s i o n s . a h y b r i d i z a t i o n o r d o u b l e - v o i c e d n e s s i n words, t h a t Wiebe can "compel them t o s e r v e h i s own new i n t e n t i o n s , t o s e r v e a second master" ( B a k h t i n 1981, 300). But i f t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s p e a k e r s remain a c t i v e i n t h e languages o f t h e t e x t , t h e s e languages r e t a i n t h e p o t e n t i a l t o r e s i s t Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l d o m i n a t i o n . Wiebe's a p p r o p r i a t e d v o i c e s 218 and languages do not submit p a s s i v e l y t o h i s c o n t r o l , f o r t h e y a r e a l r e a d y " p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 300). I n t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s i n which t h e y m i g h t n o r m a l l y sound, t h e s e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s and speech g e n r e s may e n j o y tremendous hegemonic p o t e n c y ; t h e y may embody an enormous i n v e s t m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l energy on t h e p a r t o f a p o w e r f u l f a c t i o n i n s o c i e t y w h i c h encodes i t s i d e o l o g y i n t h a t l a n g u a g e . T h i s power i s p r e c i s e l y what makes t h e s e languages so u s e f u l t o Wiebe, and p r e c i s e l y what makes them so r e c a l c i t r a n t , so c a p a b l e o f r e s i s t i n g h i s p a r o d i s t i c i n t e n t . I f Wiebe's p a r o d i e d languages a l r e a d y occupy a dominant p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e r e a d e r ' s p s y c h e , t h e y may s t r i v e t o bypass Wiebe and speak d i r e c t l y t o t h e r e a d e r , e a r n i n g a p p r o v a l i r r e s p e c t i v e o f Wiebe's i n t e n t i o n s . P r i m a r y genres want t o r e v e r t t o t h e i r p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s , and r e s i s t t h e m e d i a t i o n s t h a t r e s u l t from t h e i r h a v i n g been c a p t u r e d by t h e i m p e r i a l i s t i c s e c o n d a r y genre o f t h e n o v e l . 3 5 To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e s e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s do b r e a k f r e e from t h e c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a d d r e s s t h e r e a d e r d i r e c t l y , and c a s t o f f t h e i r secondary r o l e s , u n i t a r y s e m a n t i c o r d e r b r e a k s down i n t h e t e x t , and meaning s c a t t e r s c h a o t i c a l l y i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . The b r e a k i n g p o i n t , t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l "empire" d i s i n t e g r a t e s , depends i n p a r t on t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g l i n g u i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n o f h i s r e a d e r s . Meaning " i n " t e x t s does not l i e e n t i r e l y w i t h i n . W i e b e ' s c o n t r o l , b u t i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e way i n w h i c h r e a d e r s "hear" and a c c o r d w e i g h t t o t h e v a r i o u s languages o f t h e t e x t . To c u r t a i l t h e p o t e n t i a l h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f h i s t e x t , Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o n e u t r a l i s e c o n t e x t u a l d i v e r s i t y by c o n s t r u c t i n g a f i c t i o n a l s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n f o r a l l r e a d e r s t o occupy. Wiebe w r i t e s i n t o t h e n o v e l a s c r i p t f o r h i s r e a d e r s t o f o l l o w i n t h e i r d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e t e x t . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t Wiebe d i c t a t e s h i s r e a d e r s ' d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t , he t r a n s f o r m s t h a t d i a l o g u e e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o a monologue, a p r o d u c t o f a s i n g l e a u t h o r i a l w i l l . Wiebe "grooms" h i s a u d i e n c e , t e a c h e s them how t o p l a y t h e i r p r o p e r p a r t , by o f f e r i n g r o l e - m o d e l s i n t h e form o f K i t t y McLean, Governor M o r r i s , and Edgar Dewdney. These c h a r a c t e r s , p e r f o r m a v i t a l f u n c t i o n as r e a d e r - and l i s t e n e r - s u r r o g a t e s . O n l y "the r i g h t l i s t e n e r " (355) h e a r s t h e s o f t l a u g h t e r o f B i g B e a r ' s a n c e s t o r s a t O l d w i v e s Lake. Only t h o s e f l u e n t i n s i g n language u n d e r s t a n d B i g B e a r ' s " f i n g e r s w h i r l i n g under t h e j u r y ' s nose" ( 3 8 2 ) . O n l y t h e r i g h t r e a d e r w i l l r e t u r n t h e d e s i r e d v e r d i c t o f " i n n o c e n t " a t B i g Bear's posthumous t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y r e - t r i a l . K i t t y McLean a l e r t s Wiebe's a u d i e n c e t o t h e m u l t i p l e l a y e r s o f v o i c e s , a c c e n t s and meanings i n t h e t e x t . S i t t i n g 220 i n t h e R e g i n a Courtroom a t B i g B e a r ' s t r i a l , h e a r i n g t h e d i s t a n t c r a n e s as i f t h r o u g h a c u r t a i n o f c l o s e r sounds, and t r y i n g t o see B i g Bear t h r o u g h s e v e r a l l a y e r s o f superimposed o b s t a c l e s , K i t t y ' s c o n f u s i o n r a i s e s t h e i s s u e s of v i s u a l f o c u s and a u d i t o r y attunement: K i t t y c o u l d hear c r a n e s f l y i n g s o u t h , though she c o u l d not a c t u a l l y see them.... She c o u l d h e a r them p e r f e c t l y ; t h e i r squawky boom c r o s s i n g between t h e gaps o f words.... She f o u n d h e r s e l f t r y i n g a g a i n and a g a i n t o f o c u s B i g Bear t h r o u g h t h e o u t s i d e edge o f t h e judge's egg-shaped g l a s s e s . . . . A g a i n and a g a i n she" pondered t h e p r o b l e m : what c o u l d anyone, even a j u d g e , see l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h a t . . . . She h e a r d a b s o l u t e l y e v e r y t h i n g anyone s a i d and t h e c r a n e s t o o , f o r a f t e r h i s t h u n d e r i n g l a u g h he t a l k e d t o h e r . S i l e n t l y , h i s hands moving... (381-2) L i k e Sam Reimer i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , 3 6 K i t t y h e a r s beyond t h e dominant f o r e g r o u n d sounds i n her immediate m i l i e u . K i t t y ' s a t t e n t i o n jumps from one l a y e r o f sound t o a n o t h e r , showing Wiebe's a u d i e n c e how t o hear t h e " o t h e r v o i c e d n e s s " o f t h e t e x t and r e a d a g a i n s t t h e dominant p a t t e r n of a c c e n t s i n t h e language. As w e l l as a c t i n g as a d e v i c e f o r s t a n d a r d i s i n g a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e , K i t t y McLean, t o g e t h e r w i t h A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s and Edgar Dewdney, a l e r t s r e a d e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f y i n g p r o c e s s common t o a l l languages a t a l l t i m e s i n a l l c u l t u r e s . S h e r r i l l E. Grace has a n a l y s e d Wiebe's p r o s e i n terms of J u l i a K r i s t e v a ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " s y m b o l i c " and " s e m i o t i c " l i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s , t h e f o r m e r a s y s t e m a t i c code ("language as n o m i n a t i o n , s i g n and s y n t a x " [ q t d . i n 221 Grace 1 0 ] ) , t h e l a t t e r a mode of communication i n t r i n s i c t o t h e phenomenon o f l a n g u a g e , o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h " i n s t i n c t u a l and p r e - v e r b a l d r i v e s m a n i f e s t i n rhythm and i n t o n a t i o n , and ' a n t e r i o r t o naming'" ( q t d . i n Grace 1 0 ) . I f i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o deduce f r o m t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t t h e s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n i s c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c w h i l e t h e s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n approaches u n i v e r s a l i t y , t h e n Wiebe's main r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e s , mesmerized by t h e phenomenon o f B i g Bear's v o i c e , f u n c t i o n as d e v i c e s d i r e c t i n g a t t e n t i o n t o a u n i v e r s a l " s e m i o t i c " s i g n i f y i n g p r o c e s s , w h i c h u n i t e s C r e e - and E n g l i s h - s p e a k e r s , and runs as a common t h r e a d t h r o u g h a l l t h e d i v e r s e v a r i e t i e s o f E n g l i s h i n t h e n o v e l . I n scenes where t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , Wiebe i n v i t e s r e a d e r s t o t h i n k o f language as two s e p a r a t e modes o f communication, one c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c , t h e o t h e r common t o a l l . The t r a n s l a t i o n p r o c e s s b i f u r c a t e s language, d o u b l e s i t s v o i c e as i t were, a l l o c a t i n g "sense" ( t h e i n f o r m a t i o n conveyed by t h e s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n ) t o one s p e a k e r , and "sound" ( t h e s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n ) t o a n o t h e r . A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s c u s t o m a r i l y l i s t e n s t o I n d i a n s by f i l t e r i n g out t h e C r e e - s p e a k i n g v o i c e a l t o g e t h e r , so as t o hear t h e "sense" coded i n E n g l i s h , (which i s perhaps why " e v e r y Cree had sounded t h e same t o t h e Governor" ( 1 9 ) : t h e y a l l sound l i k e P e t e r Erasmus s p e a k i n g E n g l i s h ! ) But when B i g Bear speaks, M o r r i s ' s o r i e n t a t i o n s h i f t s . He f i n d s h i m s e l f m y s t e r i o u s l y 2 2 2 c o m p e l l e d t o l i s t e n t o t h e sound o f B i g B e a r ' s " u n i n t e l l i g i b l e " C r e e - s p e a k i n g v o i c e . The voice-phenomenon s u d d e n l y assumes more i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e coded i n f o r m a t i o n t h e t r a n s l a t o r ' s v o i c e t r a n s m i t s : M o r r i s "found h i s head t u r n i n g i n t o b l a c k n e s s , s l o w l y down t h e enormous s t r a n g e depths o f t h a t i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e v o i c e " ( 1 9 ) . Grace d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t Wiebe s u b v e r t s t h e s y m b o l i c p r o c e s s and enhances t h e s e m i o t i c i n t h e t h i r s t dance and b u f f a l o hunt p a s s a g e s . 3 7 In passages such as t h e s e , t h e r i g h t r e a d e r , l i k e A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s , e n c o u n t e r s a language a t once f o r e i g n and i n t e l l i g i b l e . 3 8 K i t t y , t o o , f i n d s h e r s e l f a t t u n e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e s e m i o t i c l e v e l : Where d i d t h o s e Cree sounds come from, I had never heard...were t h e y words, t h e y were, sounds...as i f t h e h i g h o r a t i o n had m e l t e d i n t o c h a n t , o r d i r g e . . . t h e o l d man s t o o d w i t h a wide b l a c k h o l e i n t h e m i d d l e o f h i s f a c e and t h e sound coming out o f t h e r e . "What's he s a y i n g ? " Papa's elbow prodded my knee. "What's t h a t ? K i t t y ! " But t h e r e was o n l y t h a t sound t u r n i n g i n my head. T r a n s l a t e what? ( 2 8 7 - 8 8 ) K i t t y c a n n o t t r a n s l a t e B i g Bear's words because t h e y cease t o f u n c t i o n as words. B i g Bear's v o i c e a c t i v a t e s a s i g n i f y i n g p r o c e s s whose u n i v e r s a l i t y r e n d e r s t r a n s l a t i o n e n t i r e l y r e d u n d a n t . A l t h o u g h B i g Bear speaks a f o r e i g n language i n one sense, he a l s o speaks a language Wiebe i m p l i e s i s common t o a l l humanity. B i g B e a r ' s language seems a t once a l i e n and c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . Whenever t r a n s l a t i o n 223 becomes u n n e c e s s a r y , i m p o s s i b l e o r i r r e l e v a n t , Wiebe s u b t l y d i r e c t s t h e " r i g h t l i s t e n e r " t o an a r e a o f common l i n g u i s t i c ground s h a r e d by a l l humanity. Wiebe s t r e s s e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e i s no need f o r t r a n s l a t i o n . Everybody a l r e a d y speaks t h e same language: What he demanded was c l e a r enough from h i s g e s t u r e s " ( 2 4 9 ) ; "Papa u n d e r s t o o d g u i t e enough w i t h o u t t r a n s l a t i o n " ( 2 8 3 ) ; " I t wasn't n e c e s s a r y t o t r y and say words, h i s tone t o l d me e v e r y t h i n g " ( 2 9 0 ) ; "They were each s p e a k i n g i n t h e i r own language...though each knew t h e o t h e r c o u l d r e c o g n i s e o n l y an i s o l a t e d word, and f a c e t o f a c e . . . t h e y u n d e r s t o o d each o t h e r ' s meanings v e r y c l e a r l y i n d e e d " ( 2 4 2 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e most c o n s p i c u o u s f e a t u r e o f t h e t e x t o f The T e m p t a t i o n s of B i g B e a r i s i t s s p e c t a c u l a r d i v e r s i t y o f l a n g u a g e s , Wiebe uses r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e s such as K i t t y , Dewdney and M o r r i s t o p o i n t t o a l e v e l o f communication where a l l v o i c e s speak t h e same language. A g a i n s t d i v e r s i t y , Wiebe weighs t h e i d e a t h a t a l l humanity s h a r e s a t l e a s t one common language, which t r a n s c e n d s t r a d i t i o n a l us/them l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s and t h e r e f o r e needs no t r a n s l a t i o n . Wiebe's e p i l o g u e from A c t s 17 emphasises t h e k i n s h i p o f a l l humanity, and t h e s o u n d - q u a l i t y o f B i g B e a r ' s v o i c e , b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h r a c i a l and l i n g u i s t i c and b o u n d a r i e s , c o n f i r m s t h a t v i s i o n o f a u n i t e d s o c i a l w o r l d . The " r i g h t r e a d e r " h e a r s i n B i g B e a r ' s v o i c e t h e s i g n o f B i g Bear's' humanity. The urgency o f t h a t v o i c e "would l e a p t h e e n t i r e man out a t them s t r i p p e d " ( 2 5 ) . The s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n , f u r n i s h i n g p r o o f o f u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p , compels r e a d e r s 224 t o a t t e n d t o t h e i r common bond w i t h — a n d t h u s t h e i r m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s - - t h e s p e a k i n g " o t h e r . " 3 9 " Wiebe's r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e s work as a p o w e r f u l m o n o l o g i z i n g t o o l w h i c h works b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e x t . By d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e m i o t i c p r o c e s s common t o a l l t h e languages c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e t e x t , t h e y c o u n t e r v a i l i t s i n t e r n a l s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y ; and by h e l p i n g t o s t a n d a r d i z e a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e , t h e y l i m i t t h e e x t e r n a l h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e t e x t i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d . VI A l t h o u g h The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear focuses, o s t e n s i b l y on a p e o p l e f a r removed from t h e M e n n o n i t e s , t h e i s s u e s Wiebe r a i s e s , t h e c o n c e p t s he a p p l i e s , and t h e m o r a l c r i t e r i a he b r i n g s t o b e a r a l l d e r i v e d i r e c t l y from h i s Mennonite w o r l d - v i e w . When Wiebe goes back t o t h e p r i m a r y r e c o r d s he f i n d s B i g Bear d i a l o g i z e d , and h i s a c t i o n s i n t e r p r e t e d by many c o n f l i c t i n g v o i c e s . 4 0 But i n s t e a d o f t r a n s f e r r i n g t h i s d i a l o g i z e d B i g Bear i n t a c t i n t o t h e n o v e l , Wiebe o r d e r s t h e v o i c e s i n such a way as t o r a n k t h e p o s s i b l e meanings o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e i n t o a h i e r a r c h y , p r e s i d e d o v e r by t h e Word o f God. 225 The s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n s ' f a i l u r e t o f u s e t h e i r polyphony i n t o m o n o v o c a l i t y can be r e a d as an a l l e g o r i c a l r e s t a t e m e n t o f Wiebe's w a r n i n g i n "For t h e M e n n o n i t e Churches: A L a s t Chance" 4 1 : l i k e t h e M e n n o n i t e s , t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s r e f u s e t o r e c o g n i s e s h a r e d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f as t h e o n l y t r u e f o u n d a t i o n f o r s o c i a l u n i t y . They cannot put a s i d e o l d q u a r r e l s and d i f f e r e n c e s and see t h e m s e l v e s as "a p a r t i c u l a r p e o p l e from v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s bound . t o g e t h e r by a f a i t h " (PPM 7 ) . B i g Bear a t t r a c t s Wiebe's i n t e r e s t because h i s a c t i o n s a t F r o g Lake r e a l i z e Wiebe's Mennonite i d e a l o f p a c i f i s m . In an o u t l i n e o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear d a t e d March 1, 1972, Wiebe e x p l i c i t l y d e f i n e s B i g B e a r ' s h e r o i s m i n terms of t h a t i d e a l : In c o n t r a s t t o S i t t i n g B u l l and C r o w f o o t , he [ B i g Bear] c a r r i e d on a much more r e a l i s t i c campaign t o p r o t e c t h i s P e o p l e from t h e w h i t e s t h a n f i g h t i n g ; t h a n f u l s o m e s u r r e n d e r . H i s s t r a t e g y o f p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e has, i n t h e 2 0 t h C. a t l e a s t , p r o v e d t h e o n l y t r u l y v i a b l e one t o b r i n g about change i n a democracy.fRWP 26.15.3] L i k e a l l Wiebe's Mennonite p r o t a g o n i s t s , B i g Bear must choose whether t o l i s t e n t o t h e v o i c e s o f o t h e r men o r t o t h e v o i c e o f h i s God. When B i g Bear r e f u s e s e a r l y i n t h e n o v e l 4 2 t o be t o u c h e d by t h e h o l y w a t e r o f e i t h e r C a t h o l i c o r M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r i e s , and a c c e p t s o n l y t h e r a i n t h a t comes d i r e c t l y from t h e O n l y One, he a r t i c u l a t e s t h e Mennonite i d e a l o f d i r e c t p e r s o n a l communication w i t h God, 226 u n h i n d e r e d by any i n t e r v e n i n g s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . The a g e n t s o f A n g l o - C a n a d i a n i m p e r i a l i s m i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear i n t e r v e n e between t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r God. P r i o r t o t h e coming o f t h e Government, t h e I n d i a n s r e a d s i g n s o f The G r e a t S p i r i t ' s p r e s e n c e everywhere on t h e l a n d s c a p e . L i k e a s a c r e d t e x t , r e a d a b l e t h r o u g h t h e " q u i n t u p l e t s e n s e s " (VL 132), t h e l a n d t e l l s t h e I n d i a n s " e v e r y t h i n g t h e y needed t o know" (TBB 7 7 ) . R a i n , sun, r i v e r s , w i n d s , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e b l a c k b u f f a l o a g a i n s t t h e snow-covered p r a i r i e , s t a n d l i k e t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e O n l y One on a g i a n t page. But t h i s s a c r e d t e x t e x i s t s i n a s i n g l e , f r a g i l e copy. W h i t e s w r i t e o v e r t h e G r e a t S p i r i t ' s s i g n s w i t h t h e i r houses, r o a d s , f e n c e s , and s u r v e y o r s ' s t a k e s . The r i g i d s t e e l r a i l s o f t h e C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l r o a d c u t a c r o s s t h e p r a i r i e l a n d s c a p e l i k e a b r u t a l s l a s h a c r o s s a c a r e f u l l y w r i t t e n page. By w r i t i n g o v e r t h e I n d i a n s ' f r a g i l e s a c r e d t e x t , Whites i n t e r v e n e between t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r God. 4 3 Wiebe r e i t e r a t e s t h e i d e a o f White i n t e r v e n t i o n by h a v i n g Governor M o r r i s " c u t o f f t h e sun" (17) w h i c h s h i n e s d i r e c t l y on S w e e t g r a s s ' s f a c e . John M c D o u g a l l , on t o p o f a h i l l , s t a n d s between t h e body o f a dead w a r r i o r and t h e sky ( 4 8 ) . 4 4 L e o n a r d B l o o m f i e l d t r a p s t h e C r e e s ' " s a c r e d s t o r i e s " i n l i n g u i s t i c and a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e . D a v i d 227 Mendelbaum i m p r i s o n s B i g B e a r ' s S a c r e d Bundle i n t h e American Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y . The hangman's rope chokes t h e s p i r i t u a l l i f e o f t h e I n d i a n s , who b e l i e v e d t h e s o u l r e s i d e s a l o n g t h e nape o f t h e neck. A l l t h e s e images have i n common t h e element o f White i n t e r v e n t i o n between t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r G r e a t S p i r i t . F u r t h e r m o r e , George and John M c D o u g a l l , A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s , and a l l t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s who promote White i m p e r i a l i s m i n God's name, behave i n a manner i n i m i c a l t o t h e Mennonite i d e a l o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n between c h u r c h and s t a t e . Near t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , Wiebe uses B i g B e a r ' s b a p t i s m , a c c e p t e d i n a s t a t e o f d e l i r i u m , t o s t r i k e an A n a b a p t i s t blow a g a i n s t t h e C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e o f s a l v a t i o n by t h e sacrament o f b a p t i s m . Menno Simons h e l d t h a t " b a p t i s m on c o n f e s s i o n o f f a i t h a l o n e was S c r i p t u r a l " (Bender 8 ) ; t h e r i t u a l i t s e l f does not e n s u r e r e d e m p t i o n , because i t i s o n l y t h e outward symbol o f t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f s a l v a t i o n . L i k e t h e b a p t i s m o f i n f a n t s , B i g Bear's b a p t i s m r e p r e s e n t s an empty t r a v e s t y o f t r u e b a p t i s m . I t does not s i g n i f y an i n f o r m e d , v o l u n t a r y , r e s p o n s i b l e d e c i s i o n t o a c c e p t r e d e m p t i o n from s i n t h r o u g h J e s u s ' s u f f e r i n g . 4 5 C r i t i c s and r e v i e w e r s have i n g e n e r a l o v e r l o o k e d t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y Mennonite elements i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear. D a v i d L. J e f f r e y a r t i c u l a t e s t h e p r e v a i l i n g v i e w 228 when he says t h a t by s h i f t i n g h i s f o c u s from M e n n o n i t e s t o N a t i v e I n d i a n s , Wiebe " p r o g r e s s e s from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f one s u b c u l t u r e i n t h e mosaic t o a n o t h e r , as though by c h a p t e r s t o w a r d one l a r g e a n t h o l o g i c Canadian n o v e l " ( 1 9 9 ) . J e f f r e y speaks as though Wiebe's " a n t h o l o g i c Canadian n o v e l , " would embody a p o l y p h o n i c v i s i o n o f n a t i o n h o o d , as though Wiebe's oeuvre g r a n t e d e q u a l v a l i d i t y t o a l l Canadian v o i c e s . But as B a k h t i n m a i n t a i n s , o v e r t p o l y v o c a l i t y o f f e r s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t an a u t h o r r e p u d i a t e s a m o n o l o g i c c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i a l o r d e r o r m e t a p h y s i c a l t r u t h . 4 6 C l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e many v a r i e t i e s o f u t t e r a n c e c o n t a i n e d i n The T e m p t a t i o n s of B i g Bear shows Wiebe r a n k i n g Canada's v o i c e s a c c o r d i n g t o a s i n g l e , e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f Mennonite c r i t e r i a . Wiebe views t h e C a n a d i a n mosaic from a f i x e d p e r s p e c t i v e , as i t were. Moreover, he never l o s e s s i g h t o f t h e common g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c u s and t h e common humanity o f Canada's heterogeneous s o c i e t y . When Wiebe s h i f t s h i s f o c u s from one s u b - c u l t u r e t o a n o t h e r , he s e a r c h e s a l w a y s f o r unacknowledged common languages and s h a r e d b e l i e f s w h i c h might form t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a common s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . Even as Wiebe's a t t e n t i o n s h i f t s from one s o c i a l group t o a n o t h e r , even as h i s n o v e l s r e g i s t e r an i n c r e a s i n g l y a c u t e awareness o f speech d i v e r s i t y , Wiebe c o n t i n u e s t o a r t i c u l a t e m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d . 230 NOTES TO CHAPTER 5: THE TEMPTATIONS OF BIG BEAR 1. One of Wiebe's s o u r c e s i s John M c D o u g a l l ' s Opening t h e G r e a t West ( C a l g a r y : G l e n b o w - A l b e r t a I n s t i t u t e , 1970). 2. In "On t h e T r a i l o f B i g Bear," Wiebe n o t e s t h a t "to'"'" Commissioner I r v i n e o f t h e Mounted P o l i c e he i s s i m p l y a t r o u b l e m a k e r , always demanding and never a g r e e i n g " (VL 134). 3. See C o r a l Ann H o w e l l s , " H i s t o r y from a D i f f e r e n t A n g l e : N a r r a t i v e S t r a t e g i e s i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear, J o u r n a l of Commonwealth L i t e r a t u r e 17 (1982): 161-173, f o r an i l l u m i n a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f Wiebe's c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g o f l i n e a r c h r o n o l o g y and e x p e r i e n t i a l t i m e . B i g B e a r ' s memories and p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n s i n p a r t i c u l a r e x t e n d t h e t e m p o r a l scope o f t h e n a r r a t i v e o u t s i d e t h e t w e l v e y e a r s between 1876 and 1888. 4. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , p a r e n t h e t i c a l page r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g i n C h a p t e r 5 r e f e r t o The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear ( T o r o n t o : M c C e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1973). 5. Wiebe uses t h e s e words t o d e s c r i b e h i s s t r u g g l e t o f i n d B i g Bear amongst t h e documentary r e c o r d s . See "On t h e T a i l of B i g Bear," A V o i c e i n t h e Land, ed. W . J . K e i t h (Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981) 134. 6. Ceremonies d i f f e r from r i t u a l s i n t h a t t h e y mark o f f one s t a t e o f h i s t o r i c a l a f f a i r s from a n o t h e r . R i t u a l s i m p l i c i t l y deny l i n e a r change by r e - e n a c t i n g a l i t t l e s l i c e o f h i s t o r y over and o v e r a g a i n . Because o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f t i m e , t h e Whites i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear m o s t l y h o l d c e r e m o n i e s , w h i l e t h e I n d i a n s conduct r i t u a l s . 7. Cf. R . P . B i l a n ' s c l a i m t h a t n o t h i n g much happens i n t h e o p e n i n g scene o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r , i n h i s r e v i e w of The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , 172. 8. See The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n , pp. 162-166 f o r B a k h t i n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e rogue, t h e c l o w n , and t h e f o o l . 9. Note Wiebe's use o f t h e term "the v o i c e , " and h i s f u s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s ' G r e a t S p i r i t w i t h Jehovah. 10. At t h e same t i m e , however, few r e a d e r s would f i n d i t easy t o i g n o r e t h e g l a r i n g gap between M o r r i s ' s i d y l l i c v i s i o n and t h e h a r s h h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e under t h e White regime. As Wiebe p r e s e n t s them, M o r r i s ' s words provoke r e a d e r s i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g " a c t i v e l y " r a t h e r t h a n 231 " p a s s i v e l y , " j u d g i n g t h e t r u t h - v a l u e o f M o r r i s ' s v i s i o n by t e s t i n g i t a g a i n s t t h e i r own knowledge o f subsequent h i s t o r i c a l developments. 11. The l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t changes f u n c t i o n o n l y t o add c o n c i s e n e s s ( f o r example, Wiebe s u b s t i t u t e s "on t h i s ground" (27) f o r M o r r i s ' s "on t h i s b r i g h t day w i t h t h e sun above us" ( 2 3 1 ) ) ; and t o make t h e speech c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e new d a t e and f u n c t i o n which he a s s i g n s t o i t . A c c o r d i n g t o M o r r i s ' s r e c o r d i n The T r e a t i e s o f Canada, t h e speech forms p a r t o f h i s o p e n i n g address t o t h e assembled I n d i a n t r i b e s a t F o r t P i t t o f September 7, 1876. Wiebe s h i f t s t h e speech t o a d a t e s i x days l a t e r . In The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear i t c o m p r i s e s p a r t o f t h e c l o s i n g ceremony o f September 13, a f t e r a l l t h e c h i e f s b u t B i g Bear have s i g n e d t h e t r e a t y . 12. See. examples on pages 23, 25, 29, 33, 146-7, 201, 396, and 398. 13. S i n c e M o r r i s a l s o speaks i n t h e name o f God, Wiebe has i n e f f e c t d i a l o g i z e d t h e B i b l e and c o u n t e r e d M o r r i s ' s B i b l i c a l canon w i t h h i s own Mennonite h i e r a r c h y o f B i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s . Wiebe d i a l o g i z e s t h e B i b l e i n a second sense by a l l o w i n g C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s t o hear i t r e - v o i c e d i n t h e words o f B i g Bear's d e f e n c e - s p e e c h . 14. B a k h t i n uses t h e s e words t o d e s c r i b e P u s h k i n ' s Oneoin. 15. See "On t h e T r a i l o f B i g Bear," where Wiebe e x p r e s s e s h i s anger o v e r t h e o m i s s i o n o f r e g i o n a l h i s t o r y from t h e s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m (VL 134). 16. The o t h e r means i s t o o f f e r f a c t - a n d - f i g u r e summaries couched i n d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e , as i n C h a p t e r s 2.1, 3.1 and 4.1 17. I n B a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f y i n g system Type I I I . l . c ( B a k h t i n 1984, 199). 18. See S h e r r i l l E. G r a c e , " S t r u c t u r i n g V i o l e n c e : the. ' E t h i c s o f L i n g u i s t i c s ' i n 'The Temptations o f B i g Bear," Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 104 ( S p r i n g 1985): 7-23, w h i c h d i s c u s s e s t h e same phenomenon from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . 19. See, f o r example, my own o p e n i n g s y n o p s i s i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r ; a l s o R o b e r t L e c k e r ' s emphasis on t h e l i n e and c i r c l e images t h a t p e r v a d e t h e t e x t , i n " T r u s t i n g t h e Q u i n t u p l e t Senses: Time and Form i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear," E n g l i s h S t u d i e s i n Canada, 8 (Sept 8 2 ) : 333-48. 232 20. See a l s o S h e r r i l l E. Grace's d i s c u s s i o n o f " n a r r a t i v e o f c o n t i g u i t y " and " n a r r a t i v e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n s " i n " S t r u c t u r i n g V i o l e n c e , " pp. 9, 14. 21. Wiebe's remark t o R o b e r t K r o e t s c h i n " U n e a r t h i n g Language," r e v e a l s h i s a t t i t u d e t o p o s t - m o d e r n i s t p l a y f u l n e s s : "Bob, y o u ' r e always h o r s i n g around w i t h language! You t e n d t o use i t i n ways i n w h i c h i t i s not n o r m a l l y used. Which i s a l l r i g h t , b u t a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t one g e t s c o n f u s e d and language i s no l o n g e r u s e f u l i n l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d " (Neuman 236). 22. E l s e w h e r e , B a k h t i n pushes h i s t h e o r y of s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e s f u r t h e r towards i t s l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n , a r g u i n g t h a t a l l language a c q u i s i t i o n and use i n v o l v e s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s words. E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l comes t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n a w o r l d a l r e a d y aswarm w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e ' s words, "words t h a t a r e a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 300). To speak a t a l l , one must t h e r e f o r e s e i z e t h e s e a l i e n words and make them one's own. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , each v o i c e a t t e m p t s t o i m p e r i a l i s e o v e r t h e p u b l i c language, t o c r e a t e a l i t t l e empire w i t h e v e r y u t t e r a n c e . 23. What Wiebe c a l l s " i r o n y , " B a k h t i n would c a l l " h y b r i d i z a t i o n " o r " i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n . " I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Wiebe's term "the m i n o r i t y s t o r y , " evades t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h m i n o r i t y s t o r y he i s t e l l i n g i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear. Wiebe l i b e r a t e s B i g B e a r ' s s t o r y o n l y i n so f a r as i t p e r m i t s him t o a r t i c u l a t e h i s Mennonite p o i n t o f v i e w . A second n o t e w o r t h y d e t a i l i n t h i s speech i s Wiebe's s u b t l e s h i f t from " t r u t h " t o " t r u t h s , " w h i c h may be r e a d as a p a r r y o f an a n t i c i p a t e d a t t a c k by K r o e t s c h on h i s m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n . 24. I n C h a p t e r 4.2, where John Delaney makes l o v e t o S i t s Green on t h e E a r t h , Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s a b u r s t i n g out o f t h e o t h e r s u p p r e s s e d i n t h e White A n g l o - C a n a d i a n p r o t e s t a n t s e l f : " s a y i n g a n y t h i n g , e v e r y t h i n g , l e t t i n g pour o u t t h e words he r e f u s e d t o know c o i l e d and squirmed deep i n s i d e him...which he had not even r e c o g n i s e d a l l t h e t h r e e y e a r s t h e y were ramming up i n h i s t h r o a t b e f o r e anyone who would have u n d e r s t o o d them, p l u g g e d much o f him s p e e c h l e s s " (231- 2 ) . 25. In Rudy Wiebe, Where I s t h e . V o i c e Coming From? ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1974), 135-43. A l s o p u b l i s h e d i n F o u r t e e n S t o r i e s H i g h , eds. D a v i d H e l w i g and Tom M a r s h a l l (Ottawa: Oberon, 1971); The N a r r a t i v e V o i c e , ed. John M e t c a l f ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1972); P e r s o n a l 233 F i c t i o n s . ed. M i c h a e l O n d a a t j e ( T o r o n t o : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977); H o r i z o n : W r i t i n g s o f t h e Canadian P r a i r i e s , ed. Ken M i t c h e l l ( T o r o n t o : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977); Modern S t o r i e s i n E n g l i s h , eds. W. H. New and H. J . Rosengarten (New York: C r o w e l l , 1975); F i c t i o n o f Contemporary Canada, ed. George B o w e r i n g ( T o r o n t o : Coach House P r e s s , 1980). 26. VL 143-49; a l s o p u b l i s h e d as " A l l That's L e f t o f B i g Bear," Maclean's (September 1975). 27. VL 132-141; a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n J o u r n a l o f Canadian F i c t i o n . 3, 2 ( 1 9 7 4 ) : 45-8. 28. B a k h t i n d e f i n e s "chronotope" as "time space" (1981, 8 4 ) . 29. Cf. M a r i a C a m p b e l l , who h y p o t h e s i s e s t h a t Wiebe d i d not w r i t e B i g B e a r ' s g r e a t speeches h i m s e l f , but t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f B i g Bear p o s s e s s e d Wiebe and w r o t e them f o r him. See Mandel, 151. 30. T h i s argument does not deny t h a t s i m i l a r i t i e s may e x i s t between Wiebe's r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k and t h e C r e e s ' . Wiebe's comments t o D o n a l d Cameron ( q u o t e d i n P a r t I I o f t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r ) h i g h l i g h t h i s sense o f t h e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s , as does Wiebe's image o f " i n t e r l a c i n g suns" (330) i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear. Wiebe a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e homophonic i d e n t i t y o f t h e "Sun" and t h e "Son," t o suggest t h a t on c e r t a i n p o i n t s t h e C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f - s y s t e m o v e r l a p s t h a t o f t h e Cree; 31. Wiebe a t t i m e s quotes Mendelbaum a l m o s t word f o r word: "The s o u l e n t e r e d t h e body a t b i r t h and l e f t a t d e a t h . I t r e s i d e d a l o n g t h e nape, o f t h e neck" (Mendelbaum 158) c f . "The Cree b e l i e v e t h a t a p e r s o n ' s s o u l comes t o him a t b i r t h and r e s i d e s a l o n g t h e back o f t h e neck" (VL 148). 32. See B a k h t i n 1984, 195-6 f o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f "hidden p o l e m i c . " 33. In W . J . K e i t h , A V o i c e i n t h e Land. 39-47. 34. B a k h t i n 1984, 110-111. 35. A r g u a b l y , t h i s i s what a c t u a l l y happened t o The Temptations o f B i g Bear, when r e a d e r s m i s s e d t h e Mennonite p o i n t o f t h e s t o r y a l t o g e t h e r . H a v i n g been p u b l i s h e d a t a t i m e when N o r t h American s o c i e t y was engaged i n a massive e n t e r p r i s e t o r e c o u p t h e v o i c e s o f i t s s i l e n t m i n o r i t i e s , The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear was r e a d as an e f f o r t t o r e c o v e r 234 t h e a u t h e n t i c Cree meaning o f B i g Bear's l i f e . Such a r e a d i n g bypasses t h e e p i g r a p h from A c t s 17, w h i c h f i l t e r s t h e meaning o f B i g B e a r ' s l i f e t h r o u g h a B i b l i c a l system o f s i g n i f i c a n c e s . 36. BMC 159. 37. See Grace 15-19. 38. Edgar Dewdney a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i r John A. Macdonald: " B i g Bear's v o i c e would be u n b e l i e v a b l e i n P a r l i a m e n t . The deep r i c h t i m b r e of i t a l o n e , f o r g e t a l l sense (so r a r e l y needed anyway) would d e v a s t a t e any o p p o s i t i o n " (113). 39. Wiebe s t r e s s e s t h e common humanity of Whites and I n d i a n s i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h Donald Cameron: CAMERON: How do you w r i t e from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f p e o p l e whose whole v i e w o f t h e w o r l d i s so d i f f e r e n t ? . . . WIEBE: I t poses a l o t o f f o r m a l problems, b u t t h e r e a r e some human problems t h a t i t d o e s n ' t pose. We're so aware now o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r problems o f t h e I n d i a n s and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t w o r l d v i e w t h a t we f o r g e t t h a t t h e y ' r e human b e i n g s . I n e v e r y way t h a t ' s i m p o r t a n t t h e y a r e e x a c t l y t h e same as you and me" (Cameron 151). 40. See t h e many c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f B i g Bear l i s t e d by Wiebe i n "On t h e T r a i l o f B i g Bear," VL 134. 41. P u b l i s h e d i n VL 25-31; a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g 11/6 (June 1964), 26-28; The Mennonite 79 (28 J u l y 1964), 467-69; r e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d as " L a s t Chance f o r M e n n o n i t e s ? : We Must Leave o u r M i d d l e C l a s s C u l t u r a l P a r a d i s e and S t r i v e f o r our S p i r i t u a l H e r i t a g e , " i n Canadian Mennonite 14/3 (18 J a n . 1966), 7. ( E a r l i e r v e r s i o n p r i n t e d i n VL.) 42. Page 23. 43. The f r o n t and back endpapers i n t h e h a r d c o v e r e d i t i o n o f The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear c o n t a i n maps o f t h e West i n 1976 and 1888 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The f i r s t map c o n t a i n s m a i n l y n a t u r a l , i r r e g u l a r l y - s h a p e d f e a t u r e s — r i v e r , h i l l s , l a k e s — a s p a r s e s c a t t e r i n g o f place-names, and o n l y one s t r a i g h t l i n e : t h e b o r d e r between Canada and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Conspicuous on t h e second map a r e t h e b l a c k , s q u a r i s h p a t c h e s o f t h e I n d i a n r e s e r v e s , a g r e a t e r number o f p l a c e - names and s t r a i g h t - l i n e b o r d e r s , and t h e u g l y , s u t u r e - l i k e p a t h of t h e i r o n r o a d . But i n B i g Bear's f i n a l v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e , "the F o r k s he r e c o g n i z e d unchanged" ( 4 1 0 ) . The l a n d , l i k e a g i a n t p a l i m p s e s t , s t i l l c o n t a i n s i n t e l l i g i b l e s i g n s 235 o f t h e G r e a t S p i r i t f o r Wiebe t o r e a d . 44. Wiebe a l t e r s h i s s o u r c e t o add t h i s i d e a o f w h i t e i n t e r v e n t i o n between t h e Cree and t h e i r god. I n Opening t h e G r e a t West, from w h i c h Wiebe t a k e s t h i s scene, J o h n M c D o u g a l l mentions o n l y " s t a n d i n g b e s i d e t h e dead w a r r i o r " ( 3 8 ) . Wiebe has M c D o u g a l l " s t a n d w i t h one f o o t on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e dead w a r r i o r " ( 4 8 ) . 45. Wiebe l e a v e s no room f o r doubt t h a t B i g B e a r r e t a i n s h i s t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . Moments b e f o r e B i g Bear l i e s down t o d i e ("to f i n i s h t h e l o n g p r a y e r t o The O n l y One t h a t was h i s l i f e " [ 4 1 4 ] ) , H o r s e c h i l d hangs C h i e f ' s Son's Hand around h i s f a t h e r ' s neck, and B i g Bear " f e l t a warm w e i g h t a g a i n s t h i s s o u l . . . . Such h a p p i n e s s broke up i n him" ( 4 1 5 ) . 46. B a k h t i n 1984, 182. 236 CHAPTER 6: THE SCORCHED-WOOD PEOPLE F r e e d i n t o C e r t a i n Bondage I I n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , Wiebe t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f t h e M e t i s l e a d e r L o u i s R i e l and t h e s o - c a l l e d r e b e l l i o n s a t Red R i v e r i n 1869-70 and on t h e Saskatchewan i n 1885. Wiebe's r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s well-known c h a p t e r i n Western Canadian h i s t o r y i s p r e d i c a t e d on h i s b e l i e f t h a t "the fundamental freedom o f any p e o p l e i s n e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l nor economic, i t i s s p i r i t u a l " (VL 161). The M e t i s ' s t r u g g l e b e g i n s as a f i g h t f o r p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , economic autonomy, and l a n d r i g h t s , b u t i t ends as a c r i s i s o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . 1 R i e l b e g i n s as a man o f peace, a word-man r a t h e r t h a n a b u l l e t - m a n : "People have words; t h e y don't have t o k i l l each o t h e r ! " (SWP 5 4 ) . 2 But t h e l i e s and t r i c k e r y o f S i r John A. Macdonald, and t h e p r i e s t s ' r e f u s a l t o i n t e r v e n e i n p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s , cause R i e l t o d e s p a i r i n t h e power o f words t o overcome t h e f o r c e s o f o p p r e s s i o n t h a t b e s i e g e h i s p e o p l e . "To t h o s e who w i l l not l i s t e n t o words," R i e l d e c l a i m s , "guns must speak" ( 2 2 5 ) . But as R i e l ' s p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o f t h e p e a c e f u l , E d e n i c New N a t i o n 237 c r y s t a l l i s e s more and more c l e a r l y , 3 Wiebe shows t h a t R i e l ' s "war o f e x t e r m i n a t i o n " (228) c o n t r a v e n e s t h e i d e a l s o f peace and l o v e he s t r u g g l e s t o r e a l i z e . Nor does t h e C a n a d i a n Government escape Wiebe's vehement condemnation. A l t h o u g h p u r p o r t i n g t o c o n d u c t i t s a f f a i r s under t h e motto "God and my R i g h t " ( 1 9 8 ) , t h e j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s show a f l a g r a n t d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e j u r y ' s r e g u e s t t h a t R i e l r e c e i v e t h e mercy o f t h e Crown. Wiebe's m a n u s c r i p t n o t e s show t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d many a l t e r n a t i v e t i t l e s f o r t h i s n o v e l . 4 T h e one he s e l e c t e d d e r i v e s from t h e F r e n c h t e r m " B o i s - b r u l e s , " t h e name t h e M e t i s f i r s t chose t o i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s as a d i s t i n c t community. A memorandum amongst Wiebe's m a n u s c r i p t s s t a t e s t h a t " ' b o i s b r f l l e ' i s b e s t t r a n s l a t e d as ' s c o r c h e d wood' a s , f o r example, t h e wood l e f t s t a n d i n g a f t e r a f o r e s t f i r e . " 5 As w e l l as r e s t o r i n g t h e M e t i s ' former name, t h e t i t l e o f t h e n o v e l c a r r i e s b r o a d e r c o n n o t a t i o n s o f s u r v i v a l and p o s s i b l e r e g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r a p p a r e n t a n n i h i l a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e l o s t " r e b e l l i o n s " l e a v e t h e M e t i s p e o p l e " c r u s h e d " (328) e c o n o m i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y , Wiebe's s t o r y o f f e r s a h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r r e b u i l d i n g communal s e l f h o o d and s p i r i t u a l l i f e . The i d e a o f r e n e w a l a p p l i e s a l s o t o t h e p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s t . R i e l was f o u n d g u i l t y o f h i g h t r e a s o n and e x e c u t e d i n 1885, b u t t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r i n g t h e meaning o f " h i s body on t h e end 238 o f t h a t rope" (351) s t i l l c o n t i n u e s . The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . Wiebe's most e x p l i c i t l y p o l e m i c a l n o v e l , p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e o n g o i n g d i a l o g i c r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y . L i k e The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear . The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e re-opens a c o u r t case c l o s e d o f f i c i a l l y many y e a r s ago. Wiebe e n l i s t s r e a d e r s t o p e r f o r m j u r y d u t y , and i n s t r u c t s them t o judge R i e l ' s and t h e Government's a c t i o n s and words i n t h e l i g h t o f Mennonite m o r a l i t y , not Canadian law. Wiebe d e p a r t s i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e from t h e p o l y p h o n i c n a r r a t i v e modes d e v e l o p e d i n h i s two p r e v i o u s n o v e l s , and a d o p t s a form c o n v e n t i o n a l l y known as " d r a m a t i c monologue." The e p i g r a p h t o t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f t h e n o v e l , "And who has made t h i s song?/ Who e l s e b u t good P i e r r e F a l c o n . " 6 i n v i t e s r e a d e r s t o i m a g i n e t h e y hear t h e e n t i r e s t o r y from t h e mouth o f a h i s t o r i c a l l y a u t h e n t i c M e t i s b a r d , P i e r r e F a l c o n . But w h i l e t h e e p i l o g u e f o r m a l l y c l a s s i f i e s The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e as d r a m a t i c monologue, Wiebe a c t i v a t e s d i a l o g i z i n g f o r c e s i n t h e t e x t . C l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e mutable, ambiguous r e l a t i o n s between t h e v o i c e s o f t h e a u t h o r , t h e n a r r a t o r , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s and t h e r e a d e r s y i e l d s ample e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t B a k h t i n ' s c l a i m t h a t " c o m p o s i t i o n a l forms i n and o f t h e m s e l v e s do not y e t r e s o l v e t h e q u e s t i o n o f d i s c o u r s e t y p e " (1984, 193). 239 The d r a m a t i c monologue form does n o t i n i t s e l f e l i m i n a t e l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y from t h e n o v e l . A l t h o u g h Wiebe's manner o f m a r k i n g t h e b o r d e r l i n e between v o i c e zones d i f f e r s from t h a t used i n h i s two p r e v i o u s n o v e l s , t h e t e x t o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e s e r v e s n o n e t h e l e s s as a m e e t i n g p l a c e f o r many v o i c e s . Wiebe o r g a n i s e s t h e v o i c e s i n t o a new c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , a c c o r d i n g t o a. p r i n c i p l e o f embedding r a t h e r t h a n one o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n o r s y n c r i s i s as used i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a and The Temptations o f B i g B e a r . The t e x t o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e r e s e m b l e s a C h i n e s e box o f v o i c e s w i t h i n v o i c e s w i t h i n v o i c e s . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p r a c t i c e o f embedding, i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n becomes more p e r v a s i v e and more complex t h a n i n any o f Wiebe's o t h e r n o v e l s . The i n t e n t i o n s o f two, t h r e e , f o u r o f f i v e a u t h o r s may come t o g e t h e r w i t h i n t h e a r e n a o f an u t t e r a n c e . The u t t e r a n c e i t s e l f t h u s becomes " m e t i s , " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l , 7 a s i t e o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , as s e v e r a l a u t h o r i a l w i l l s compete t o c o n t r o l i t s meaning. W i t h i n t h e space o f t h e v e r b a l s i g n , as i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n o f t h e North-West, d i s p a r a t e v o i c e s c o - e x i s t i n a f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t e o f harmony, f o r g i n g and b r e a k i n g a l l i a n c e s w i t h one a n o t h e r , c l a s h i n g and t h e n making peace, p r e c i s e l y as do t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f R i e l ' s " s t r a n g e e m p i r e . " 8 T h i s v i e w o f t h e t e x t does not deny t h a t t h e f i n a l t h r u s t o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e i s r h e t o r i c a l and 240 m o n o l o g i c . I t does, however, c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e p r e v a i l i n g c r i t i c a l v i e w t h a t Wiebe uses F a l c o n and R i e l s i m p l y and i n v a r i a b l y as spokesmen f o r h i s own o p i n i o n s . 9 W. J . K e i t h s u g g e s t s t h e r e i s a " c o a l e s c i n g o f t h e v i e w p o i n t s o f a u t h o r , n a r r a t o r and p r o t a g o n i s t " (1981a, 102). To a d e g r e e , t h i s c l a i m has v a l i d i t y . On some q u e s t i o n s , t h e a u t h o r , t h e n a r r a t o r and t h e p r o t a g o n i s t do speak i n u n i s o n a g a i n s t common f o e s . As Sam S o l e c k i a r g u e s , Wiebe a l i g n s h i m s e l f w i t h F a l c o n and R i e l w i t h t h e aim o f engaging i n b a t t l e on two " c o n t e s t a t i o n a l f r o n t s " ( 5 ) . The a u t h o r , n a r r a t o r and p r o t a g o n i s t speak t o g e t h e r as n a t i v e s o f Western Canada and as C h r i s t i a n s , t o v o i c e a c o n c e r t e d c h a l l e n g e t o t h e o f f i c i a l , O n t a r i o - c e n t r e d , s e c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e " R i e l r e b e l l i o n s . " 1 0 However, such a r e a d i n g u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e degree and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e ; i t f a i l s t o t a k e f u l l a c c o u n t o f Wiebe's r e f r a c t i v e , o f t e n c i r c u i t o u s manner o f a d d r e s s . Wiebe, F a l c o n and R i e l do not r e a c h a consensus on e v e r y i s s u e . On some q u e s t i o n s t h e i r v o i c e s b r e a k a p a r t and e n t e r i n t o c o n f l i c t . Monologism b r e a k s down f u r t h e r because R i e l ' s v o i c e , w h i c h dominates t h e t e x t , s p l i t s i n t o two: a t h u n d e r i n g "Old Testament v o i c e " and a g e n t l e r , more r e s i g n e d "New Testament v o i c e . " Moreover, numerous v o i c e s , a s i d e from R i e l ' s , c l a i m a t t e n t i o n i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , and t h e r o l e o f t h e s e 241 "minor" v o i c e s s h o u l d not be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . On t h e q u e s t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e embedded u t t e r a n c e s o f minor c h a r a c t e r s , a l l u d i n g t o passages from t h e New Testament, e x e r t d i a l o g i c r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t R i e l ' s "Old Testament v o i c e . " C l e a r l y , a l t h o u g h The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e e f f e c t s a s h i f t from a p o l y p h o n i c t o a m o n o l o g i c n a r r a t i v e form, Wiebe e l i m i n a t e s n e i t h e r speech d i v e r s i t y nor d i a l o g u e from t h e t e x t . The d i a l o g i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e n o v e l r e w a r d d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n not because t h e y r e v e r s e t h e o v e r a l l monologism o f t h e t e x t , b u t because l e a v i n g them out o f a c c o u n t l e a d s t o a s e r i o u s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n o f where Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l v o i c e comes from. I I Two a c c e n t u a l systems c o - e x i s t i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , sometimes r e i n f o r c i n g each o t h e r , a t o t h e r t i m e s c o n f l i c t i n g . Wiebe's p r a c t i c e o f embedding each s p e a k e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s w i t h i n u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s p e a k e r s a u t o m a t i c a l l y r a n k s t h e v o i c e s i n t o what m i g h t be c a l l e d a c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . A t t h e same t i m e , Wiebe i n v o k e s a second c r i t e r i o n f o r r a n k i n g t h e v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t : t h o s e passages from J e s u s ' Sermon on t h e Mount w h i c h encode t h e 242 c e n t r a l t e n e t s o f Mennonite m o r a l i t y . Wiebe's p r a c t i c e o f embedding d e s e r v e s d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n , f o r i t a c t i v a t e s t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e two a c c e n t u a l systems. The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e c o n s i s t s o f Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l u t t e r a n c e , w h i c h a l l e g e d l y c o n s i s t s o f F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t i o n , w h i c h i n t u r n c o n t a i n s t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f a l l t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n c l u d i n g R i e l , whose v o i c e dominates t h e t e x t and c o n t a i n s t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f numerous o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . By u s i n g P i e r r e F a l c o n as n a r r a t o r , and a l l o w i n g R i e l ' s v o i c e t o t r a n s m i t t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , Wiebe adds e x t r a t i e r s t o t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 71) between t h e a u t h o r and t h e c h a r a c t e r s . 1 1 On each o f t h e s e l e v e l s , t h e f r a m i n g u t t e r a n c e forms a c o n t e x t f o r t h e framed u t t e r a n c e . I t m e d i a t e s between t h e framed u t t e r a n c e and t h e r e a d e r , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e a d e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e words r e p o r t e d . The f r a m i n g u t t e r a n c e s u b o r d i n a t e s t h e framed u t t e r a n c e by e x h i b i t i n g i t as a r e i f i e d , bounded o b j e c t . 1 2 I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e v o i c e s l o w e s t on t h e h i e r a r c h y e n j o y t h e l e a s t p o l i t i c a l autonomy, because t h e i r words a r e c o l o n i z e d s e v e r a l t i m e s o v e r by a l l t h e s p e a k e r s who r e p o r t t h e i r words. T h e r e f o r e , t h e f u r t h e r removed a c h a r a c t e r s t a n d s from t h e a u t h o r on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , t h e more compounded t h e h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f h i s o r h e r d i s c o u r s e . Not two, b u t t h r e e o r 243 more a u t h o r s might e x p r e s s t h e i r s e p a r a t e i n t e n t i o n s i n t h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e u t t e r a n c e s . A t t h e t o p o f t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e , " t h i s h i e r a r c h i c a l power s t r u c t u r e i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n Wiebe's p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h F a l c o n . B o t h l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , Wiebe d i c t a t e s F a l c o n ' s monologue t o make i t s e r v e Wiebe's own r h e t o r i c a l and p o l e m i c a l p u r p o s e s . 1 3 Wiebe p o s t u l a t e s an a u d i e n c e w h i c h c u s t o m a r i l y sees M e t i s s o c i e t y from a d i s t a n c e d , e x t e r n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t p r e c l u d e s an e m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s . He t h e r e f o r e e n l i s t s P i e r r e F a l c o n , a member o f t h e M e t i s community, t o b u i l d a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e r e a d e r ' s empathy. F a l c o n l e n d s t h e s t o r y an "immediacy and c r e d i b i l i t y t h a t o n l y an i n d i v i d u a l — a n d , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , a M e t i s — w i t n e s s c o u l d p r o v i d e ( K e i t h 1981a, 9 8 ) . He l e a d s Wiebe's p o s i t e d a u d i e n c e a c r o s s t h e " u n t o u c h a b l e d i v i d e o f w i l d e r n e s s and b l o o d " ( 1 1 ) , t o immerse them i m a g i n a t i v e l y i n t h e M e t i s ' w o r l d . Wiebe cannot p r o v i d e R i e l and t h e M e t i s w i t h a j u r y o f t h e i r p e e r s , b u t he can compel r e a d e r s t o i m a g i n e how t h e y t h e m s e l v e s might r e a c t i f c o n f r o n t e d , l i k e t h e M e t i s , w i t h t h e d u p l i c i t y o f S i r John A. Macdonald, t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y laws and p o l i c i e s o f t h e Dominion government, and t h e f a n a t i c a l i n t e r - r a c i a l h a t r e d and v i o l e n c e o f O n t a r i o ' s Orangemen. W i t h F a l c o n ' s a i d , Wiebe a l l o w s t h e j u r y o f r e a d e r s not o n l y t o know about "the 244 c o n d i t i o n s . . . t h a t n e c e s s i t a t e d our a c t i o n s " ( 3 1 9 ) , b u t a l s o t o f e e l w i t h R i e l and t h e M e t i s . Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s dominate F a l c o n ' s d i s c o u r s e t o so g r e a t an e x t e n t t h a t d r a m a t i c monologue l a p s e s i n t o d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l monologue. 1 4 When, as K e i t h o b s e r v e s , " F a l c o n ' s i n d i v i d u a l p r e s e n c e f a d e s f o r pages a t a t i m e " (1981a, 9 9 ) , t h e a u t h o r t a k e s o v e r t h e n a r r a t o r i a l f u n c t i o n . T r a n s l a t i n g K e i t h ' s o b s e r v a t i o n i n t o t h e language o f B a k h t i n , one may say t h a t Wiebe r e f r a i n s from o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e v o i c e o f h i s n a r r a t o r . B a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f Turgenev's skaz p r o v e s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o Wiebe's m i n i m a l o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f F a l c o n ' s v o i c e i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e : Both t h e n a r r a t e d s t o r y and even pure skaz may l o s e a l l t r a c e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y and become d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e , e x p r e s s i n g w i t h o u t m e d i a t i o n t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n . . . . When i n t r o d u c i n g a n a r r a t o r , - Turgenev i n most i n s t a n c e s makes no a t t e m p t t o s t y l i z e a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s d i s t i n c t l y i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l manner o f s t o r y t e l l i n g . The s t o r y . . . i s n a r r a t e d by an i n t e l l i g e n t and l i t e r a r y man o f Turgenev's own c i r c l e . Thus would Turgenev h i m s e l f have spoken, and spoken o f t h e most s e r i o u s m a t t e r s i n . h i s own l i f e . There i s no o r i e n t a t i o n here towards a s o c i a l l y f o r e i g n skaz t o n e , nor t o w a r d s a s o c i a l l y f o r e i g n manner o f s e e i n g and c o n v e y i n g what i s seen. There i s a l s o no o r i e n t a t i o n towards any i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c manner. Turgenev's skaz s i g n i f i e s autonomously; t h e r e i s one v o i c e i n i t and t h i s v o i c e d i r e c t l y e x p r e s s e s t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r . (1984, 191) C u s t o m a r i l y , d r a m a t i c monologue c r e a t e s o n l y t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t a s i n g l e v o i c e s p e a k s ; 1 5 i n Wiebe's hands t h e i l l u s i o n comes c l o s e t o b e i n g a r e a l i t y . In The S c o r c h e d - 245 Wood P e o p l e . Wiebe's i n t e n t i o n s so dominate P i e r r e F a l c o n ' s d i s c o u r s e t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r has v e r y l i t t l e language o f h i s own. Wiebe i d e n t i f i e s F a l c o n as s o c i a l l y a l i e n i n o n l y one r e s p e c t . E x p l e t i v e s such as "God be p r a i s e d " ( 1 7 ) , "by my s a i n t e d f a t h e r " ( 3 1 ) , and "God g r a n t i t " (277) remind r e a d e r s o f F a l c o n ' s Roman C a t h o l i c i s m . E x c e p t f o r t h e s e e x p l e t i v e s , F a l c o n speaks a s o c i a l d i a l e c t w h i c h does not d i f f e r m a r k e d l y from Wiebe's own. A comparison o f F a l c o n ' s v o i c e w i t h t h a t o f F r i e d a F r i e s e n shows how l i t t l e Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e i f y e i t h e r t h e s o c i a l o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l f e a t u r e s o f F a l c o n ' s v o i c e . F a l c o n ' s E n g l i s h does not echo M e t i s F r e n c h as F r i e d a ' s echoes Low German; n o r , e x c e p t v e r y s p o r a d i c a l l y , does Wiebe i m p a r t t o F a l c o n ' s s t o r y t h e " v o i c e d " g u a l i t y o f s k a z . 1 6 F o r t h e most p a r t , Wiebe u s h e r s h i s n a r r a t o r o n t o t h e s t a g e not by f a s h i o n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r n a r r a t i v e v o i c e w i t h a d i s t i n c t i v e manner o f s p e a k i n g , b u t t h r o u g h o v e r t n a r r a t o r i a l s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l i t y : t h e use o f f i r s t - p e r s o n pronouns i n n a r r a t o r i a l u t t e r a n c e , F a l c o n ' s p r o f f e r e d t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , and h i s d i r e c t n a r r a t o r i a l a d d r e s s e s t o r e a d e r s . As Wiebe's i n t e n t i o n s shape F a l c o n ' s u t t e r a n c e , F a l c o n , i n t u r n , g u i d e s r e a d e r s t o w a r d an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f R i e l and o f a l l t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s whose speech he ( F a l c o n ) r e p o r t s . To t a k e f u l l s t o c k o f t h e o t h e r v o i c e s and languages F a l c o n t r a n s m i t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t Wiebe does not always m a i n t a i n a s h a r p b o r d e r l i n e between n a r r a t o r i a l and r e p o r t e d speech. I n d i r e c t speech, o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , Wiebe uses c l e a r t y p o g r a p h i c a l markers ( i n v e r t e d commas, i t a l i c s , p a r a g r a p h b r e a k s , i n d e n t a t i o n ) t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e spoken o r w r i t t e n words i n q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o someone o t h e r t h a n F a l c o n . I n d i r e c t speech, by c o n t r a s t , a l w a y s e n t a i l s some i n t e r w e a v i n g and b l e n d i n g o f t h e f r a m i n g u t t e r a n c e w i t h t h e r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e . I n d i r e c t speech may wander between l o o s e p a r a p h r a s e and n e a r - v e r b a t i m q u o t a t i o n , and t h u s l e a v e room f o r doubt as t o w h i c h words b e l o n g t o whom.17 Moving f u r t h e r away a g a i n from d i r e c t speech, Wiebe uses a v a r i e t y o f " c o n c e a l e d " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 303) forms o f q u o t a t i o n , p a r a p h r a s e , and m i m i c r y . In t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , p e r c e p t i o n o f speech d i v e r s i t y depends not on s t a n d a r d t y p o g r a p h i c a l and s y n t a c t i c markers b u t r a t h e r on t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of r e a d e r s t o s t y l i s t i c i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s . I f t h e c o n c e a l e d languages of o t h e r s c o a g u l a t e i n t o compact, s t y l i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t b l o c k s , t h e b o r d e r l i n e between n a r r a t o r i a l and embedded u t t e r a n c e s remains r e l a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t . 1 8 The b o r d e r l i n e becomes b l u r r y and u n c e r t a i n , however, whenever Wiebe s c a t t e r s t h e words o f o t h e r s d i f f u s e l y t h r o u g h F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l u t t e r a n c e — a word h e r e , a p h r a s e t h e r e , e l s e w h e r e a h i n t e d a l l u s i o n . 1 9 Wiebe a l s o makes d e l i b e r a t e p l a y w i t h t h e b a r r i e r s between r e p o r t i n g and r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e by h a v i n g P i e r r e F a l c o n a b r u p t l y d i s s o c i a t e 247 h i m s e l f from words o f f e r e d i n i t i a l l y as h i s own. F a l c o n ' s monologue, by f r a m i n g and a t t i m e s w e a v i n g i t s e l f i n t o t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , can d e t e r m i n e t h e r e a d e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n towards them. F a l c o n ' s m e d i a t i o n s s e p a r a t e t h e "good-guys" from t h e "bad-guys" i n t h e s t o r y , a c c o r d i n g t o whether t h e y s e r v e o r t h w a r t R i e l and t h e M e t i s ' p o l i t i c a l c a u s e . F o r example, F a l c o n condemns t h e s o - c a l l e d p o e t C h a r l e s M a i r — a n y o n e who t r i e d t o s i n g h i s v e r s e s w h i l e r i d i n g a h o r s e would f a l l o f f i n b r o k e n rhythm—who w e e k l y s e n t l o n g l e t t e r s about how easy i t was t o make a f o r t u n e o f f t h e p o o r dunces a t Red R i v e r t o h i s O n t a r i o b r o t h e r s , who as r e g u l a r l y p u b l i s h e d them i n t h e T o r o n t o G l o b e . (26) Amongst t h e "good guys," F a l c o n ' s most e x p l i c i t and w h o l e h e a r t e d endorsement goes t o Dr. Augustus J u k e s , who defends R i e l a g a i n s t t h e charge o f i n s a n i t y . F a l c o n ' s m e d i a t i o n s c r e a t e a f a v o u r a b l e f r a m i n g c o n t e x t f o r J u k e s ' words, h e i g h t e n i n g t h e i r a i r o f wisdom and t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l f o r c e : Poor f o o l ; i t was immoral t o hang him; c l e a r l y he was mad. The n e c e s s i t y o f hanging him was s i m p l y , c l e a r l y S i r John A.'s C o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c s . You b e l i e v e t h a t ? Many C a n a d i a n s , even many M e t i s b e l i e v e and w i l l b e l i e v e i t ; b u t I cannot. I agree w i t h w h i t e - h a i r e d Dr. Augustus J u k e s , s e n i o r surgeon o f t h e N o r t h - west Mounted P o l i c e , t h a t we a r e t o o l i k e l y t o c a l l men whose u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e goes c o u n t e r t o o u r u s u a l o p i n i o n , i n s a n e . S a n i t y becomes t h e n a mere m a t t e r o f m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n , not a t e s t of t h e wisdom o f what i s spoken. ( 3 3 0 ) 2 1 One o f F a l c o n ' s most i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s i n t h e t e x t i s t o " s t a g e d i r e c t , " o r c r e a t e t h e c o n c r e t e p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g s 248 i n w h i c h R i e l makes h i s major speeches. H i s n a r r a t o r i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g R i e l ' s u t t e r a n c e s a f f e c t t h e r e a d e r ' s e v a l u a t i o n of them. F a l c o n f r e q u e n t l y draws a t t e n t i o n t o R i e l ' s c h a r i s m a t i c s p i r i t u a l i t y , and d e c l a r e s h i s own f a i t h i n R i e l ' s v i s i o n a r y powers. He u r g e s r e a d e r s not t o d i s m i s s R i e l ' s p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e s as t h e r a n t i n g s o f a madman o r t h e v i t u p e r a t i o n s o f a p o l i t i c a l megalomaniac: L e t me t e l l you i m m e d i a t e l y , L o u i s R i e l was a g i a n t . I f God had w i l l e d i t , he c o u l d have r u l e d t h e w o r l d . No, no, hear me o u t , and you w i l l b e l i e v e i t t o o . (36) In s t a t e m e n t s such as t h i s one, F a l c o n c r e a t e s a f a v o u r a b l e f r a m i n g c o n t e x t f o r R i e l ' s speech. At t i m e s , however, he opposes t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , and so frames R i e l ' s words i n an l e s s t h a n f l a t t e r i n g way. F o r example, F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l i n t e r j e c t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g passage p l a c e s R i e l i n t h e same c a t e g o r y as Deacon B l o c k i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many and Adam Ross i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . The n a r r a t o r i a l i n t e r j e c t i o n warns r e a d e r s a g a i n s t s u r r e n d e r i n g t o R i e l ' s i m p a s s i o n e d , h a t e - f i l l e d r h e t o r i c : [ R i e l : ] "0 God my God, make me h o l y t h a t I have t h e courage f o r g l o r y , and f o r a g o n y . . . f o r d e c i s i o n . " He was a l m o s t e r e c t on h i s knees now, t h e p r a y e r book h e l d l i k e a t a l i s m a n o r a sword, h i g h i n b o t h hands b e f o r e h i s eyes, h i s v o i c e l i k e t h u n d e r : • "Remember 0 L o r d t h e c h i l d r e n o f B a b y l o n i n t h e day o f J e r u s a l e m ; who c r i e d , Raze i t , r a z e i t t o t h e ground! 0 d a u g h t e r o f B a b y l o n , who w i l l be d e s t r o y e d ; happy she be he who rewards you as you have s e r v e d us. Happy! Happy s h a l l be he who t a k e s y o u r l i t t l e ones and dashes them a g a i n s t t h e s t o n e s ! " (187) Through t h e v a r y i n g m e d i a t i o n s o f t h e n a r r a t o r , t h e a u t h o r 249 e x p r e s s e s h i s a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e toward t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , 2 2 d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between t h e m o r a l l y commendable and t h e m o r a l l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e a s p e c t s o f R i e l ' s b e h a v i o u r . A t one s t e p f u r t h e r removed from t h e a u t h o r , t h e c h a i n of command remains i n t a c t i n so f a r as R i e l ' s i n t e n t i o n s can c o l o n i z e t h e words o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s and i n f l u e n c e t h e r e a d e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n towards them. In t h e f o l l o w i n g passage, f o r example, R i e l a p p r o p r i a t e s Bannatyne's word and f o r c e s i t t o s e r v e h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l ; Bannatyne t h u s speaks from a p o s i t i o n a t t h e v e r y bottom o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y : " I t r a d e w i t h a l l who t r a d e h o n e s t l y w i t h me," s a i d Bannatyne. [ R i e l : ] "How 'honest' do t h e y have t o be t o t r a d e . . . f r o m t h a t b i g powder magazine i n y o u r s t o r e ? " (42) As t h i s b r i e f s u r v e y o f each t i e r o f t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " d e m o n s t r a t e s , t h e same p a t t e r n o f dominance and s u b o r d i n a t i o n r e p r o d u c e s i t s e l f a t e v e r y l e v e l i n t h e t e x t of The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s d e c i d e how r e a d e r s hear F a l c o n ' s v o i c e ; F a l c o n ' s i n t e n t i o n s , i n t u r n , h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e r e a d e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n towards t h e words u t t e r e d by R i e l and t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s ; and because R i e l , t o o , i n c o r p o r a t e s o t h e r s ' words i n t o h i s own speech, h i s i n t e n t i o n s a f f e c t how r e a d e r s i n t e r p r e t and e v a l u a t e them. Wiebe's p r a c t i c e o f embedding r a n k s t h e v o i c e s i n t o a c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , w i t h each v o i c e s u b j e c t t o t h e a u t h o r i a l w i l l o f t h e s p e a k e r s i t u a t e d i m m e d i a t e l y above. As i n an army, a c h a i n o f command extends between t h e many v o i c e s which speak i n Wiebe's t e x t . I l l However, t h i s " c h a i n o f command" does not a l w a y s w i t h s t a n d t h e d i a l o g i z i n g f o r c e s Wiebe u n l e a s h e s . I n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n compounds i t s e l f i n t h e t e x t o f The S c o r c h e d - Wood P e o p l e . On each t i e r o f t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e , " competing a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s s t r u g g l e not o n l y w i t h i n r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e , b u t a l s o w i t h i n t h e words o f t h e r e p o r t e r . Wiebe f r e q u e n t l y p a r o d i e s t h e p a r o d i s t , and c o l o n i z e s t h e c o l o n i z e r . He may r e l e a s e an embedded u t t e r a n c e from i t s imprisonment w i t h i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f a r e p o r t e r who t r i e s t o make i t s e r v e a new p u r p o s e . Wiebe t h e r e b y a l l o w s v o i c e s w h i c h p l a y a minor c o m p o s i t i o n a l r o l e i n t h e t e x t r i s e above t h e i r o f f i c i a l s t a t i o n , and a d d r e s s r e a d e r s more d i r e c t l y , b y - p a s s i n g t h e m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t i v e v o i c e w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n t a i n s i t . No l o n g e r do r e a d e r s e n c o u n t e r embedded u t t e r a n c e s o n l y as bounded o b j e c t s i n a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r ' s speech. D e s p i t e t h e i r l o w l y p l a c e on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , Wiebe sometimes empowers t h e "minor" v o i c e s t o demand an e q u a l h e a r i n g . I n s h o r t , t h e t e x t r e - e n a c t s t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i t d e p i c t s : r e b e l l i o n e r u p t s on t h e page as i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l North-West. 251 V o l o s i n o v o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f how p a r o d i e d d i s c o u r s e may e x e r t a c o u n t e r f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e v o i c e w h i c h a t t e m p t s t o a p p r o p r i a t e i t s power: The v e r b a l dominant may s h i f t t o t h e r e p o r t e d speech, w h i c h i n t h a t c a s e becomes moire f o r c e f u l and more a c t i v e t h a n t h e a u t h o r i a l c o n t e x t f r a m i n g i t . T h i s t i m e , t h e r e p o r t e d speech b e g i n s t o r e s o l v e , as i t were, t h e r e p o r t i n g c o n t e x t , i n s t e a d o f t h e o t h e r way around. The a u t h o r i a l c o n t e x t l o s e s t h e g r e a t e r o b j e c t i v i t y i t n o r m a l l y commands i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h r e p o r t e d speech. I t b e g i n s t o p e r c e i v e i t s e l f — a n d even r e c o g n i z e s i t s e l f — a s s u b j e c t i v e , " o t h e r p e r s o n ' s " speech. (121) S u r v e y i n g t h e t e x t o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e f o r examples o f c o u n t e r - a p p r o p r i a t i o n s o f t h e k i n d d e s c r i b e d by V o l o i i n o v , t h e f i r s t p o i n t t o n o t i c e i s t h a t F a l c o n never s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e s Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l omnipotence, because Wiebe a l l o w s h i s n a r r a t o r v i r t u a l l y no language o f h i s own w i t h w h i c h t o a r t i c u l a t e such a c h a l l e n g e . 2 3 However, t h e h i e r a r c h y does b e g i n t o crumble on t h e l o w e r t i e r s o f t h e g r e a t d i a l o g u e . F a l c o n i s crowded out o f t h e t e x t as much by R i e l ' s v o i c e p u s h i n g up from "below" as by Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s i m p i n g i n g from "above." D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t R i e l ' s u t t e r a n c e s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l d i s c o u r s e , R i e l f r e q u e n t l y u p s t a g e s F a l c o n . Wiebe endorses R i e l , f o r example, on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r i e s t s ' m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e p o l i t i c a l cause o f t h e M e t i s p e o p l e . On t h i s i s s u e , a u t h o r and p r o t a g o n i s t band t o g e t h e r a g a i n s t n a r r a t o r . F a l c o n , d e s p i t e h i s d o u b t s , 252 c o n t i n u e s t o r e s p e c t t h e c h u r c h and t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p r i e s t s . 2 A Wiebe t h e r e f o r e empowers R i e l ' s v o i c e t o e x e r t a " c o u n t e r f o r c e , " t o r i s e above i t s o f f i c i a l r a n k i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , and p l a y t h e dominant r o l e i n i t s d i a l o g u e w i t h F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l v o i c e : I n a moment he [ R i e l ] f a c e d Andre a g a i n , h i s eyes h a r d as diamonds s h i n i n g w h i l e t h e wind r a t t l e d t h e house i n l o n g , s h u d d e r i n g g u s t s . R a i n dashed o v e r t h e r o o f a g a i n and a g a i n . "...We a r e i n g r e a t need now, much g r e a t e r need t h a n when a h e r d o v e r t h e next r i d g e c o u l d save us. I f you have n o t h i n g t o do o r say now b u t 'Obedience, q u i e t o b e d i e n c e ' , " he shrugged s u d d e n l y . "What good i s t h e pope, v i c a r o f God, i f he doesn't know we e x i s t ? " (202) The n a r r a t o r i a l frame, w h i c h mentions t h e h a r d n e s s i n R i e l ' s eyes and t h e r a i n and w i n d d a s h i n g on t h e r o o f , h i n t s o f something s i n i s t e r i n what R i e l i s about t o say. However, R i e l ' s v o i c e h a r n e s s e s t h e c o n c e r t e d powers o f p a t h o s , l o g i c and r h e t o r i c a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n t o compel r e a d e r s t o g r a n t t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s argument. F a l c o n ' s s u b t l e , u n d e r s t a t e d w a r n i n g c a r r i e s f a r l e s s d r a m a t i c f o r c e t h a n R i e l ' s words. Wiebe's p a t r o n a g e o f R i e l may be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t R i e l ' s i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s c l o s e l y i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s w i t h Wiebe's Mennonite B r e t h r e n b e l i e f s and v a l u e s . L i k e Wiebe, R i e l d i s a p p r o v e s o f a l c o h o l . He r e p e a t e d l y a d v o c a t e s peace and a t t e m p t s t o show l o v e towards h i s enemies: "Help us f i n d a way t o be good t o our enemies" ( 2 8 7 ) . L i k e John Reimer i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , R i e l endeavours t o c r e a t e a r e v o l u t i o n f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e . He 253 s t r i v e s ( l i k e t h e M e n n o n i t e B r e t h r e n ) 2 5 a g a i n s t an o s s i f i e d , o v e r - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d c h u r c h : "What good i s t h e pope, v i c a r o f God, i f he d o e s n ' t know we e x i s t ? " ( 2 0 2 ) . R i e l a l s o g i v e s v o i c e t o Wiebe's Mennonite b e l i e f i n t h e c o n t i n u a l r e n e w a l o f God's word t h r o u g h d i r e c t d i a l o g u e between each i n d i v i d u a l and God: "Only p r i e s t s can speak f o r God," he [ R i e l ] s a i d b i t t e r l y . "And t h e y always say what has always been s a i d . . . t h e y a l l say e x a c t l y t h e same o l d t h i n g . Do you t h i n k God has had n o t h i n g new t o say t o anyone i n two thousand y e a r s ? " (180) The p r i e s t s ' comprehension o f God was bound by t h e Church, by t h e n e c e s s i t y o f f o r m u l a , b u t t h e r e v e l a t i o n of t h o s e who d a r e d b e l i e y e t o o k t h e b e l i e v e r f a r beyond t h a t . (329) In an i n t e r v i e w w i t h B r i a n Bergman, Wiebe h i g h l i g h t s h i s agreement w i t h R i e l on t h e q u e s t i o n s o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e and t h e c h u r c h ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s towards t h e p o o r . Responding t o Bergman's o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t R i e l t u r n s a g a i n s t t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h , Wiebe s a y s , Yes, and one o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s i s t h a t he h i t s t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h on e x a c t l y t h e same p o i n t t h a t t h e A n a b a p t i s t s d i d : t h a t i s , t h e c h u r c h p u t t i n g form and s t r u c t u r e o v e r and above j u s t i c e t o t h e p o o r — t h e k i n d o f human j u s t i c e t h a t everyone s h o u l d e x p e c t . So on t h e Saskatchewan i n 1885 t h e p r i e s t s a r e s a y i n g , i n e f f e c t : t o t h e Hudson's Bay Company, l i s t e n t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t — t h e y know what's good f o r you. And R i e l s a y s : how can we l i s t e n , how can we go and w o r s h i p i n y o u r Church when our p e o p l e a r e s t a r v i n g a t home and our c h i l d r e n a r e c o l d ; how can we do t h a t ? On t h e Saskatchewan i n 1885 t h e Church j u s t t o t a l l y a b d i c a t e s t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r j u s t i c e which i s p a r t o f t h e whole J e s u s message. P a r t o f J e s u s ' message was t h a t when he came t o t h i s e a r t h he would p r o c l a i m freedom and j u s t i c e f o r t h e poor o f t h e w o r l d — t h a t f i t s i n w e l l w i t h what t h e A n a b a p t i s t s were s a y i n g and I f i n d t h a t v e r y i n t r i g u i n g . " (Bergman 167) 254 I t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t R i e l ' s v o i c e may b r e a k out of i t s bondage w i t h i n F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l u t t e r a n c e , b u t i n d o i n g so i t o n l y r e i t e r a t e s i t s s u b j e c t i o n t o Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s . L i k e G a b r i e l Dumont, who f i n d s h i m s e l f " f r e e d . . . c o m p l e t e l y i n t o h i s most c e r t a i n bondage" ( 2 2 4 - 5 ) , R i e l ' s v o i c e shakes o f f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i t s immediate s u p e r i o r i'n t h e t e x t , o n l y t o a c t i n c l o s e r a c c o r d w i t h t h e w i l l o f a h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y . But t h i s h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y has a m a r k e d l y a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e towards R i e l . Wiebe s u p p o r t s R i e l ' s cause b u t cannot condone h i s l a p s e s i n t o p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . Wiebe t h e r e f o r e p u t s two d i s t i n c t languages i n t o t h e mouth o f h i s p r o t a g o n i s t : a language o f peace and l o v e w h i c h e n j o y s Wiebe's f u l l a u t h o r i a l endorsement, and a language o f h a t r e d and v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w h i c h Wiebe l e v e l s h i s condemnation. R i e l can s w i t c h , f o r example, f r o m "0 most h o l y L o r d J e s u s , s t r e n g t h e n my f a i t h . H e l p me t o l o v e my p e o p l e a c c o r d i n g t o y o u r mercy, w h i c h i s b e a u t i f u l beyond measure. Amen." (188) t o " . . . g i v e us h e a r t s o f s t e e l , t h a t our k n i v e s may f i n d t h e i r bones; when t h e y w o u l d t e a r our d a u g h t e r s from u s , t e a r out t h e i r h e a r t s , r o t them i n t h e sun o f y o u r w r a t h , l e t b e a s t s swarm i n t h e s t r i n g s o f t h e i r i n t e s t i n e s . . . e x e c u t e vengeance on t h e h e a t h e n , s t e e l us i n h a t r e d , your d i v i n e and p e r f e c t h a t r e d . . . . " (226) The d u a l i t y o f R i e l ' s v o i c e means t h a t Wiebe's d i a l o g i c 255 a n g l e t o i t cannot r e m a i n c o n s t a n t o r unambiguous. I n t h e two passages quoted above, R i e l ' s two languages s e p a r a t e i n t o s t y l i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t b l o c k s , but oh many o c c a s i o n s t h e two b l e n d and i n t e r w e a v e so c l o s e l y t h a t Wiebe's d i a l o g i c a n g l e t o R i e l ' s v o i c e must i t s e l f become d o u b l e d . Wiebe s t y l i z e s R i e l ' s "New Testament v o i c e , " b u t p a r o d i e s R i e l ' s "Old Testament v o i c e . " Wiebe g r a n t s R i e l ' s g e n t l e "New Testament v o i c e " s u f f i c i e n t o p p o r t u n i t y t o speak i n s e l f - d e f e n c e ; but i n f r e e i n g R i e l ' s t h u n d e r o u s , v e n g e f u l "Old Testament v o i c e , " Wiebe f o l l o w s t h e l e a d o f Judge B l a c k , Chairman o f t h e M e t i s N a t i o n a l Committee, who "had d e c i d e d t o a l l o w R i e l t o hang h i m s e l f as e f f e c t i v e l y as h i s u n c o n t r o l l a b l e temper c o u l d manage" ( 6 5 ) . Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s i n v a d e R i e l ' s speech from f o u r d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . F i r s t , Wiebe works t h r o u g h t h e n a r r a t o r i a l m e d i a t i o n s o f P i e r r e F a l c o n c o n c e a l e d "above" R i e l on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . Second, Wiebe r e f r a c t s h i s i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s of o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s whose speech F a l c o n t r a n s m i t s , c h a r a c t e r s who occupy t h e same l e v e l as R i e l on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . T h i r d , Wiebe e n l i s t s t h e minor v o i c e s o f t h e t e x t i n a s u r p r i s e a t t a c k from "below": t h e v o i c e s R i e l a p p r o p r i a t e s , no l e s s t h a n R i e l ' s v o i c e , can r i s e above t h e i r l o w l y s t a t i o n , and command a degree o f a t t e n t i o n out of a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r o f f i c i a l rank on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . And f o u r t h , 256 Wiebe uses s t r a t e g i e s o f a n a c r i s i s i n t h e hope o f r e f r a c t i n g h i s a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e r e a d e r ' s e x i s t i n g i n n e r speech.. Many v o i c e s o t h e r t h a n R i e l ' s f i n d a p l a c e w i t h i n P i e r r e F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t i o n . The c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y r a n k s t h e s e v o i c e s as R i e l ' s p e e r s , b u t d e s p i t e t h e i r e q u a l s t a t u s , t h e y r e m a i n u n o b t r u s i v e i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s v o i c e w h i c h d o m i n a t e s — i n d e e d a t t i m e s m o n o p o l i s e s — t h e t e x t . A p a r a l l e l t h u s e x i s t s between t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f R i e l ' s v o i c e o v e r i t s p o t e n t i a l r i v a l s i n t h e t e x t , and R i e l ' s t e n d e n c y t o domineer o v e r a l l o t h e r v o i c e s i n t h e North-West. R i e l p r o c l a i m s t h a t "the P r o v i s i o n a l Government must r e p r e s e n t a l l t h e p e o p l e o f Red R i v e r " ( 6 2 ) , y e t a t y r a n n i c a l element i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y compels him t o shout down d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e s . R i e l can say, on t h e one hand, "We p e o p l e o f t h e North-West demand, a l l o f us t o g e t h e r , our j u s t r i g h t s ! " ( 5 7 ) ; b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, he cannot t o l e r a t e t h o s e who do not t o v o t e i n f a v o u r o f h i s p r o p o s a l s : "You can a l l go t o t h e d e v i l , we s h a l l have a p r o v i n c e ! No m a t t e r how you t r a i t o r s v o t e ! " ( 6 4 ) . 2 6 I n h i s p a s s i o n a t e d e s i r e t o r e a l i z e h i s p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o f an E d e n i c New N a t i o n , R i e l v i o l a t e s t h e m o r a l and s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s he s t r u g g l e s t o a t t a i n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , he c o n t r a v e n e s t h e r i g h t o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , s i n c e t h e f r e e e x e r c i s e 257 o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e forms one o f t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s o f t h e Mennonite B r e t h r e n Church, Wiebe p r o c l a i m s h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o R i e l on t h i s p o i n t : C h a r l e s N o l i n r i s e s t o h i s f e e t and s h o u t s , " I was not s e n t here t o v o t e a t y o u r d i r e c t i o n ! I v o t e a c c o r d i n g t o my c o n s c i e n c e " ( 6 4 ) . Wiebe here r e f r a c t s h i s v o i c e t h r o u g h t h a t o f one o f R i e l ' s most dangerous a d v e r s a r i e s , a "bad-guy" whose words t h e r e a d e r might i n i t i a l l y be i n c l i n e d t o d i s m i s s . The e x e c u t i o n o f Tom S c o t t d r a m a t i s e s most e x p l i c i t l y R i e l ' s t y r a n n i c a l i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e word o f God on t h e p e o p l e of t h e North-West. Wiebe f o r e g r o u n d s t h e o f f e n s i v e q u a l i t i e s o f Tom S c o t t ' s speech: "You c a l l t h a t a t r i a l ? . . . A j u r y o f n o t h i n g b u t Pope a s s - l i c k e r s , h o l y j e s - u g h ! " ( 8 1 ) ; "Jesus C h r i s t Rev...I j u s t .escaped l i k e any f u c k i n g p r i s o n e r w i l l " ( 8 3 ) ; "That f a r t wouldn't d a r e s h o o t an Orangeman!" ( 8 4 ) . But he a l s o t a k e s c a r e t o r e g i s t e r t h a t i n t h e moments b e f o r e b e i n g s h o t , as Tom S c o t t ' s "mouth found t h o s e s o l i d words" (87) o f t h e L o r d ' s P r a y e r , u g l y blasphemy t r a n s f o r m s i t s e l f i n t o s i n c e r e , d e s p e r a t e w o r s h i p . But R i e l has a l r e a d y g i v e n t h e o r d e r t o e x t e r m i n a t e S c o t t ' s d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e . S c o t t ' s e x e c u t i o n f o r b l a s p h e m y — t h e o f f i c i a l charge i s " i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n " (79)--prompts a c h o r u s o f p r e d i c t a b l e condemnatory remarks from R i e l ' s p o l i t i c a l a d v e r s a r i e s . Donald Smith argues t h a t "To k — s h o o t him i s t h e w o r s t 258 p o s s i b l e p o l i t i c a l b l u n d e r " ( 8 5 ) . S i r John A. Macdonald says w i t h wry s a t i s f a c t i o n "Now he's gone and shot a man" ( 8 8 ) . Dr. John C h r i s t i a n S c h u l t z r o u s e s t h e w r a t h o f Orange O n t a r i o w i t h "Tommy S c o t t was most f o u l l y and u n n a t u r a l l y murdered! Murdered!" ( 9 2 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e s e t h r e e v o i c e s condemn S c o t t ' s e x e c u t i o n f o r t h e i r own r e p r e h e n s i b l e r e a s o n s , t h e i r c l a i m s r e s i s t easy d i s m i s s a l because t h e y a l l u d e t o Tom S c o t t ' s humanity and ( a l b e i t i n a d v e r t e n t l y ) t o God's commandment "Thou s h a l t not k i l l . " Wiebe r e f r a c t s h i s most t e l l i n g condemnation o f R i e l and h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e M e t i s " b u l l e t - m e n " t h r o u g h a drunken anonymous v o i c e s l u r r i n g t a l l s t o r i e s — "rumours" F a l c o n c a l l s t h e m — i n t h e s a l o o n : I f R i e l was such a f u c k i n g C h r i s t i a n l i k e he i s always y e l l i n g , so k i n d and u n i t i n g everybody, a l w a y s p r a y i n g i n t h e C a t h e d r a l over t h e r e w i t h t h o s e nuns...why not l e t [Reverend] Young have i t [ S c o t t ' s body] t o send t o O n t a r i o so h i s mother c o u l d b u r y i t p r o p e r ? Why n o t ? . . . . They'd never l e t anybody see what t h e y done t o him b e f o r e t h e y f i n a l l y g o t t h e poor bugger k i — E l z e a r G o u l e t and G a b r i e l Dumont were a t t h e doorway, coming i n , and t h e e v e n i n g d a r k n e s s b e h i n d them pushed them up perhaps a l i t t l e l a r g e r t h a n t h e y r e a l l y were, a l t h o u g h t h e y b o t h were l a r g e enough even i n o r d i n a r y l i g h t . The whole room was f l o a t i n g w i t h s i l e n c e ; as i f a b i g hand had w i p e d o v e r a l l t h e men and not one c o u l d remember t h e word j u s t t a k e n out o f h i s mouth. (90) Through a s o c i a l d i a l e c t f a r removed from h i s own (and t h u s c o n s t i t u t e d as a bounded o b j e c t i n t h e t e x t ) Wiebe g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e m o r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n i m p l i c i t i n R i e l ' s p r a c t i c e o f k i l l i n g h i s way towards a p e a c e f u l , C h r i s t i a n U t o p i a . 259 Falcon's discourse then takes over to point out that the Metis giants, Goulet and Dumont, intimidate the non-Metis community into not applying the word " k i l l " to R i e l ' s execution of Tom Scott. At the same time as he dramatizes the Metis' repression of the word " k i l l , " Wiebe gives t h i s word a special resonance i n the text. Goulet and Dumont refuse to allow the word " k i l l " to sound within t h e i r hearing, but Wiebe's intention i s p r e c i s e l y the opposite. He wants his readers to hear " k i l l " loud and clear. By repeatedly c u r t a i l i n g the word " k i l l , " Wiebe places the accent squarely upon i t . Moreover, curtailment i s a strategy of a n a c r i s i s . The reader must add the c r u c i a l missing phoneme to " k i — " before the sense of the passage becomes at a l l clear. Instead of condemning R i e l ' s "execution" of Tom Scott d i r e c t l y and e x p l i c i t l y , Wiebe e n l i s t s the voice of the reader to do i t for him. Wiebe also opposes R i e l by e n l i s t i n g the a i d of voices R i e l has captured p a r o d i c a l l y i n his utterances. These lowly voices, appropriated several times over, occupy the most subordinate p o s i t i o n on the compositional hierarchy. Theoretically, t h e i r words bear the stamp of several authorial w i l l s : the speaker's, R i e l ' s , Falcon's and Wiebe's. Despite the v e r t i c a l distance which separates them 260 from t h e h i g h e s t s e a t of a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l , Wiebe can empower t h e s e l o w l y v o i c e s t o b r e a k out o f t h e ' i r imprisonment w i t h i n R i e l ' s "Old Testament v o i c e . " L i k e R i e l ' s v o i c e i n r e l a t i o n t o F a l c o n ' s , t h e s e s u b o r d i n a t e v o i c e s can e x e r t a c o u n t e r f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e v o i c e s which attempt t o a p p r o p r i a t e them. 2 7 Wiebe can a c c o m p l i s h such a r e l e a s e because t h e l o w l y v o i c e s b r i n g a n o t h e r v o i c e i n t o t h e t e x t , t h e v o i c e o f t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y , k n o w n t o Wiebe: [ l ] " A n d t h e Church o f c o u r s e must c o n t r o l e v e r y t h i n g , " [2] s a i d R i e l . I t was e a r l y a f t e r n o o n b u t t h e l i g h t i n t h e s m a l l c h u r c h was t u r n i n g g r e y , a l m o s t s i n i s t e r . [3] "Dear c h i l d r e n , be o b e d i e n t . Be s i m p l e and c o n t e n t w i t h a n y t h i n g on e a r t h , because God w i l l g i v e you p e r f e c t h a p p i n e s s i n heaven. I f t h e company pays you t e n c e n t s f o r a r a t s k i n and l a t e r s e l l s i t f o r a d o l l a r , d o n ' t c o m p l a i n . You reward i s i n heaven. When s p e c u l a t o r s g e t you drunk and t a k e y o u r l a n d s c r i p f o r t e n d o l l a r s , don't b e a t them up when y o u ' r e s o b e r . Vengeance i s mine, I w i l l r e p a y says t h e L o r d , perhaps on e a r t h b u t more l i k e l y i n h e l l , t h a t ' s where I ' l l r e a l l y r e p a y t h o s e w i t h t h e i r b e l l i e s so t i g h t f u l l on e a r t h e v e r y day. [4] I've h e a r d i t a l l t h a t F a t h e r , and I h a t e i t . " (201) R i e l ' s v o i c e speaks " a l o n e " 2 8 i n S e c t i o n 4, w h i l e i n S e c t i o n s 1 and 3, he p a r o d i c a l l y r e v o i c e s t h e words o f t h e p r i e s t s . Wiebe empowers R i e l t o parody t h e p r i e s t s ' words i n S e c t i o n 1, b u t i n S e c t i o n 3, t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e v o i c e s becomes e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d and ambiguous. R i e l r e v o i c e s t h e p r i e s t s ' words w h i c h i n t u r n r e v o i c e t h e words o f a n o t h e r : J e s u s . The p r i e s t s draw t h e i r argument from J e s u s ' Sermon on t h e Mount. ( S e c t i o n 3 ranges between l o o s e p a r a p h r a s e and d i r e c t v e r b a t i m q u o t a t i o n o f Matthew 5:3- 12). 9 But t h e p r i e s t s i n v o k e t h e power of J e s u s ' words f o r an i l l e g i t i m a t e r e a s o n , t o d e f e n d t h e i r own h o l d o v e r t h e p e o p l e . Wiebe endorses R i e l ' s p a r o d y o f t h e p r i e s t s ' p a r o d y o f J e s u s ' words, because he a g r e e s w i t h R i e l ' s b e l i e f t h a t t h e c h u r c h s h o u l d show more c o n c e r n f o r t h e poor t h a n f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f i t s own power. 3 0 However, Wiebe does not e n t i r e l y r e j e c t t h e p r i e s t s ' argument. He s u p p o r t s t h e p r i e s t s i n so f a r as t h e y r e s i s t any v i o l e n t a c t i o n . F a l c o n warns i n S e c t i o n 2 o f s o m e t h i n g amiss i n R i e l ' s s p e e c h , and as R i e l speaks i n S e c t i o n 3, h i s v o i c e becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y more b i t t e r and a n g r y , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e pure h a t r e d o f S e c t i o n 4. An element o f p a r o d y c r e e p s i n t o Wiebe's h a n d l i n g o f R i e l ' s u t t e r a n c e . S i n c e Wiebe i n t e n s i f i e s t h i s p a r o d i c e f f e c t i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e dominance o f R i e l ' s "Old Testament v o i c e , " Wiebe does not a l l o w R i e l t o s u c c e e d e n t i r e l y i n v a n g u i s h i n g t h e p r i e s t s ' words. I n t h i s p a s s a g e , Wiebe g i v e s h i s w h o l e h e a r t e d s u p p o r t n e i t h e r t o R i e l nor t o t h e p r i e s t s , b u t o n l y t o t h e words o f J e s u s s u b o r d i n a t e d i n t h e i r u t t e r a n c e s . L i k e Thorn Wiens i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, who wants t o s c r a p e J e s u s ' words bare o f t h e i r " a c q u i r e d meanings" (PPM 2 3 7 ) , Wiebe s e a r c h e s t h r o u g h t h e l a y e r s o f h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d human v o i c e s , t o f i n d . "God's r e v e l a t i o n " (PPM 237) c o n c e a l e d p e r m a n e n t l y a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e words. By b r i n g i n g J e s u s ' words i n t o t h e f r a y , Wiebe r e f e r s 262 t h e m o r a l i s s u e s i n q u e s t i o n t o t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y he r e c o g n i s e s as a M e n n o n i t e . By t h i s c a p i t u l a t i o n , Wiebe t u r n s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y o f t h e t e x t u p s i d e down. He a l l o w s J e s u s ' v o i c e , t h e l o w l i e s t v o i c e , t o i n h e r i t t h e t e x t as i t were, t o d e c i d e t h e meaning and a u t h o r i t y o f a l l t h e u t t e r a n c e s w h i c h , i n c o m p o s i t i o n a l terms, dominate t h e t e x t . IV The u n w i e l d i n e s s o f any t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s o f r e l a t i o n s between t h e v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e t e x t p r o v i d e s an i n d e x o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f Wiebe's n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . C l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t r e v e a l s a degree o f i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n u n p a r a l l e l e d i n any o f Wiebe's o t h e r works, a s h i f t i n g , l a b y r i n t h i n e p a t t e r n o f r e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r i a l v o i c e . The p r e v a i l i n g n o t i o n t h a t R i e l f u n c t i o n s c o n s i s t e n t l y and e x c l u s i v e l y as a mouthpiece f o r t h e a u t h o r l e a v e s t h e s e c o m p l e x i t i e s e n t i r e l y out o f a c c o u n t . Wiebe a r t i c u l a t e s a h i g h l y a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e towards R i e l , and t o w a r d t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t r u g g l e t o p o s s e s s t h e North-West. Wiebe c a l l s i n t o g u e s t i o n t h e c l e a r b o r d e r l i n e s e p a r a t i n g a l l i e s from enemies i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . The M e t i s e x p e r i e n c e o f a m b i v a l e n c e , d i v i d e d l o y a l t i e s and 263 r a c i a l p l u r a l i t y functions metonymically to dramatize a universal p l i g h t . No-one i n the text, no matter what, his or her r a c i a l heritage, has a unitary s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . John C h r i s t i a n Schultz, inflamer of Orange Ontario, i s a Roman Catholic, l i k e R i e l . S i r John A. Macdonald, l i k e R i e l , i s a Conservative. R i e l ' s Quebec L i b e r a l "friends" threaten to d i s c r e d i t his prophetic witness altogether. Wiebe dramatizes the continuous m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n of walls and party l i n e s as allegiances s h i f t and evolve over time. Having modelled a world where b a t t l e f r o n t s multiply and intersect, and where friends cannot wholly be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from foes, i t i s hardly s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d Wiebe a r t i c u l a t i n g an ambivalent a t t i t u d e towards his protagonist and a l l the other members of the dramatis personae. Wiebe's cautious, c a r e f u l , discriminatory approach to R i e l brings to mind a remark he made to Donald Cameron: the ones that one would think c l o s e s t . . . are the ones most to be mistrusted...because they w i l l most e a s i l y lead you astray, you know—on important points, always. (147-8) Wiebe t r e a t s R i e l with extreme caution because he shares so many of R i e l ' s values and b e l i e f s . He e n l i s t s R i e l ' s support to f i g h t opponents on the two "contestational fronts" (5) i d e n t i f i e d by Solecki, but on a t h i r d front Wiebe struggles against his protagonist. Whenever R i e l s t r i v e s to gain s o c i a l j u s t i c e , Wiebe endorses his p o l i t i c a l cause; but. when R i e l succumbs to the temptation" of violence, 264 Wiebe t r e a t s him as an a d v e r s a r y . I n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s e x i s t between t h e North-West r e b e l l i o n and t h e h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b i r t h o f t h e Mennonite Church. D u r i n g t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , t h e e a r l y Mennonite Church d e f i n e d i t s e l f e x p r e s s l y a g a i n s t t h e o s s i f i e d , h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Roman C a t h o l i c c h u r c h , a g a i n s t L u t h e r ' s m i l i t a r i s t i c a l l i a n c e o f c h u r c h and s t a t e , and most p a r t i c u l a r l y a g a i n s t t h e v i o l e n t methods espoused by c e r t a i n r a d i c a l f a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e A n a b a p t i s t movement. R i e l ' s " f i g h t f o r t h e l o v e o f God" (219) b e a r s a r e m a r k a b l e resemblance t o t h e b l o o d y campaigns o r g a n i s e d by t h e c h a r i s m a t i c A n a b a p t i s t l e a d e r s o f t h e M u e n s t e r i t e and t h e D a v i d i a n s e c t s . These men of v i s i o n t r i e d , l i k e R i e l , t o e s t a b l i s h t h e Kingdom o f God on e a r t h , b u t were d e f e a t e d by m i l i t a r y f o r c e s m a r s h a l l e d by t h e s t a t e . 3 1 The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e may be r e a d as a p a r a b l e a g a i n s t v i o l e n c e . Wiebe p r o v i d e s many images o f v i o l e n c e t u r n i n g a g a i n s t i t ' s p e r p e t r a t o r s . I n t h e o p e n i n g c h a p t e r , M c D o u g a l l ' s d r i v e r r e a c h e s f o r a r i f l e c o n c e a l e d amongst f u r s , b u t i n a d v e r t e n t l y aims t h e weapon a t h i m s e l f : "he had come up a t t h e wrong end! He was c l u t c h i n g t h e b a r r e l " ( 1 6 ) . A t Duck Lake, C r o z i e r ' s men a c c i d e n t a l l y l o a d t h e b a l l b e f o r e t h e powder, c a u s i n g t h e cannon t o b a c k f i r e ( 2 3 8 ) . These images c o r r o b o r a t e Kenneth Hoeppner's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t 265 Wiebe d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t t h e M e t i s n a t i o n f a i l e d i n i t s s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n government because R i e l ' s m i s s i o n i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e i r a d o p t i n g t h e b e s t m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y . The M e t i s f a i l e d t o become a permanent new n a t i o n because t h e y became m i l i t a r i l y engaged w i t h Macdonald's government. (442) The v i g n e t t e o f A n n i e Dumont and her two s u i t o r s , P a t r i c e Tourond and N a p o l e o n N a u l t , i n d i c a t e s how t h e c o n t e n d e r s f o r t h e North-West might o t h e r w i s e have behaved. On t h e eve o f t h e B a t t l e o f Batoche, as t h e " s o n [ s ] o f O n t a r i o " (92) and t h e sons o f t h e North-West p r e p a r e t o k i l l each o t h e r ( u n m i n d f u l t h a t t h e y a r e a l s o sons o f a God who l o v e s them a l l ) A n n i e l i e s between her two s u i t o r s and t e l l s them, " I l o v e you b o t h and you've been so good, b o t h o f you, always c o n s i d e r a t e and g e n t l e and not f i g h t i n g " ( 2 9 0 ) . The p a t i e n c e and r e s t r a i n t o f P a t r i c e and Napoleon p r o v i d e a m o r a l s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t w h i c h t o measure t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h o s e who contend f o r c o n t r o l over t h e North-West. T h i s v i g n e t t e a l s o o f f e r s an s u g g e s t i v e image o f d i a l o g i z e d u t t e r a n c e : A n n i e , c o n c e a l e d i n d a r k n e s s , speaks t o "each o f them and t o g e t h e r as i f t h e y were o n l y two p e o p l e a l o n e i n t h e w o r l d " (290). A n n i e Dumont speaks t o her two l o v e r s as Wiebe i m a g i n e s God speaks t o humankind. Her words become d i a l o g i z e d as soon as t h e y l e a v e her mouth and l o d g e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e s e p a r a t e psyches o f her a d d r e s s e e s . The c o n t e s t a n t s i n t h e North-West R e b e l l i o n a l l c l a i m t h e y f i g h t i n d e f e n c e o f t h e Word o f 266 God, y e t each group h e a r s t h e Word v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y . More o f t e n t h a n n o t , t h e y a p p r o p r i a t e God's Word t o l e g i t i m i s e greed and o p p r e s s i o n . Wiebe denounces t h e i n t o l e r a n c e and h y p o c r i s y o f a n a t i o n w h i c h c a l l s i t s e l f C h r i s t i a n y e t equates p r o p h e t i c communication w i t h i n s a n i t y : When J u k e s was a s k e d d u r i n g t h e t r i a l , " I f i t c o u l d be p r o v e d t h a t a man i s l a b o u r i n g under an i n s a n e d e l u s i o n t h a t he i s i n d i r e c t communication w i t h t h e H o l y Ghost ( I would a s k , why s h o u l d t h a t be an i n s a n e d e l u s i o n ? Cannot 'the H o l y Ghost communicate, d i r e c t l y , t o whomsoever h e — i t — w i s h e s ? ) , would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h a t a c t ? " , he r e p l i e d , "Men have h e l d v e r y s t r a n g e , r e m a r k a b l e v i e w s on r e l i g i o n a and have been d e c l a r e d i n s a n e u n t i l t h e y g a t h e r e d g r e a t numbers o f f o l l o w e r s and became l e a d e r s of a new s e c t and t h e n , s u d d e n l y , t h e y were g r e a t p r o p h e t s and g r e a t men. Take Muhammed, f o r i n s t a n c e . Few b e l i e v e d him, most t h o u g h t him mad, b u t he c a r r i e d out h i s b e l i e f a t t h e p o i n t o f t h e sword and so c o n v i n c e d h a l f t h e w o r l d o f t h a t w h i c h , i f he had f a i l e d , w o u l d have been c o n s i d e r e d s i m p l y a d e l u s i o n of t h e mind. I s t h i s d i r e c t f r a u d , honest d e l u s i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l power, o r t r u l y g u i d a n c e f r o m t h e d i v i n e ? I would not be g u a l i f i e d t o say." (330) J u k e s ' words have r a m i f i c a t i o n s which e x t e n d f a r beyond t h e q u e s t i o n o f L o u i s R i e l ' s s a n i t y . They b r i n g i n t o f o c u s a q u e s t i o n c e n t r a l t o Wiebe's e n t i r e oeuvre: do r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s g a i n ascendancy as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r a b s o l u t e , i n n a t e t r u t h - v a l u e o r because t y r a n n i c a l , i m p e r i a l i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l s and groups s e i z e c o n t r o l o f t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y and impose t h e i r b e l i e f s v i o l e n t l y upon o t h e r s ? Augustus J u k e s ' words i m p l i c i t l y concede t o t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f a l l human p e r c e p t i o n s o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h . T h i s c o n c e s s i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y deny t h a t a b s o l u t e , m o n o l o g i c t r u t h e x i s t s ; b u t i t does say t h a t humankind can o n l y g a i n a c c e s s 267 t o such t r u t h d i a l o g i c a l l y , t h a t i s , as i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e c o n t i n g e n t , m u l t i - v o i c e d w o r l d o f h i s t o r i c a l a c t u a l i t y . J u k e s ' p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h o f f e r s a p o s s i b l e key t o one o f t h e most p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s o f Wiebe's n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . Wiebe s h i f t s h i s n a r r a t o r up and down from g r o u n d - l e v e l t o an e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n o f p o s t - h i s t o r i c a l o m n i s c i e n c e , even t o t h e e x t e n t o f p e r m i t t i n g him t o speak posthumously. As F a l c o n s h i f t s between t h e s e two p o s i t i o n s , one a c o r r e l a t i v e o f d i a l o g i c v i s i o n , t h e o t h e r o f monologism, Wiebe h o l d s t h e two i n a t e n s e b a l a n c e , as i f a t once a c c e p t i n g and d e n y i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of a l l human p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h . F a l c o n ' s immersion i n t h e M e t i s l i f e - w o r l d acknowledges t h e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i t y o f a l l human t r u t h s . When F a l c o n speaks from g r o u n d - l e v e l , Wiebe i m p l i c i t l y concedes t h a t human c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f meaning a r e always p r o v i s i o n a l , p r o d u c t s o f o n g o i n g h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e and communal d i s c o v e r y . Through t h e posthumous, e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l v o i c e o f F a l c o n , Wiebe can i m a g i n a t i v e l y t r a n s c e n d t h e p e r c e p t u a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f a l l who remain bound w i t h i n t h e c o n t i n g e n t h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d , where t r u t h can o n l y be d i s c o v e r e d d i a l o g i c a l l y . F a l c o n ' s p o s t - h i s t o r i c a l o m n i s c i e n c e , h i s v i e w from "beyond t h e g r a v e " (184) works r h e t o r i c a l l y t o de- 268 h i s t o r i c i z e , and hence a u t h o r i z e , t r u t h s w h i c h Wiebe b e l i e v e s t o be t h e a b s o l u t e . F a l c o n ' s d u a l n a r r a t o r i a l p o s i t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t a b s o l u t e T r u t h e x i s t s , b u t u n t i l t h e moment o f d e a t h and r e v e l a t i o n , human p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h a t t r u t h must r e m a i n p r o v i s i o n a l and c o n t i n g e n t on h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . Wiebe a l r e a d y p e r c e i v e s t h e gap between T r u t h and human knowledge w h i c h he w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e f u r t h e r i n My L o v e l y Enemy. 269 NOTES TO CHAPTER 6: THE SCORCHED-WOOD PEOPLE 1. Wayne A. T e f s , i n "Rudy Wiebe: M y s t e r y and R e a l i t y , " M o s a i c X I / 4 : 155-58, o b j e c t s t o Wiebe's C h r i s t i a n c o l o n i z a t i o n o f N a t i v e I n d i a n and M e t i s h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . He a r g u e s t h a t i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , Wiebe s u p p l i e s a r e l i g i o u s answer t o what i s e s s e n t i a l l y a p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n : " c a s t i n g t h e i r p l i g h t i n s p i r i t u a l germs [ s i c ] b l u r s t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e i r dilemmas" ( 1 5 8 ) . T e f s ' argument o v e r l o o k s o r perhaps r e j e c t s one o f t h e main p o i n t s Wiebe t r i e s t o make i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e : t h a t God i s t h e u l t i m a t e a u t h o r o f h i s t o r y and a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s and dilemmas, p o l i t i c a l o r o t h e r w i s e , w h i c h c o n f r o n t humankind. T e f s comes p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o a d o p t i n g t h e same p o s i t i o n as F a t h e r Andre who c l a i m s "you cannot mix r e l i g i o n and p o l i t i c s " ( 2 0 1 ) . R i e l ' s r e p l y t o Andre p a r r i e s T e f s ' c r i t i c a l o b j e c t i o n i n advance: " I f we a r e whole p e o p l e , we mix e v e r y t h i n g we a r e " ( 2 0 1 ) . In The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , as i n a l l h i s o t h e r n o v e l s , Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e h y p o c r i s y w h i c h a r i s e s when p e o p l e c o n f i n e s p i r i t u a l l i f e t o a s e p a r a t e compartment w i t h i n t h e p s y c h e , i s o l a t e d from and i r r e l e v a n t t o a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e . 2. U n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l f u r t h e r page r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n C h a p t e r 6 r e f e r The S c o r c h e d - Wood P e o p l e ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1977). 3. Thomas F l a n a g a n , one o f Wiebe's major s o u r c e s f o r The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , o f f e r s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e word "prophet" w h i c h a p p e a r s t o have i n f l u e n c e d Wiebe's t r e a t m e n t o f R i e l : Today, i n common p a r l a n c e , p r o p h e c y has become confounded w i t h p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n ; b u t i n o r i g i n t h e two a r e d i s t i n c t . A p r o p h e t i s p r i m a r i l y one who speaks from t h e l i v i n g i n s p i r a t i o n o f God.... Now t h e p r o p h e t may i n c i d e n t a l l y t e l l t h e f u t u r e , b u t h i s main c o n c e r n i s t o r e v e a l God's w i l l t o mankind. The p r o p h e t . . . s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d fom t h e p r i e s t . A p r i e s t i s an o f f i c i a l , a f u n c t i o n a r y , who owes h i s p o s i t i o n t o t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n w h i c h he s e r v e s . A p r o p h e t i s e x t r a - i n s t i t u t i o n a l ; he has t h e a u t h o r i t y o f d i v i n e c h a r i s m a m a n i f e s t e d i n h i s h o l y l i f e , h i s v i s i o n s and r e v e l a t i o n s , h i s a b i l i t y t o work m i r a c l e s . " L o u i s R i e l : I n s a n i t y and Prophecy," t s . RWP 41.6D, p. 7. 4. Wiebe l i s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b l e t i t l e s f o r t h e n o v e l : A l i e n s , The S i x t e e n Y e a r s War, Founder o f M a n i t o b a , R i e l and G a b r i e l , T r o u b l e s on t h e Saskatchewan, A World D e s t r o y e d , N a t i o n o f B u r n t Wood, The B u r n t Wood P e o p l e o f t h e P l a i n s , 270 B u r n t Wood N a t i o n . S c o r c h e d Wood, P e o p l e t o B u r n , S i n g e d Wood P e o p l e , P r e s i d e n t o f M a n i t o b a , Second Coming, and G a b r i e l ' s Army. RWP 39.6, 39.8, 41.11. 5. RWP 39.6. 6. T h i s e p i g r a p h was o m i t t e d from t h e New C a n a d i a n L i b r a r y E d i t i o n o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . 7. See V o l o g i n o v 23 f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f " m u l t i a c c e n t u a l i t y " i n t h e u t t e r a n c e . 8. One of Wiebe's s o u r c e s . f o r The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e i s Joseph K i n s e y Howard's S t r a n g e Empire: N a r r a t i v e o f t h e North-West (New York: Morrow, 1952). 9. Reviewers and c r i t i c s o f t h e n o v e l u s u a l l y assume Wiebe and R i e l speak as one; see Sam S o l e c k i , Review o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e , i n VL 174-178; " G i a n t F i c t i o n s and Large Meanings: The N o v e l s o f Rudy Wiebe," C a n a d i a n Forum, 60 (March 1981), 5-8, 13; and W. J . K e i t h 1981a, 82-104. 10. S o l e c k i e x p l a i n s t h a t t o w r i t e s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y about R i e l and t h e M 6 t i s i s , i n e f f e c t , t o c h a l l e n g e d i r e c t l y t h e I n n i s - C r e i g h t o n t h e s i s w i t h i t s f a v o u r a b l e v i e w o f t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of t h e E a s t e r n ( O n t a r i o - Q u e b e c ) economic and c u l t u r a l i m p e r a t i v e i n t h e West. I n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Canadian h i s t o r y Macdonald's p o l i c i e s , i n c l u d i n g h i s v i s i o n o f t h e CPR as t h e n e c e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n o f t h e S t . Lawrence, a r e seen p o s i t i v e l y as c r e a t i n g a p h y s i c a l l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y and l e g a l l y u n i f i e d Canada. From t h i s more o r l e s s o f f i c i a l v i e w p o i n t , t o be f o r R i e l and t h e M e t i s i s t o be not o n l y a g a i n s t Macdonald b u t a l s o a g a i n s t t h a t v i s i o n o f a f e d e r a l l y u n i f i e d Canada which he was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n i m p l e m e n t i n g and w h i c h i s s t i l l i d e o l o g i c a l l y dominant t o d a y . (VL 174) 11. See G e r a r d G e n e t t e , N a r r a t i v e D i s c o u r s e : An E s s a y i n Method, t r a n s . Jane E. Lewin ( I t h a c a , New Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1980), C h a p t e r 5, f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e system o f terms f o r d e s c r i b i n g embedded u t t e r a n c e s . 12. In her P r e f a c e t o Problems o f D o s t o e v s k y ' s P o e t i c s , C a r y l Emerson s t a t e s t h a t " [ B a k h t i n ] u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e frame i s a l w a y s i n t h e power o f t h e f r a m e r , and t h a t t h e r e i s an o u t r a g e o u s p r i v i l e g e i n t h e power t o c i t e o t h e r s " ( x x x v i i ) . 271 13. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , Wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l and p o l e m i c a l s t r a t e g i e s form p a r t o f one a u t h o r i a l endeavour, because t h e t a r g e t s o f Wiebe's p o l e m i c m a n i f e s t t h e i r hegemony o n l y i n so f a r as t h e y c o m p r i s e p a r t o f t h e " i n n e r speech" o f Wiebe's p o s i t e d r e a d e r . I n o t h e r words, Wiebe a t t a c k s n o t t h e dominant h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i t s e l f , b u t t h e r e a d e r ' s b e l i e f i n i t s t r u t h - v a l u e . See V. N. V o l o S i n o v , Marxism and t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f Language. C h a p t e r 3, f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f " i n n e r speech." 14. F a l c o n ' s d r a m a t i c monologue c o r r e s p o n d s t o Type I l l . l . b i n B a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s y s t e m , b u t l a p s e s i n t o Type 1. 15. B a k h t i n m i g h t argue t h a t t h e t e r m " d r a m a t i c monologue" i s d e c e p t i v e , f o r t h i s "monologue" i s always d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e , u n i d i r e c t i o n a l o r v a r i d i r e c t i o n a l , s t y l i s i n g o r parodic> d e p e n d i n g on whether o r not t h e a u t h o r ' s o b j e c t i v e s r e i n f o r c e o r oppose t h o s e o f t h e n a r r a t o r . 16. See B a k h t i n 1984, 191 f o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f " s k a z . " 17. The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n e x e m p l i f i e s i n d i r e c t speech and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r b l u r r i n g o r s h a r p e n i n g b o r d e r s between n a r r a t o r i a l and r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e : [1] The h a l l r a n g w i t h c l a p p i n g , and G a b r i e l had t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f g e t t i n g a hand on R i c h a r d Deacon who s u d d e n l y s t o o d up i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e crowd, w a v i n g h i s f i s t and y e l l i n g t h a t [2] R i e l was n o t h i n g b u t a k i l l e r , t h a t he p e r s o n a l l y had marched t o Red r i v e r i n '70 w i t h W o l s e l e y t o — [ 3 ] and h e a v i n g him b o d i l y out t h e d o o r . (198) F a l c o n speaks i n S e c t i o n s [1] and [ 3 ] , w h i l e Deacon's v o i c e o c c u p i e s S e c t i o n [2] b l e n d e d w i t h l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s w h i c h r e f l e c t F a l c o n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w . 18. F o r example, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g g u o t a t i o n F a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l d i s c o u r s e f l o w s s m o o t h l y i n t o an i m i t a t i o n o r unmarked q u o t a t i o n o f t h e language o f W o l s e l e y ' s men: Toward e v e n i n g t h e y [ W o l s e l e y ' s s o l d i e r s ] t r i e d b u r n i n g an e f f i g y a g a i n b u t t h e r e was no a n t i c i p a t i o n i n i t ; t h e f l a m e s a t i t s sodden t r o u s e r s f r i z z l e d i n t o smoke. They'd g o t t h e j o b done and what a s h i t o f a j o b o f b u l l work w a l k i n g and w a l k i n g i t had been. Was t h e r e n o t h i n g t o d r i n k , no f u c k i n g women? (123) 19. F o r example, F a l c o n p e r s i s t s i n u s i n g t h e t e r m " r e b e l l i o n " i n h i s own speech, w i t h o u t m a r k i n g i t as a n o t h e r ' s word, even though he draws e x p l i c i t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f l a w e d l o g i c b e h i n d t h e c h a r g e s l a i d a g a i n s t R i e l : 272 So t h e blame f o r t h e r e b e l l i o n c o u l d be p l a c e d on R i e l He must be t o t a l l y t o blame, f o r e v e r y t h i n g ; f o r purposes of h i s t r i a l t h e s h o o t i n g was b l a t a n t , open r e b e l l i o n . . . . The l o s t r e b e l l i o n o f c o u r s e q u i t e d e s t r o y e d our p e o p l e . (316, 328) Does F a l c o n here quote a n o t h e r ' s word i n a c o n s c i o u s l y p a r o d i c manner? Or does he speak t h e word h i m s e l f and hence c l a i m i t i n some measure as h i s own? Or does he use t h e word t o r e f e r t o a r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t God r a t h e r t h a n a g a i n s t t h e Canadian Government? 20. Twice i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , f o r example, Wiebe makes a b a r r i e r between F a l c o n ' s words and t h o s e o f a n o t h e r , where no w a l l i n i t i a l l y d i v i d e d t h e two: The way o f t h e c r o s s was h u m i l i a t i o n ; t h e p r o p h e t must d i e t o r e v e a l h i s u l t i m a t e v i s i o n , and t h i s c o n v i c t i o n t r a n s f i g u r e d R i e l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i m s e l f . . . Poor f o o l ; i t was immoral t o hang him; c l e a r l y he was mad. t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h a n g i n g him was s i m p l y , c l e a r l y S i r John A's C o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c s . You b e l i e v e t h a t ? Many C a n a d i a n s , and even many M e t i s b e l i e v e and w i l l b e l i e v e i t ; b u t I c a n n o t . (33) 21. Wiebe draws J u k e s ' d i a g n o s i s from Thomas F l a n a g a n , " L o u i s R i e l : I n s a n i t y and P r o p h e c y " : "Madness i s . . . a term used t o d e s c r i b e i n d i v i d u a l s who d e p a r t from t h e s o c i a l consensus about what i s r e a s o n a b l e . . . . Madness i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g network o f a s s u m p t i o n s about r e a l i t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s a s p e c i f i c s o c i e t y a t a c e r t a i n t i m e . Madness i s a s o c i a l f a c t . . n o t a n e u t r a l term. I t i s used w i t h t h e purpose o f c o n t r o l l i n g o t h e r humans.... S i n c e t h e i m p u t a t i o n o f madness i s a means o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l , i t f o l l o w s t h a t i t cannot be d i s c u s s e d a p a r t from q u e s t i o n s such as who i s c a l l e d mad and who does t h e c a l l i n g , who g a i n s and who l o s e s " RWP 41.6D, p . 2 - 3 ) . See a l s o Hoeppner 444, 450, n.17, f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on Wiebe's use o f F l a n a g a n ' s m a t e r i a l s . 22. To i l l u s t r a t e more c l e a r l y t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e p o r t i n g and r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e , t h i s s t a t e m e n t assumes f o r t h e p r e s e n t t h a t Wiebe and F a l c o n s h a r e t h e same a t t i t u d e towards R i e l . The p o s s i b l i t y t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s d i f f e r w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . 23. C f . W . J . K e i t h : "By t h e end o f t h e n o v e l . . . F a l c o n has p e r s u a d e d ( o r come c l o s e t o p e r s u a d i n g ) t h e r e a d e r and, one i s tempted t o add, t h e a u t h o r [ t h a t R i e l c o u l d have r u l e d t h e w o r l d ] . . . . When F a l c o n speaks 'from beyond t h e g r a v e ' (184) as an a u t h o r i t a t i v e , o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r , he has t a k e n 273 over t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l i s t " (1981a, 101). 24. See p. 284 f o r F a l c o n ' s t e s t i m o n y o f h i s c o n t i n u e d f a i t h i n t h e c h u r c h . 25. See Appendix. 26. Note a l s o t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e b r o a d , a l l embracing scope o f R i e l ' s "we" on page 57, and t h e narrowness o f "we" on page 65, when R i e l l o s e s h i s temper a t t h e c o u n c i l meeting. 27. L i e s e l D r i e d i g e r ' s u n s u c c e s s f u l p a r o d y o f t h e o l d G r a c k l e ' s v o i c e i n C h a p t e r 5 o f The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a p r o v i d e s a p r e c e d e n t f o r t h e r e b e l l i o n o f t h e minor v o i c e s which t a k e s p l a c e i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . 28. I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t even when R i e l speaks " a l o n e , " h i s words r e m a i n i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d because s u b j e c t t o Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s . 29. T h i s s u b v e r s i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y depends of c o u r s e on t h e r e a d e r b e i n g aware o f Wiebe's a l l u s i o n . By c o n c e a l i n g J e s u s ' v o i c e , Wiebe l e a v e s room f o r d i v e r s i t y o f response and i n t e r p r e t a t a t i o n . A n a c r i s i s opens t h e way f o r h e t e r o g l o s s i a . K l o o s s t o u c h e s on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e n o v e l ' s r e a l i z e d h e t e r o g l o s s i a . He m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e n o v e l has "caused s e r i o u s c o n f u s i o n " and " c o n t r o v e r s y " among r e v i e w e r s and c r i t i c s ( 2 0 5 ) . K l o o s s e x p l a i n s t h e " c o n f l i c t i n g r e v i e w s " and t h e " a m b i v a l e n t r e c e p t i o n " (205) by s a y i n g t h a t i t d e r i v e s from t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f Wiebe's n a r r a t i v e mode, and from t h e " d i v e r g i n g p o l i t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l v i e w p o i n t s " o f t h e a u d i e n c e ( 2 0 5 ) . 30. See Wiebe's a c c o u n t o f t h e church's i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e i n t e r v i e w w i t h B r i a n Bergman quoted e a r l i e r . 31. In "A B r i e f B i o g r a p h y o f Menno Simons," H a r o l d S t a u f f e r Bender o f f e r s an a c c o u n t o f t h e M u e n s t e r i t e u p r i s i n g w h i c h may w e l l have i n f l u e n c e d Wiebe's t h i n k i n g about R i e l and t h e M e t i s a t Batoche: "The [ M u e n s t e r i t e ] group...had d e c i d e d t o s e t up i t s own c i t y o f r e f u g e and b e g i n i t s own campaign f o r t h e kingdom o f God.... I n March, 1535, a l a r g e company o f t h r e e hundred has s e i z e d t h e o l d monastery... and e n t r e n c h e d i t s e l f t h e r e i n . They were u n a b l e t o h o l d o u t l o n g a g a i n s t t h e s e i g e o f t h e f o r c e s o f t h e government and a f t e r one hundred and t h i r t y had been s l a i n , t h e r e s t were c a p t u r e d and e x e c u t e d on A p r i l 7. The s i g h t o f t h e s e 'poor m i s g u i d e d sheep,' as Menno c a l l e d them, g i v i n g t h e i r b l o o d and t h e i r l i v e s f o r t h e i r f a i t h , even though i t was a f a l s e f a i t h , made an e x t r a o r d i n a r y i m p r e s s i o n upon Menno" (Bender 11). 274 Bender's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f a n a t i c a l A n a b a p t i s t l e a d e r , D a v i d J o r i s , may a l s o have a b e a r i n g on Wiebe's c h a r a c t e r i s a t o n o f R i e l : "The t e a c h i n g s o f J o r i s were a s t r a n g e m i x t u r e o f t h e o l o g i c a l f a n a t i c i s m and a n t i n o m i a n i s m . He c l a i m e d t o have a d i v i n e c a l l t o be a p r o p h e t and t o e s t a b l i s h t h e k i n g d o n o f God on e a r t h o v e r w h i c h he was t o r e i g n as t h e t h i r d D a v i d . He went as f a r as t o t e a c h t h a t t h e work and t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f C h r i s t were not adequate and t h a t t h e Holy S c r i p t u r e s were t o be s u p e r s e d e d by h i s own l i t e r a l l y i n s p i r e d w r i t i n g s which c o n t a i n e d t h e f i n a l r e v e l a t i o n of God" (Bender 2 1 ) . Wiebe would a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y have been f a m i l i a r w i t h Bender's b i o g r a p h y , w h i c h appears i n The Complete W r i t i n g s o f Menno Simons, t r . L e o n a r d V e r d u i n , ed. John C h r i s t i a n Wenger ( S c o t t d a l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1956). I n h i s " B i o c r i t i c a l E s s a y , " J . M . K e r t z e r s t a t e s t h a t Wiebe c o m p l e t e d h i s B a c h e l o r o f Theology degree a t t h e Mennonite B r e t h r e n B i b l e C o l l e g e i n 1962 ( K e r t z e r x v ) , s i x y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f Wenger's a u t h o r i t a t i v e and s e m i n a l e d i t i o n o f The Complete W r i t i n g s . Wiebe d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between t h e M e n n o n i t e s and t h e v i o l e n t A n a b a p t i s t s e c t s i n " U n e a r t h i n g Language": "The o n l y t h i n g s [about Anabaptism] r e c o r d e d i n t h e " o f f i c i a l " h i s t o r i e s concerned t h e s o - c a l l e d A n a b a p t i s t s John o f L e i d e n and J a n M a t t h i e s , and t h e i r i d e a o f t h e Kingdom o f God coming down t o e a r t h and t h e i r h a v i n g t o b u t c h e r everyone i n Muenster because o f t h e k i n d o f a t r o c i t i e s t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s committed. Coming from t h e o t h e r t r a d i t i o n , and knowing t h a t , i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e t r u e A n a b a p t i s t s , t h e M u e n s t e r i t e s were as h e r e t i c a l as any Roman C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s e l l i n g pardons on a s t r e e t c o r n e r , I doubt t h e o f f i c i a l g i v e n h i s t o r y " (Neuman 2 3 0 ) . 275 CHAPTER 7: MY LOVELY ENEMY The B e l o v e d F a m i l i a r and t h e B e l o v e d New I I n My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe t u r n s away from h i s t o r y as i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e b r o a d p u b l i c domain, t o e x p l o r e h i s t o r y as a phenomenon i n p r i v a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The main n a r r a t i v e f o c u s e s on James Dyck, a h a p p i l y m a r r i e d , m i d d l e - aged h i s t o r y p r o f e s s o r who, much t o h i s own s u r p r i s e , " f a l l s " i n t o a p a s s i o n a t e s e x u a l l o v e a f f a i r w i t h a b e a u t i f u l young r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t , G i l l i a n O v e r t o n . Trapped between two e q u a l l y d e s i r a b l e b u t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s — " t h e b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new" (MLE I03) 1 -James b e g i n s a p r o c e s s o f e m o t i o n a l , m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l r e - e v a l u a t i o n . I n James's mind, and i n Wiebe's t e x t , p a s s i o n a t e s e x u a l l o v e t a k e s on f i g u r a t i v e meanings: i t s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y as a metaphor w h i c h p e r m i t s i m a g i n a t i o n t o g r a s p f u l l y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e t o o - f a m i l i a r C h r i s t i a n a b s t r a c t i o n o f God's r e d e m p t i v e l o v e f o r humanity. My L o v e l y Enemy i s p r o f o u n d l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e - t h i n k i n g , r e t u r n i n g , r e c a l l i n g , r e n e w i n g , and r e - i n t e r p r e t i n g , t h a t i s , w i t h v a r i e t i e s o f c r e a t i v e r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h i s s u e from c o u p l i n g s o f i n n o v a t i o n w i t h t r a d i t i o n , s t r a n g e n e s s w i t h f a m i l i a r i t y , d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i d e n t i t y . I t i s t h e r e f o r e not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Wiebe r e a r r a n g e s and r e c r e a t e s p r e v i o u s l y employed s t r u c t u r a l , c o m p o s i t i o n a l and t h e m a t i c e l e m e n t s , a d a p t i n g them t o s u i t h i s e v o l v i n g a r t i s t i c - r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s . T h i s s y n t h e s i s o f s t r a n g e and f a m i l i a r elements a t once a l i e n a t e s r e a d e r s f r o m t h e t e x t and s t i m u l a t e s a d e s i r e t o know i t more i n t i m a t e l y : i n e f f e c t , t h e t e x t becomes t h e r e a d e r ' s " l o v e l y enemy."2 A n a t o m i s i n g t h e body o f t h i s l o v e l y enemy, one d i s c o v e r s new v a r i e t i e s o f d i s c o u r s e c o u p l e d w i t h c o m p o s i t i o n a l forms d e v e l o p e d i n Wiebe's e a r l i e r works. Elements o f t h e d r a m a t i c monologue form o f The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e and "My L i f e : T h a t ' s As I t Was" c o - e x i s t w i t h t h e s y n c r i t i c form o f The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a and The Temptations o f B i g B e a r , and w i t h t h e t h i r d p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n used i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many and F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . The f o u r "May" c h a p t e r s i n My L o v e l y Enemy combine a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e and s t r e a m - o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s monologue. T h i r d p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n p r e v a i l s i n t h e two "September" c h a p t e r s and i n t h e i n t e r l u d e e n t i t l e d "The B l a c k B r i d g e , " w h i l e i n t e r p o l a t e d s t o r i e s n a r r a t e d by u n i d e n t i f i e d v o i c e s c o m p r i s e t h e i t a l i c i s e d s e c t i o n s o f t h e t e x t . Throughout t h e e n t i r e 277 n o v e l , extended passages o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e p l a y a p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t h e m a t i c and s t r u c t u r a l r o l e . James and G i l l i a n engage i n v e r b a l as w e l l as s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e . Through d i a l o g u e , t h e y c o l l a b o r a t e i n a s e a r c h f o r t h e meaning o f t h e i r c l i c h e d , y e t p e r s o n a l l y u n p r e c e d e n t e d , e m o t i o n a l and m o r a l dilemma. Much o f t h e drama i n My L o v e l y Enemy i s s u e s from a t e n s i o n between James's p r i v a t e i n n e r speech and t h e words he u t t e r s a l o u d t o o t h e r p e o p l e . Many o f t h e n o v e l ' s most c r u c i a l i n c i d e n t s o c c u r i n a space o f d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n between James's l i n g u i s t i c a l l y - s t r u c t u r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s and t h e complex v e r b a l m i l i e u w h i c h p h y s i c a l l y s u r r o u n d s him, but w h i c h he s t r u g g l e s t o encompass and subsume. My L o v e l y Enemy works complex i n n o v a t i o n s i n t o t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e l a s t employed i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . Wiebe a g a i n b e g i n s t h e s t o r y i n medias r e s , i n h i s p r o t a g o n i s t ' s m i d d l e age, from w h i c h p o i n t t h e n a r r a t i v e moves c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y f o r w a r d w h i l e g l a n c i n g i n t e r m i t t e n t l y backwards i n t i m e t o t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s t r o u b l e d y o u t h , as w e l l as t o e a r l i e r i n c i d e n t s i n r e g i o n a l and f a m i l y h i s t o r y . A s i g n o f Wiebe's i n c r e a s e d a r t i s t i c c o n t r o l i s h i s a b i l i t y t o move s m o o t h l y back and f o r t h between e x p e r i e n t i a l and c h r o n o l o g i c a l t i m e . By a l l o w i n g p r e s e n t , p a s t and f u t u r e t o v i e c a r n i v a l i s t i c a l l y i n James's s t e a d i l y e v o l v i n g p s y c h e , Wiebe s u b v e r t s t e m p o r a l l i n e a r i t y , w i t h o u t e n t i r e l y 278 r e j e c t i n g i t as an o r g a n i s i n g p r i n c i p l e f o r t h e n a r r a t i v e . Wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s b o t h endorse and v i o l a t e t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l manner o f h a n d l i n g t i m e i n r e a l i s t n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e . 3 My L o v e l y Enemy c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h themes w h i c h might seem new, b u t w h i c h Wiebe has been d i s c u s s i n g i n p r i n t as f a r back as 1962-63 i n h i s w e e k l y e d i t o r i a l s i n The Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d . 4 The n o v e l a l s o f u r t h e r s Wiebe's o n g o i n g f i c t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f c u l t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l i m p e r i a l i s m , t h e p l u r a l i t y o f i d e n t i t y , t h e problems o f w r i t i n g h i s t o r y and t h e hegemony o f language. Two themes s t a n d out i n p a r t i c u l a r as new i n t h e n o v e l . F i r s t , t h e p a t h o f Wiebe's e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e ranges o f l o v e t a k e s an u n e x p e c t e d t u r n i n t o t h e r e a l m o f s e x u a l i t y , a s u b j e c t c o n s i d e r e d b r i e f l y i n p r e v i o u s work, b u t never s c r u t i n i z e d a t such c l o s e g u a r t e r s o r i n such e x p l i c i t p h y s i c a l d e t a i l . Second, Mv L o v e l y Enemy i s Wiebe's most s e l f - r e f l e x i v e n o v e l t o d a t e . I t may be r e a d ' a s an a l l e g o r i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l dynamics i m p l i c i t i n a l l w r i t i n g and r e a d i n g p r o c e s s e s . The r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e , a p e r i p h e r a l f i g u r e i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g B e a r , assumes a p o s i t i o n o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e i n My L o v e l y Enemy, and h i s s t r u g g l e t o u n d e r s t a n d cannot be d i v o r c e d from h i s s t r u g g l e t o v e r b a l i z e . Wiebe c e r t a i n l y makes h i s r e a d e r s s t r u g g l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e x t , and t o v e r b a l i z e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r e a d i n g i t . As P i e r r e S p r i e t p o i n t s o u t , Wiebe d e l i b e r a t e l y p r o b l e m a t i z e s t h e p r o c e s s of r e a d i n g : " t h e r e a r e few pages which p r e s e n t no o b s c u r i t y by t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s " (1985, 5 9 ) . V e r y o f t e n , t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e between h i s v o i c e and t h a t of h i s p r o t a g o n i s t cannot be a s c e r t a i n e d . Gaps o c c u r i n t h e n a r r a t i v e , and.at c r u c i a l p o i n t s i n s e n t e n c e s . D i f f e r e n t t i m e s and p l a n e s o f r e a l i t y i n t e r s e c t : t h e f a n t a s t i c a l and t h e h i s t o r i c a l , t h e o t h e r - w o r l d l y and t h e mundane c o - e x i s t i n a t e n s e b a l a n c e i n My L o v e l y Enemy. Of t h e d i a l o g i z i n g d e v i c e s w h i c h a l l o w m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s t o e n t e r t h e t e x t , some remain c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e , w h i l e o t h e r s f l a u n t t h e f i c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e t e x t . Many v o i c e s speak i n James' monologue, f o r example, because he i s " a f f l i c t e d " (as he p u t s i t ) w i t h t o t a l r e c a l l o f l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f spoken and w r i t t e n d i s c o u r s e . However, i n t h e i t a l i c i s e d s e c t i o n s o f t h e t e x t , Wiebe i n t r o d u c e s o t h e r , u n i d e n t i f i e d n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s w i t h o u t e x p l a n a t i o n o r a p o l o g y . By p e r m i t t i n g t h e codes o f f o r m a l r e a l i s m t o o v e r l a p w i t h a n t i - r e a l i s t c o n v e n t i o n s , Wiebe s i t u a t e s r e a d e r s on a " b l a c k b r i d g e " between c o n t r a d i c t o r y modes of p e r c e p t i o n . 5 These and o t h e r p r o b l e m a t i c f e a t u r e s 6 p l a c e t h e onus on r e a d e r s t o engage i n a c t i v e d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t . Wiebe 280 c e r t a i n l y s t i m u l a t e s a n a c r i s i s and a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g on t h e p a r t of h i s r e a d e r s . I n t h e p r o c e s s , he r e l i n q u i s h e s a degree o f s e m a n t i c c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t e x t . More o v e r t l y t h a n i n any o f h i s p r e v i o u s works, Wiebe a s k s r e a d e r s t o a c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y as c o - c r e a t o r s o f t h e meanings t h e y " d i s c o v e r " i n t h e t e x t . And y e t , Wiebe a l s o compromises h i s r e a d e r ' s freedom t o engage i n e g u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t by w r i t i n g t h e i r p a r t f o r them, as i t were. Through James Dyck, t h e r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e who a r r i v e s f i n a l l y a t t h e r i g h t - r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n , Wiebe r e a s s e r t s a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e n o v e l , and a t t e m p t s t o s e t l i m i t s on i t s s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y . To an even g r e a t e r degree t h a n i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear . Wiebe c r e a t e s a t e n s i o n i n My L o v e l y Enemy between d e v i c e s w h i c h r e l e a s e h e t e r o g l o s s i a and d e v i c e s w h i c h r e p r e s s i t . W h i l e a n a c r i s i s a c t i v a t e s numerous d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g s o r v o i c i n g s o f t h e t e x t , t h e r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e f u n c t i o n s t o s t a n d a r d i z e t h e r e a d e r s ' r e s p o n s e s . My L o v e l y Enemy t h u s p r e s e n t s a c h a l l e n g e t o t r a d i t i o n a l m o n o l o g i c forms o f c r i t i c a l e x p o s i t i o n . C r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e w h i c h adopts a f i x e d , u n i t a r y r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n cannot hope t o hear what t h e t e x t says t o and about i t s c o u n t l e s s p o s s i b l e i n t e r l o c u t o r s . The d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e r e f o r e a d o p t s a m u l t i - f o c a l a p p r o a c h . I t m i r r o r s t h e t e x t from t h r e e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . 281 I I Wiebe engages i n p o l e m i c a g a i n s t t h r e e forms o f a n t i - i m a g i n a t i v e d i s c o u r s e i n My L o v e l y Enemy: dominant c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f l o v e and s e x u a l i t y , t h e r e l e n t l e s s l y i m p e r i a l i s t d i s c o u r s e s o f r a t i o n a l c o g n i t i o n , and n a i v e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h e o l o g y and m o r a l law. The n o v e l r e p l i e s t o p r o p o n e n t s of p o p u l a r l i t e r a r y and c i n e m a t i c t r e a t m e n t s o f s e x u a l l o v e w h i c h , by p r o m o t i n g s e x i s m , v o y e u r i s m , and cheap, m e l o d r a m a t i c e m o t i o n a l i s m , t r i v i a l i z e a p o t e n t i a l l y p r o f o u n d s u b j e c t . Wiebe makes f r e q u e n t use o f G i l l i a n ' s v o i c e i n c o m p o s i t i o n a l d i a l o g u e t o parody i n v a l i d ways o f t a l k i n g about "the a c t " ( 7 7 ) . A t t h e P a l l i s e r H o t e l , f o r example, as James and G i l l i a n ( a l o n e a t l a s t ) manoeuvre towards t h e bed, G i l l i a n ' s l a u g h t e r s h a t t e r s James's c l i c h e d e x p e c t a t i o n s : "We're supposed t o b e . . . a t a-most c r u c i a l moment, l a u g h t e r seems l i k e , I dunno, s l i g h t l y i n n a . . . i n a p p r o p r i a t e ? " " V i o l i n s . . . t h e a u d i e n c e l e a n s f o r w a r d , t e n s e , 'How much w i l l we see? What?' Not ' c r u c i a l ' moment, i t ' s t h e most s a c r e d moment i n t h e g r e a t e s t voyeur a r t e v e r i n v e n t e d , t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n movie, what, what e x a c t l y w i l l I s e e ? " "Not as s a c r e d as t h e c o n f e s s i o n a l when t h e man t e l l s h i s w i f e , 'I'm r e a l l y s o r r y d e a r , b u t I l o v e h e r . " "That's i t , t h e w i f e e x p l o d e s ! " ( 7 7 ) 282 Through t h i s and o t h e r uses o f p a r o d i c l a n g u a g e — ( " Y o u r f u c k i n g f i n g e r s a r e up my f u c k i n g w i f e ' s c u n t ! " [ 2 3 3 ] ) — Wiebe d i s t a n c e s My L o v e l y Enemy e x p r e s s l y f r o m t h e s t e r e o t y p e s w h i c h dominate a l l b u t a few c o n t e m p o r a r y s t o r i e s about l o v e and s e x u a l i t y . Wiebe endeavours t o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t h e e r o t i c , and g i v e i t " l a r g e r meanings" by s i t u a t i n g s e x u a l p a s s i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a b r o a d e r m e t a p h y s i c a l i n q u i r y / G i l l i a n ' s d e s i r e t o know James " t h r o u g h t h e f l e s h " (153) c o n f e r s an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e on t h e s e x u a l a c t . I t s t a n d s m e t o n y m i c a l l y i n t h e n o v e l f o r n o n - r a t i o n a l , n o n - v e r b a l ways o f knowing, w h i c h open c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o new forms o f s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e : "When t h e s p i r i t o f t h a t p l a c e g a t h e r e d , wrapped us up i n t o one w i t h i t s e l f , what d i d you t h i n k we were d o i n g , eh? F u c k i n g ? " I have d e t e s t e d t h a t word a l l my l i f e ; i t has n e v e r sounded so r e p u l s i v e l y u g l y . Her f a c e i s so c l o s e I have t o l i f t my g l a s s e s . "No...no...," I can m u t t e r a t l a s t , " l o v i n g . " "Yes, d e a r e s t god I was s t r u n g by e v e r y nerve I have from a l l t h e s t a r s and p l a n e t s . " (153) Wiebe u r g e s r e a d e r s t o v i e w James' and G i l l i a n ' s s e x u a l u n i o n as more t h a n mere " c o u p l i n g . " As G i l l i a n d e s c r i b e s i t , t h e moment o f orgasm i n v o l v e s more t h a n two human e n t i t i e s j o i n i n g p h y s i c a l l y ; a l a r g e r power a b s o r b s them, t o g e t h e r w i t h a l l t h e r e s t o f humanity, i n t o i t s e l f , m o m e n t a r i l y s a t i s f y i n g a u n i v e r s a l b u t seldom acknowledged human y e a r n i n g f o r u n i t y w i t h one a n o t h e r and w i t h God. 283 C o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n Mv L o v e l y Enemy. D u r i n g t h e i r c l a n d e s t i n e m e e t i n g s , G i l l i a n and James h e l p each o t h e r t o a t t a i n — a n d a l s o t o v e r b a l i z e — t h e f l e e t i n g j o y o f complete s p i r i t u a l f u l f i l m e n t : "At t h a t moment [ o f orgasm] I f e e l . . . t o t a l l y and c o m p l e t e l y m y s e l f and c o m p l e t e l y w i t h you, i n a way I'm wiped c l e a n o f e v e r y t h i n g and i n a n o t h e r way I've never l i v e d so a b s o l u t e l y i n a l l my mind and body. L i k e I was e l e c t r i f i e d . . . . " " S i n g i n g ? " "Yes, s i n g i n g b u t n o t j u s t one v o i c e , a whole o r c h e s t r a , b e i n g y o u r s e l f and a whole o r c h e s t r a , t o g e t h e r , you u n d e r s t a n d ? " (17 6) In d i a l o g i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n , James and G i l l i a n d i s c o v e r t h e image o f her body as a s i t e where many v o i c e s s i n g i n p e r f e c t u n i s o n . As i n h i s p r e v i o u s n o v e l s , Wiebe employs t h i s image o f many-voiced m o n o g l o s s i a t o s i g n i f y p e r f e c t s o c i a l harmony i n t h e human w o r l d and p e r f e c t harmony between humanity and God. And y e t , as James and G i l l i a n a r e p a i n f u l l y aware, t h e i r a f f a i r p u t s them e n t i r e l y a t odds w i t h s o c i e t y , and i n c o n t r a v e n t i o n o f a l l c o n v e n t i o n a l v e r s i o n s o f God's m o r a l law. James' and G i l l i a n ' s p h y s i c a l u n i o n a t once i n t e g r a t e s them i n t o and a l i e n a t e s them from human s o c i e t y and t h e s o c i e t y o f God. W h i l e many C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s equate " l u s t " w i t h l a s c i v i o u s s i n f u l p a s s i o n , Wiebe emphasises t h a t " ' L u s t ' i n German means h a p p i n e s s , j o y " ( 1 2 1 ) . I n s t e a d o f making h i s r e a d e r s f e e l ashamed o r g u i l t y about t h e i r s e x u a l i t y , Wiebe p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t on t h e e x q u i s i t e j o y o f sex, and uses t h a t 284 j o y as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n h i s own, s t i l l d i s t i n c t l y C h r i s t i a n , r h e t o r i c a l scheme. The m o r t i c i a n p r e s i d i n g a t Ruth Dyck's f u n e r a l a r t i c u l a t e s Wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y : " S t a r t [ i m a g i n i n g God's i n f i n i t e l o v e ] w i t h t h e most p e r f e c t e x p e r i e n c e o f l o v e you've e v e r had" ( 2 6 0 ) . The c o r n y i d e a o f God b e i n g "head o v e r h e e l s i n l o v e " (138) w i t h humanity draws r h e t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y from Wiebe's b e l i e f t h a t " I t ' s always good t o t e l l p e o p l e what you know t h e y a l r e a d y know' a l r e a d y " ( 1 4 8 ) . Wiebe d r a m a t i s e s God's a l l - c o n s u m i n g d i v i n e l o v e i n terms o f s e x u a l p a s s i o n , a m y s t e r i o u s , p o w e r f u l , u n i v e r s a l l y - k n o w n human e x p e r i e n c e . 7 One o f Wiebe's c r e a t i v e c o n n e c t i o n s between human and d i v i n e l o v e h i n g e s on t h e m u l t i p l e meanings o f t h e word " p a s s i o n " : [ J e s u s : ] "...But I l i k e y o u r p a s s i o n . " [James:] " P a s s i o n ' s a meaning t h a t goes two ways." [ J e s u s : ] "Don't I know i t . " (82) As does "peace" i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, and "the good I n d i a n " i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear, " p a s s i o n " c r o s s e s b o r d e r s between speech genres i n t h e t e x t of My L o v e l y Enemy b e f o r e Wiebe i n s e r t s i t i n t o a C h r i s t i a n system o f meaning. J e s u s i n i t i a l l y employs " p a s s i o n " t o r e f e r t o James's m o r a l e a r n e s t n e s s . James's r e j o i n d e r adds a s e x u a l meaning t o t h e term. But J e s u s ' s a r d o n i c a l l u s i o n t o h i s own s u f f e r i n g on t h e c r o s s d i c t a t e s t h e o v e r a l l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l ' s d i a l o g i c e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e word. 285 The i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y o f t h e word " p a s s i o n " e p i t o m i s e s t h e "double-speak" and d o u b l e - v i s i o n Wiebe g e n e r a t e s t h r o u g h o u t My L o v e l y Enemy.8 R e a l i s t i c and a l l e g o r i c a l codes, each w i t h i t s r e s p e c t i v e system o f a c c e n t s , v i e f o r dominance t h r o u g h o u t . Wiebe g r a d u a l l y r e v e r s e s t h e i n i t i a l b a l a n c e o f power between t h e two. What seem a t f i r s t t o be i n s i g n i f i c a n t c i r c u m s t a n t i a l d e t a i l s w i t h i n t h e f o r m a l r e a l i s t code assume g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e s y m b o l i c a l l y and a l l e g o r i c a l l y . C o n v e r s e l y , James' and G i l l i a n ' s l o v e a f f a i r , w h i c h dominates t h e f o r e g r o u n d of t h e "May" s e c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l , r e c e d e s i n t o t h e background as t h e scope o f Wiebe's i n q u i r y i n t o "the e n e r g i e s o f l o v e " broadens. "Love," m a n i f e s t i n i t i a l l y as James' and G i l l i a n ' s " b o d i e s p e n e t r a t i n g each o t h e r " ( 1 4 2 ) , s e r v e s u l t i m a t e l y t o f o c u s i m a g i n a t i o n on t h e r e d e m p t i v e power o f God's d i v i n e l o v e , "the i n e x p r e s s i b l e and t h e s o - f a r u n i m a g i n a b l e f o r w h i c h you have always l o n g e d " ( 2 1 5 ) . By t h e end o f My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe no l o n g e r c o n c e a l s t h e f a c t t h a t he l o o k s t h r o u g h t h e p h y s i c a l - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d a t h i g h e r t h i n g s . Whether he succeeds i n s h i f t i n g h i s r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n remains t o be seen, however. The n o v e l " c o n s o r t s w i t h t h e enemy" i n t h a t i t employs p r o f a n e language and images t o l u r e a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d s t h e r e a l m o f s a c r e d r e a l i t i e s . 9 W i e b e r i s k s l e a v i n g h i s r e a d e r s b e h i n d by p o s i n g q u e s t i o n s on one p l a n e o f a c t i o n and a n s w e r i n g them 286 on a n o t h e r . In t h e p r o c e s s o f d e - t r i v i a l i s i n g s e x u a l i t y , Wiebe l a y s h i m s e l f open t o t h e charge o f a v o i d i n g t h e d i s t u r b i n g m o r a l and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d i n t h e e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s o f t h e n o v e l . 1 0 Wiebe g i v e s t h e l a s t word on t h e meaning o f James' and G i l l i a n ' s l o v e a f f a i r not t o e i t h e r o f t h e p e o p l e who have l i v e d t h r o u g h t h e e x p e r i e n c e b u t t o t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e o t h e r - w o r l d l y t e a c h e r - f i g u r e , t h e v e n e r a b l e m o r t i c i a n who p r e s i d e s o v e r Ruth Dyck's r e s u r r e c t i o n : "One f o r one m a r r i a g e i s f o r e a r t h , now. Messy as i t i s , i t ' s s t i l l b e t t e r t h a n i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c a s u a l m a t i n g , though human n a t u r e seems t o p u l l t h a t way.... I t ' s not t h a t you a r e n ' t m a r r i e d t o any one t h e r e [ i n Heaven]; you a r e m a r r i e d t o everyone." (261) [emphasis added] I f t h i s pronouncement i s a c l o s i n g s t r a t e g y , i t seems s t r a i n e d and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y because i t depends on a sudden r e v e r s a l , a r e - t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e l o v e r s ' i n t e n s e p a s s i o n i n t o an a n i m a l i s t i c , s p i r i t u a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s a c t i o n . " I n d i s c r i m i n a t e c a s u a l m a t i n g " sounds s u s p i c i o u s l y l i k e a p o l i t e euphemism f o r " f u c k i n g . " The m o r t i c i a n ' s term t w i s t s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l back upon i t s e l f , as i f i n sudden r e c o i l from t h e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s d i s c o v e r e d t h r o u g h Wiebe's i m a g i n a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s c h a r a c t e r s . A l t h o u g h t h e m o r t i c i a n has t h e l a s t word on t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a f f a i r , t h a t word has a l r e a d y been pre-empted and p a r r i e d i n advance by G i l l i a n ' s "What d i d you t h i n k we were d o i n g , eh? F u c k i n g ? " ( 1 5 3 ) . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s q u e s t i o n r e s o n a t e s 287 and e n t e r s i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e m o r t i c i a n ' s m a g i s t e r i a l f i n a l pronouncement, Wiebe a r t i c u l a t e s two c o n t r a d i c t o r y paradigms o f t r u t h and m o r a l v a l u e i n t h e t e x t — o n e d i a l o g i c a l l y d i s c o v e r e d i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h h i s two main c h a r a c t e r s , t h e o t h e r m o n b l o g i c a l l y imposed by h i s t e a c h e r - f i g u r e . James i s a d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f C h r i s t i a n from Joseph Dueck i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, o r J o s h B i s h o p i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e , o r John Reimer i n The B l u e M o u n t a i n s o f C h i n a , a l l o f whom p e r f o r m e d t h e r o l e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n t e a c h e r - f i g u r e . A l t h o u g h James i s a t e a c h e r by p r o f e s s i o n - - a " p r o f e s s - o r " (5) as he p u t s i t — h e does not by any means know a l l t h e answers t o t h e m o r a l and t h e o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s Wiebe r a i s e s i n My L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe's e a r l i e r t e a c h e r - f i g u r e s e x h i b i t e d a t e n d e n c y t o engage i n p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e s , b u t Wiebe s a t i r i z e s James whenever he r e s o r t s t o such measures. James i s no a u t h o r i t a t i v e c u s t o d i a n and d i s s e m i n a t o r o f a f i x e d , m o n o l o g i c code o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h s and m o r a l l a w s , but r a t h e r a " r e a d e r - f i g u r e , " a f a l l i b l e i n d i v i d u a l i n v o l v e d i n an o n g o i n g s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f s e a r c h i n g f o r and d i s c o v e r i n g God. James' g r o p i n g d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e s towards s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s u g g e s t t h a t Wiebe v i e w s r e l i g i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g as a p r o c e s s r a t h e r than a p r o d u c t . But Wiebe's p o l i t i c a l 288 r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h James undergoes a s u b t l e change a t t h e p o i n t where t h e m o r t i c i a n b e g i n s t o speak i n t h e n a r r a t i v e . Wiebe demotes James from t h e r o l e o f f r e e and e q u a l co- a u t h o r i n t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " between w r i t e r and c h a r a c t e r s , t o a p o s i t i o n o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o Wiebe's monologic a u t h o r i a l w i l l . A l t h o u g h James's p o i n t o f view s t i l l dominates t h e "September" s e c t i o n , an o m n i s c i e n t , t h i r d p e r s o n p a s t t e n s e n a r r a t i v e t a k e s t h e p l a c e o f James's f i r s t - p e r s o n , p r e s e n t - t e n s e d i s c o u r s e w h i c h c o m p r i z e d t h e "May" s e c t i o n . Moreover, i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f t h e n o v e l , t h e m o r t i c i a n ' s v o i c e becomes a b s o l u t e l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e . T h i s l a s t - m i n u t e appearance o f a deus ex machina i n t h e o t h e r w i s e h i g h l y d i a l o g i z e d t e x t s u g g e s t s t h a t , as i n h i s o t h e r n o v e l s , Wiebe cannot e n t i r e l y s u p p r e s s h i s own l i n g e r i n g n o s t a l g i a f o r t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t v i s i o n o f a m o n o l o g i c God. I l l A t b o t h a t h e m a t i c and a s t y l i s t i c l e v e l , My L o v e l y Enemy c o n t e s t s t h e hegemony o f r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . The m u l t i - n a t i o n a l computer c o r p o r a t i o n , IBS, s t a n d s m e t o n y m i c a l l y i n t h e n o v e l f o r a l l t h e b u s i n e s s , s c i e n t i f i c and government a g e n c i e s 1 1 whose i n t e r e s t s l i e i n e x p a n d i n g and c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e empire o f r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e , t h e r e b y p r o m o t i n g m e c h a n i s t i c t h o u g h t and s u p p r e s s i n g t h e 2 8 9 powers o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . James's d y s t o p i a n f a n t a s y o f f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e x t r a p o l a t e s from t r e n d s a p p a r e n t t o Wiebe a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g t h e n o v e l . He e n v i s a g e s a g i a n t , v o r a c i o u s , computer, a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e w o r l d ' s s i g n systems i n t o a s i n g l e , a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g m a s t e r - code: " E v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e i s a l r e a d y known and programmed f o r , a l l p l a c e s s c r e e n a b l e , a l l m y s t e r y and d i s c o v e r y and v i s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e v a n i s h e d , e v e r y word e v e r w r i t t e n o r p i c t u r e p a i n t e d o r d i a g r a m drawn o r t h o u g h t now l o o k i n g as i f i t had been made by an IBS t y p e w r i t e r . . . . " "A machine t r a n s f o r m i n g a l l words i n t o m a g n e t i c p a r t i c l e s , w i t h o u t a s i n g l e human s t a n d i n g by?" "Not j u s t words, p i c t u r e s t o o , a n y t h i n g , t h e v e r y shapes o f a r t e f a c t s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o l l a t e d , t h e anatomic p a r t i c l e s o f paper o r c l o t h , do you know how many p o s s i b l e f a c t s t h e w o r l d c o n t a i n s ? . . . . The machine t r a c k i n g t h r o u g h s t a c k s and e l e c t r o n i c a l l y i n g e s t i n g e v e r y fragment and d u s t b l o t and h o m o g e n i z i n g i t a l l i n t o one—•" (74-5) James a r t i c u l a t e s an a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e t o t h e p r o s p e c t o f a s t a b l e , u n i v e r s a l code such as t h e omnivorous computer p r o m u l g a t e s i n h i s f a n t a s y . On t h e one hand, James c o n f e s s e s t h a t he "always e n j o y e d t h e c o l d p r e c i s i o n o f mathematics, t h e a b s o l u t e i m p e r s o n a l l o g i c o f i t " ( 1 ) ; " r e p e a t a b l e l o g i c , c l e a r b a l a n c e , a g r a s p a b l e s e n s i b l e u n i t y and c o m p l e t e n e s s " (133) t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e s o l i d , permanent m e t a p h y s i c a l c e r t a i n t i e s o f h i s e a r l y f u n d a m e n t a l i s t C h r i s t i a n i t y . R a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e o f f e r s p a r t i a l compensation f o r t h e l o s t " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " (133) o f James's Eden. On t h e o t h e r hand, James a l s o r e c o g n i z e s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a s i n g l e , u n i v e r s a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l system, i f always used " c o r r e c t l y , " must e v e n t u a l l y i m p r i s o n human c o n s c i o u s n e s s . H i s a l l u s i o n t o George O r w e l l ' s N i n e t e e n E i a h t y - F o u r b r i n g s t o mind t h e r o l e o f Newspeak i n B i g B r o t h e r ' s program f o r i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l : 1 2 i t s l e x i c o n f i x e s t h e l i m i t s o f awareness and p r e - d e t e r m i n e s t h e c a t e g o r i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e mind can a s s i m i l a t e r e a l i t y , w h i l e t h e grammar o f t h e system d i r e c t s a l l c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n t o p r e - d e t e r m i n e d p a t t e r n s . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f James's language r e v e a l s an o b v i o u s d u a l i t y w h i c h e x p r e s s e s h i s a m b i v a l e n c e towards r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . Whenever James wants t o g l o s s o v e r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , o r when he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n awkward s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , o r wants t o ward o f f s p i r i t u a l a g o r a p h o b i a o r postpone some impending p e r s o n a l " j o u r n e y i n t o i n n e r d a r k n e s s " ( 2 3 2 ) , h i s speech g r a v i t a t e s towards t h e s a f e , s o l i d ground o f l a b e l s , f a c t s and f i g u r e s . Yet he a l s o s t r u g g l e s t o " t h i n k d i f f e r e n t , " t o f r e e h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s from t h e c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by t h e norms o f "the n e c e s s a r y language" ( 1 3 6 ) . On t h e s e o c c a s i o n s , h i s language v i o l a t e s p r i n c i p l e s o f l i t e r a l usage, g r a m m a t i c a l c o r r e c t n e s s , and i o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y . I t becomes " t w i s t e d , " f i g u r a t i v e , fragmented, ambiguous, c r y p t i c , and a b s u r d , t h e v e r y a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e i d e a l s embodied i n r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . To " t h i n k d i f f e r e n t , " James must d e f y t h e c e n t r i p e t a l 291 f o r c e s which s t a n d a r d i z e and u n i f y l a n g u a g e . 1 3 He must b r e a k t h e g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s w h i c h , by d i c t a t i n g word' o r d e r and form, l i m i t t h e f r e e i n t e r b r e e d i n g o f words. I n h i s own language, he e f f e c t s a " t r u l y c r e a t i v e e x p l o s i o n " such as he w i s h e s would o c c u r i n t h e c i r c u i t r y o f t h e computer: Somewhere, someday t h a t m a s s i v e s p i n n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d j u s t p o s s i b l y r e a s s e m b l e i t s e l f beyond t h e c o n t r o l o f any programmer and a l l t h a t complex d a t a would r e c o n s t i t u t e i t s e l f i n a t r u l y i n v e n t i v e e x p l o s i o n and mother f o r t h a t r e a s u r e no one had d a r e d i m a g i n e b e f o r e . . . . But f o r a computer, such an e x p l o s i o n o f f a n t a s t i c new w o r l d would o f c o u r s e not be a d i s c o v e r y ; i t w o u l d be a m i s t a k e , and t h e whole purpose o f computers, as f o r a l l t e c h n o l o g y , i s t o e l i m i n a t e m i s t a k e . That i s how t o c o n t r o l t h e w o r l d : t o make t h e u n e x p e c t e d i m p o s s i b l e . Bah. (72) To t h i n k d i f f e r e n t , James must a l s o a r t i c u l a t e t h e spaces between n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s , between speech g e n r e s , and between t h e words o f any u t t e r a n c e . K e e p i n g t h e s e spaces open p r e v e n t s language from o p e r a t i n g i n t h e manner o f a m o n o l o g i c s i g n a l system: I f he c o u l d name, he would know. Hast du d i v i e l i e f t ? h i s mother says t o him, naming i t i n Low German. Not, have you f a l l e n i n l o v e , b u t have you y o u r s e l f i n - l o v e d ? . .. . E n l o v e d , 'En: a p r e f i x meaning p r i m a r i l y " i n " o r " i n t o " . . . w i t h t h e o l d c o n c r e t e f o r c e o f b r i n g i n g t h e o b j e c t i n t o a s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n , as " s h r i n e , " " e n s h r i n e . ' " E n l o v e ? I f he c o u l d o n l y g a t h e r t h e words t o speak. (219) As P i e r r e S p r i e t has shown i n h i s i l l u m i n a t i n g a r t i c l e , " S t r u c t u r e and Meaning i n Rudy Wiebe's My L o v e l y Enemy." t h e u n o r t h o d o x and c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements p e r v a d i n g James's speech form p a r t o f t h e n o v e l ' s l a r g e r " . s t r u c t u r e o f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s " ( 5 7 ) . S p r i e t i d e n t i f i e s a v a r i e t y o f 292 means by which Wiebe c r e a t e s e f f e c t s o f d i s s o n a n c e and i n c o h e r e n c e i n My L o v e l y Enemy: t h e d e l i b e r a t e c o n f u s i o n o f t i m e s , p l a c e s and i d e n t i t i e s , t h e magic r e a l i s t f u s i o n o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e and f a n t a s y , t h e i n c o n s i s t e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , t h e f u s i o n of mimesis and myth, t h e asymmetry o f t h e May and September s e c t i o n s , and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t y p o g r a p h i c a l d i f f e r e n c e and s y n t a c t i c a l c o n t i n u i t y w h i c h s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s e p a r a t e s and j o i n s t h e i n t e r p o l a t e d passages t o t h e main body o f t h e t e x t — t h r o u g h a l l t h e s e means, "coherence i s not j u s t a v o i d e d ; i n c o h e r e n c e i s now a s s e r t e d as t h e new o r d e r " (1985, 5 5 ) . S p r i e t argues c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t Wiebe's r e f u s a l s o f r a t i o n a l coherence push c o g n i t i o n beyond i t s customary bounds, 1 4 and t h a t Wiebe's e l a b o r a t e s t r u c t u r e o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e f f e c t s a " s y s t e m a t i c d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l o g i c a l language" (1985, 5 9 ) . However, S p r i e t d e v e l o p s t h i s p o i n t i n t o t h e b r o a d e r c l a i m t h a t My L o v e l y Enemy s i g n i f i e s t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f words and p o i n t s t o a r e a l i t y w h i c h cannot be p u t i n t o words and w h i c h i s s y m b o l i z e d i n t h e t e x t by 'the p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words.' (1985, 60) James might a t t r i b u t e h i s l i m i t e d v i s i o n t o what S p r i e t c a l l s t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f words: "Perhaps I c o u l d l i v e beyond t h e m i r r o r t h a t w a l l s me i n , " he s p e c u l a t e s , "and e v e r y e x i s t e n c e i t s e l f would metamorphose from t h e a b s u r d i n t o . . . w h a t ? M y s t e r y " ( 1 4 2 ) . But as f a r as Wiebe i s c o n c e r n e d , S p r i e t ' s t e r m , "the i n a d e q u a c y o f words," w a r r a n t s c l o s e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o ask whose words e x h i b i t t h i s "inadequacy?" I n My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe r e t u r n s a g a i n and a g a i n t o t h e n o t i o n of God c r e a t i n g t h e w o r l d ex n i h i l o , "by t a l k i n g " ( 2 1 8 ) . Wiebe does not adopt t h e p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c r e e d t h a t " r e a l i t y . . . cannot be p u t i n t o words"; i n s t e a d , he p o s i t s a r e a l i t y w h i c h has not y e t been d i s c o v e r e d by human words. From Wiebe's C h r i s t i a n p o i n t o f view, t h e r e i s no r e a l i t y t h a t has not a l r e a d y been p u t i n t o words once and f o r a l l t i m e by God's a c t o f s p e a k i n g t h e u n i v e r s e i n t o b e i n g . Wiebe p o s i t s a t r a n s c e n d e n t , t i m e l e s s R e a l i t y c r e a t e d i n i t s e n t i r e t y by God's a l l - i n c l u s i v e , p r i m o r d i a l U t t e r a n c e . T h i s d i v i n e , u n i v e r s e - c r e a t i n g U t t e r a n c e , c o n t a i n s b u t exceeds t h e sum o f a l l human u t t e r a n c e s . The " p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words" r e f e r s t o t h a t p o r t i o n o f R e a l i t y w h i c h remains as y e t beyond human words. Wiebe b e l i e v e s i n , b u t cannot f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e t h e a b s o l u t e , c o m p l e t e , m o n o l o g i c T r u t h beyond human words. R a t h e r , he p a r t i c i p a t e s i n humankind's d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e t o d i s c o v e r t h a t T r u t h . A r g u a b l y , Wiebe l o c a t e s t h e problem o f l i m i t e d human p e r c e p t i o n not i n any i n t r i n s i c i n a d e q u a c y o f w o r d s - i n - g e n e r a l , b u t i n p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s of s i g n i f y i n g systems, and p a r t i c u l a r modes o f c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g , m a n i p u l a t i n g and a s s i m i l a t i n g language w h i c h i n h i b i t t h e d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r i n g T r u t h . My L o v e l y Enemy c o n t e s t s t h e f o r c e s w h i c h 294 push l i n g u i s t i c s i g n s towards t h e r i g i d monologism o f what V o l o S i n o v c a l l s s i g n a l s , 1 5 t h e f o r c e s w h i c h h y p o s t a t i z e language as an i n e r t "system o f n o r m a t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l f o r m s " ( V o l o S i n o v 67) immune from t h e i n f l u e n c e o f human c r e a t i v i t y and from a l l h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s of becoming. S i g n a l systems attempt t o s u p p r e s s a l l c o n t e x t u a l i n f l u e n c e s ; t h e y a b o l i s h "theme" from t h e s i g n i f i e d , and acknowledge o n l y "meaning." U n d e r s t a n d i n g becomes a m a t t e r o f " r e c o g n i z i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c form used by t h e speaker as t h e f a m i l i a r , ' t h a t v e r y same form'" ( V o l o i i n o v 68), not d i s c o v e r i n g i t s n o v e l "theme" i n t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d c o n t e x t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n c r e t e u t t e r a n c e . Hayden White's d e s c r i p t i o n o f " f o r m a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l systems" p r o v e s a p p l i c a b l e t o V o l o S i n o v ' s " s i g n a l s y s t e m s " : t h e y " e n v i s a g e ... t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f f i g u r a t i v e usage a l t o g e t h e r [so t h a t ] . . . n o t h i n g 'unexpected' appears i n t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t s o f s t u d y " (White 3 3 ) . Wiebe does not d e c o n s t r u c t l a n g u a g e - i n - g e n e r a l , b u t " a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i s t " models o f language ( V o l o S i n o v 6 7 ) , w h i c h s u p p r e s s t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y and t h e d i a c h r o n i c i t y o f language. Wiebe d e c o n s t r u c t s t h e " a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i s t " model o f language by d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l languages and d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l d i a l e c t s . A t t h e same t i m e , he i m p l i c i t l y c e l e b r a t e s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s w h i c h m a i n t a i n t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y and d i a c h r o n i c m u t a b i l i t y 295 o f language. Wiebe's t e x t "opens" t h e a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i s t model i n o r d e r t o engender new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r language t o o b j e c t i f y , e v a l u a t e and r e - i n v e n t i t s e l f o v e r t i m e . Wiebe's v e r b a l a r t e f a c t t h u s i d e n t i f i e s , and t o some e x t e n t c i r c u m v e n t s , some o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s S p r i e t assumes t o be i n t r i n s i c t o t h e v e r b a l medium i n g e n e r a l . As w e l l as l a m e n t i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f human language i n Mv L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe a l s o c e l e b r a t e s i t s powers. Were i t not f o r words, " t h e p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words" would remain f o r e v e r o u t s i d e t h e r e a l m o f human awareness. Wiebe p o i n t s t o — a n d e x p l o i t s — t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x p l o r a t o r y - c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f language. He s t r e s s e s t h a t God made humankind i n h i s own image, as a t a l k i n g b e i n g . He a l s o n o t e s t h a t Adam d i s c o v e r s , o n l y t h r o u g h t h e a c t o f naming, t h a t he has no " h e l p meet" (219) i n Eden. James's m e n t a l b r e a k t h r o u g h a t A l b e r t and A r d y t h ' s p a r t y r e s u l t s from h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o " f o l l o w words b l i n d one a f t e r t h e o t h e r as t h e y made t h e p a t h I was w a l k i n g " ( 9 ) . A l t h o u g h he cannot l e a v e t h e m e n t a l p a t h c r e a t e d by h i s e x p l o r a t o r y words, w i t h o u t t h o s e words he c o u l d n o t even imagine t h e t e r r i t o r y t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e word-path l e a d s . When Wiebe o b s e r v e s i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h R o b e r t K r o e t s c h and S h i r l e y Neuman t h a t "language i s an a c t u a l way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d ; i f we d i d n ' t have language, we wouldn't see t h e w o r l d t h e way we see i t now" (Neuman 236), 2 9 6 he r e f e r s t o t h e p o t e n c y as w e l l as t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f words. I f language i s a m i r r o r , Wiebe does not smash i t . I n s t e a d , he f i n d s i t s u n r e c o g n i z e d c r a c k s , and t h e n a r r a n g e s t h e p i e c e s a t j u d i c i o u s l y chosen a n g l e s so t h a t t h e m i r r o r might b e g i n t o r e f l e c t i t s own w o r k i n g s . As Wiebe's s t y l e c e l e b r a t e s t h e p l u r a l i t y o f l a n g u a g e , i t s c a p a c i t y t o o b j e c t i f y i t s e l f , and i t s a b i l i t y t o d e v i a t e c r e a t i v e l y from o f f i c i a l norms, i t a l s o j o l t s r e a d e r s i n t o " t h i n k i n g d i f f e r e n t , " l i b e r a t i n g t h e i r awareness from t h e u s u a l hegemony o f l a n g u a g e . Wiebe t r a n s g r e s s e s t h e r u l e s o f " c o r r e c t " S t a n d a r d E n g l i s h i n My L o v e l y Enemy. E l l i p s e s and u n f i n i s h e d s e n t e n c e s c a t a p u l t t h o u g h t toward "the p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words," w h i l e puns, a n t e c e d e n t l e s s pronouns, and o t h e r forms o f g r a m m a t i c a l a m b i g u i t y p l a c e r e a d e r s "between t h e words" i n a n o t h e r way, i n spaces where c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o p o s i t i o n s and/or i n c o m p a t i b l e l i n g u i s t i c codes o v e r l a p . The n a r r a t i v e a l s o s i g n i f i e s i t s freedom from c o n s t r a i n t by v i o l a t i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s u n i t i e s o f t i m e , p l a c e and a c t i o n , and by f l a g r a n t l y d e f y i n g c l a s s i c a l norms o f g e n e r i c p u r i t y . Wiebe pushes language away from t h e p o l e o f r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e , y e t he a l s o t a k e s c a r e t o a v o i d t h e o p p o s i t e extreme. R a d i c a l forms o f e x p l o r a t o r y - c r e a t i v e language 297 s u b v e r t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n - f a c t o r a l t o g e t h e r , a l l o w i n g "theme" t o m o n o p o l i z e t h e s i g n i f i e d e n t i r e l y , t h e r e b y s h a t t e r i n g t h e s h a r e d code i n t o u n r e c o g n i z a b l e f r a g m e n t s : J o y c e becomes l e s s and l e s s h u m a n — t o me, anyway. He becomes a l m o s t t o t a l b r a i n t o t h e p o i n t o f j u s t i n v e n t i n g h i s own language so t h a t nobody knows what he i s even w r i t i n g about. (Neuman 245) Wiebe does not speak " h i s own language" i n My L o v e l y Enemy: he speaks as a member o f s e v e r a l language communities. A l t h o u g h h i s meaning might remain o b s c u r e a t t i m e s , t h e forms o f t h e words and s e n t e n c e s r e m a i n c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z a b l e as v a r i a n t s o f S t a n d a r d E n g l i s h . U n l i k e J o y c e , who " d i s a p p e a r s i n t o t h e d e s e r t " (Neuman 245) o f c r e a t i v e m y s t i c i s m , Wiebe remains s t r o n g l y committed t o t h e i d e a o f t h e human community, and t h u s t o t h e c o n c e p t o f s h a r e d , e v o l v i n g norms and c o n v e n t i o n s i n language. My L o v e l y Enemy s e a r c h e s f o r a b a l a n c e between t h e s t a t i c monologism o f t h e . s i g n a l and t h e d i f f u s e p o l y p h o n y o f t h e r a d i c a l e x p l o r a t o r y - c r e a t i v e s i g n . I n t h e l i g h t o f Volo§inov's d i s t i n c t i o n between "theme" and "meaning" i n u t t e r a n c e s , My L o v e l y Enemy can be r e a d as an a l l e g o r i c a l m e d i t a t i o n on t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f language. G i l l i a n s t a n d s a l l e g o r i c a l l y f o r t h e "theme" o f any word o r u t t e r a n c e , f o r a l l i t s u n p r e c e d e n t e d , c o n t e x t u a l l y - d e t e r m i n e d s i g n i f i c a n c e s , a l l t h e new t w i s t s a c c o m p l i s h e d on e v e r y o c c a s i o n o f i t s use; L i v s t a n d s f o r t h e "meaning," t h a t i s , f o r a l l t h a t remains r e c o g n i z a b l y t h e same i n a 298 g i v e n word o r u t t e r a n c e d e s p i t e i t s passage from one h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t t o a n o t h e r : " a l l t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e u t t e r a n c e t h a t a r e r e p r o d u c i b l e and s e l f - i d e n t i c a l i n a l l i n s t a n c e s o f r e p e t i t i o n " (Volo§inov 100), t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t "remain t h e same i n a l l i n s t a n c e s o f i t s e n u n c i a t i o n " ( V o l o s i n o v 100). V o l o S i n o v ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y o f theme and meaning i m p l i e s t h a t a l l u s e r s o f language f a c e a v e r s i o n o f James' dilemma: There i s no theme w i t h o u t meaning and no meaning w i t h o u t theme. Moreover, i t i s even i m p o s s i b l e t o convey t h e meaning o f a p a r t i c u l a r w o r d . . . w i t h o u t h a v i n g made i t an element o f t h e s e , i . e . w i t h o u t h a v i n g c o n s t r u c t e d an "example" u t t e r a n c e . On t h e o t h e r hand, a theme must base i t s e l f on some k i n d o f f i x i t y o f meaning; o t h e r w i s e i t l o s e s i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h what came b e f o r e and what comes a f t e r — i . e . i t a l t o g e t h e r l o s e s i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e . (100) U n l i k e t h e computer, Wiebe does not use language p u r e l y as a s i g n a l system, w h i c h would e l i m i n a t e "theme" a l t o g e t h e r by d e n y i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o n t e x t . Nor does Wiebe i m i t a t e James J o y c e , who r e p u d i a t e s "meaning" a l t o g e t h e r : w i t h o u t elements w h i c h t r i g g e r p r o c e s s e s o f r e c o g n i t i o n , v e r b a l s i g n systems d i s i n t e g r a t e e n t i r e l y . I n s t e a d o f c h o o s i n g e i t h e r one o f t h e s e l i n g u i s t i c modes, Wiebe s e a r c h e s f o r a p p r o p r i a t e ways t o accommodate b o t h . He a t t e m p t s t o d i r e c t t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f language w i t h o u t e i t h e r d i v o r c i n g h i m s e l f from o t h e r p e o p l e o r c r e a t i n g r a d i c a l d i s j u n c t i o n s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f language. As James w i s h e s t o r e l i n q u i s h n e i t h e r G i l l i a n nor L i v , Wiebe a b o l i s h e s n e i t h e r "theme" nor "meaning" from h i s d i s c o u r s e . He t h u s embraces 299 b o t h "the b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new" i n language. IV In My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe engages p o l e m i c a l l y w i t h proponents o f n a i v e C h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s m such as can be found i n c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f t h e Mennonite c h u r c h . F u n d a m e n t a l i s t a s s u m p t i o n s do t o t h e B i b l e what American movies do t o t h e i d e a o f l o v e , and what computers do t o t h e " p i e d beauty" o f language: t h e y reduce t h e o b j e c t o f s t u d y t o a s t a n d a r d i z e d code, a s i g n i f y i n g system so r i g i d , e x p l i c i t , and s e l f - c o m p l e t e as t o r e n d e r i m a g i n a t i v e a c t i v i t y s u p e r f l u o u s . M e n n o n i t e s , l i k e o t h e r A n a b a p t i s t g r o u p s , r e l y on t h e B i b l e as t h e i r " s o l e s o u r c e o f s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y " ( S m i t h 2 1 ) . As Wiebe p o i n t s o u t i n h i s Foreword t o Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, t h e y base t h e i r f a i t h on " t h e l i t e r a l meaning o f t h e B i b l e " ( 7 ) . I n My L o v e l y Enemy, O l d H i l d e b r a n d t , t h e m i n i s t e r o f t h e V u l c a n Mennonite Church, g i v e s v o i c e t o f u n d a m e n t a l i s t l i t e r a l i s m : he "dominated two hundred f a m i l i e s w i t h a f o r m u l a i c s i m p l i c i t y o f u l t i m a t e s a l v a t i o n " (169). James's f a t h e r , Aaron Dyck, r e g a r d s H i l d e b r a n d t as t h e 300 " f i n a l u l t i m a t e and immovable a u t h o r i t y " ( 1 2 3 ) . O l d H i l d e b r a n d t and Aaron Dyck " f i t t e d t o g e t h e r l i k e a f i s t and an eye" ( 1 2 3 ) , an image w h i c h , w i t h superb economy, connotes b l i n d n e s s and p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . 1 6 Ruth Dyck g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ' s n a i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f H i l d e b r a n d t ' s God. She q u e s t i o n s n e i t h e r h i s a u t h o r i t y nor h i s r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n i n g p r o c e s s : He was a v e r y good man... He always knew r i g h t from wrong. I t ' s l i k e a w h i t e s h i r t , he s a i d , i s i t c l e a n o r not? I f you have t o a s k , i t ' s d i r t y . (123) To young James, r a i s e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , H i l d e b r a n d t "seemed so a n c i e n t and p o w e r f u l I m i s t o o k him f o r God, A n c i e n t o f Days" ( 1 2 3 ) . O l d H i l d e b r a n d t ' s t y r a n n y matches t h a t o f Deacon B l o c k i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many o r Adam Ross i n F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e : he r e d u c e s t h e Word t o a f i x e d code o f l a w s , and God t o "the One s u r e Hand o f Punishment" ( 1 2 3 ) . H i l d e b r a n d t p e r s o n i f i e s a l l t h a t Wiebe a t t e m p t s t o a v o i d i n h i s manner o f a d d r e s s : dogmatism, v i o l e n c e , and f e a r o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . L i k e "a b l a s t o f t h u n d e r s t o r m " ( 1 2 3 ) , H i l d e b r a n d t ' s sermons p h y s i c a l l y a s s a u l t t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n : "you d i d n ' t know what h i t you b u t you were s h a k i n g " ( 1 2 3 ) . By c o n t r a s t , Wiebe's n o v e l a t t e m p t s t o p r o p o s i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n v e r b a l l y rape i t s a u d i e n c e , 1 7 t o a c t i v a t e i m a g i n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n " i n v a s i o n t e r r o r " ( 8 2 ) . 1 8 301 In B a k h t i n i a n t e r m s , H i l d e b r a n d t e n f o r c e s a m o n o l o g i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . H i s r i g i d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m d e n i e s t h e r e a d e r ' s a c t i v e r o l e as c o - c r e a t o r o f meanings i n t h e B i b l e . As w e l l as f a i l i n g t o acknowledge t h e h i s t o r i c a l , c u l t u r a l and p e r s o n a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s w h i c h shape h i s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e , H i l d e b r a n d t r e p r e s s e s any tendency i n o t h e r s t o e x p l o r e t h e d i a l o g i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e Word. The s t o r y o f t h e Cree c h i e f , Maskepetoon r e f l e c t s o b l i q u e l y on t h e m o n o l o g i c a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g f u n d a m e n t a l i s t h e r m e n e u t i c s . U n t i l h i s m i d d l e y e a r s , Maskepetoon's " c o n s c i o u s n e s s seems u n t e x t u r e d by any c o m p l e x i t y , e i t h e r e x t e n d e d t h o u g h t , doubt, o r even h e s i t a t i o n " ( 1 5 6 ) . He l i v e s i n t h e c a p s u l e o f a c l o s e d c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l m i l i e u , as do t h e members o f H i l d e b r a n d t ' s c o n g r e g a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f e a r l y c o n t a c t w i t h White c u l t u r e , Maskepetoon's p e o p l e r e g a r d w r i t i n g and p r i n t w i t h p r o f o u n d awe, much i n t h e same way as Mennonites r e v e r e t h e p r i n t e d words o f t h e B i b l e . R e a d i n g George Simpson's o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e I n d i a n s ' a t t i t u d e s t o t h e w r i t t e n word, James s u d d e n l y r e a l i z e s t h e i r p e r t i n e n c e t o f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h i n k i n g , and t o h i s own c i v i l i z e d , " s c i e n t i f i c " h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h methods: Though not one o f h i s [Maskepetoon's] countrymen would u n d e r s t a n d a word o f what was w r i t t e n , y e t t h e most s c e p t i c a l among them would not d a r e t o q u e s t i o n t h e t r u t h o f a s t o r y w h i c h had a document 302 i n i t s f a v o u r . A savage s t a n d s n e a r l y as much i n awe o f p a p e r , pen and i n k as o f steam i t s e l f ; and i f he once p u t s h i s c r o s s t o any w r i t i n g , he has r a r e l y been known t o v i o l a t e t h e agreement w h i c h such w r i t i n g i s supposed t o embody o r s a n c t i o n . 1 9 To him t h e v e r y l o o k o f b l a c k and w h i t e i s a p o w e r f u l ' m e d i c i n e ' . The power o f words w r i t t e n down t h e a b s o l u t e word made v i s i b l e . And me wrapped i n t h i s enormous c o n d e s c e n s i o n r e g a r d i n g savage ' m e d i c i n e , ' i n q u o t e s , who i n d e e d was p a r t i a l l y c i v i l i z e d once he has c l o s e d h i s hand t o make such words. The h i s t o r i a n s ' f a c t beyond f a c t coming t o me l i k e a coup d ' e t a t . (40) A l t h o u g h James has l o n g ago escaped p h y s i c a l l y from t h e c h u r c h and f a m i l y a u t h o r i t i e s who so s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d t h e scope of h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t h e p a s t , he remains e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y i m p r i s o n e d w i t h i n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t assumptions c o n c e r n i n g t h e dynamics o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The image of James s i t t i n g i n t h e narrow cone o f l i g h t shed by t h e s i n g l e b u l b o f t h e m i c r o - r e a d e r , w h i l e e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d remains l o s t i n g r e y o b s c u r i t y , makes v i v i d l y c o n c r e t e t h e i d e a t h a t even i n a d u l t h o o d James remains t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e narrow c o n f i n e s o f m o n o l o g i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s . G i l l i a n i n i t i a t e s James i n t o a d i a l o g i c v i e w o f t h e g e n e s i s o f t r u t h and meaning: "Hey o l d man, hey, when w i l l you be, come an h i s t o r , i a n y o u ' r e a f a c t , mongerer, f a c t - m o n g e r e r , h i s t o r y i s n ' t f a c t s , i t s p e r s o n a l i t y y t h e whole w o r l d , t h e u n i v e r s e , i s p e r s o n a l i t y , when w i l l you, e v e r y t h i n g i s , p e r s o n a l i . . . . t h e w o r l d i s under, c o n s t r u c t i o n , do you f e e l t h a t ? always e v e r y w o r l d , i s b e i n g made i s c o n s c i o u s , ness not o n l y f a a a a a a c t s ! do you f e e l t h a t ! " [ s i c ] (88) 303 James l e a r n s t h a t , whether t h e y acknowledge i t o r n o t , h i s t o r i a n s , l i k e a l l r e a d e r s ( i n c l u d i n g f u n d a m e n t a l i s t B i b l e - r e a d e r s ) , p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e as c o - c r e a t o r s o f t h e meanings t h e y " f i n d " i n t e x t s . The " w o r l d " o f w h i c h G i l l i a n speaks i n c l u d e s t h e w o r l d o f language. Words, t o o , remain "under c o n s t r u c t i o n " ( 8 8 ) , as each new c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n g i v e s t h e i r meaning a new " t w i s t . " 2 0 James s h i f t s from a p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f " r e c e i v e d h i s t o r y " t o a c o n s c i o u s l y a c t i v e , c r e a t i v e , d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e documented f a c t s o f t h e p a s t . A t The Mine r e s t a u r a n t , he r e j e c t s R i c k i ' s n a i v e c l a i m t h a t h i s t o r y i s "what happened" (192) and u p h o l d s O a k e s h o t t ' s v i e w t h a t h i s t o r y " ' i s t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s e x p e r i e n c e ' " ( 1 9 2 ) . L i k e t h e h i s t o r i a n i n Wiebe's s h o r t s t o r y , "Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From?", 2 1 James l e a r n s t o a b o l i s h t h e " e p i c d i s t a n c e " w h i c h s e p a r a t e s p a s t f r o m p r e s e n t . In t h e i t a l i c i z e d s e c t i o n s o f Maskepetoon's s t o r y , James i d e n t i f i e s w i t h a young member o f Maskepetoon's band, and r e c o u n t s e v e n t s as i f he were a p a r t i c i p a n t and e y e - w i t n e s s , t h e r e b y b r e a k i n g out o f t h e c l o s e d c a p s u l e o f t h e p r e s e n t i n t o a d i r e c t , i m a g i n a t i v e a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e p a s t . T h i s i n t e r p o l a t e d s t o r y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e g e n e r i c h y b r i d i t y o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e : because t h e i m a g i n a t i o n supplements, w i t h o u t c o n t r a v e n i n g , t h e f a c t s s u p p l i e d i n t h e t e x t u a l r e c o r d s , t h e s t o r y mixes documented f a c t w i t h f i c t i o n . Even t h e most 304 r i g o r o u s l y " s c i e n t i f i c " h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e i s s u e s from a d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , t h e documented f a c t s , and o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h o s e f a c t s . The term " p r o f e s s i o n a l blasphemy" (10) c r e a t e s a nexus i n t h e n o v e l between t h e s c i e n t i f i c v i e w o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h as a " s e a r c h f o r whatsoever t h i n g s a r e t r u e " ( 1 3 1 ) , and t h e C h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y have f o u n d t h e one " t r u e , " l i t e r a l meaning o f God's Word. 2 2 On an a l l e g o r i c a l l e v e l , James's " f a l l " from monogamy2 3 may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a l o s s o f t h e i n n o c e n c e o f m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n and u n i t a r y l a n g u a g e . 2 4 G i l l i a n ' s f i r s t words t o James a l e r t him t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a space between human knowledge and a b s o l u t e t r u t h : "For y o u r p r a y e r t o be answered, would you have t o know he [ R i e l ] was not hanged?" ( 9 ) . In d i a l o g u e w i t h G i l l i a n , James l e v e r s h i m s e l f i n t o a space between p r o f a n e and s a c r e d speech g e n r e s , where e r o t i c language b l e n d s w i t h t h e r i t u a l language o f t h e H o l y Communion: She has pushed me, perhaps I have f a l l e n i n t o t h a t p e r f e c t w h i t e between what few words I have found i n t o a n o t h e r w o r l d — d r i n k me, e a t me, a l l you have t o do i s t a s t e me, come, d r i n k ye a l l o f i t . . . (45) James l e a v e s t h e " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " (133) o f Eden, and e n t e r s a c o n f u s i n g h e t e r o g l o s s i c r e a l m r u l e d by p r i n c i p l e s o f d o u b l e n e s s , c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a m b i g u i t y , p a r a d o x , h y b r i d i t y . James remarks r e p e a t e d l y on G i l l i a n ' s " c o n t r a d i c t o r y tongue" ( 7 8 ) ; p h y s i c a l l y , she embodies p a r a d o x i c a l q u a l i t i e s such as " s l e n d e r s o f t n e s s " (17) and " v e l v e t s t e e l " ( 1 7 ) . S e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e becomes a metaphor f o r d i a l o g i c v e r b a l i n t e r c o u r s e , out o f w h i c h may i s s u e h i t h e r t o u n t h i n k a b l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , new c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r e a l i t y , and u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e a d i n g s o f c a n o n i c a l books o f t h e B i b l e . The f u n d a m e n t a l i s t n o t i o n o f l i t e r a l s p e e c h and r e a d i n g presupposes a " n a t u r a l " r e a l i t y and an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y n e u t r a l " o r d i n a r y " l a n g u a g e . I n My L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe r e p l i e s t o t h e s e m o n o l o g i c a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h u n d e r l i e f u n d a m e n t a l i s m by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e s i n p a r t d e t e r m i n e c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e " o r d i n a r y , " and t h a t such c o n c e p t i o n s d i f f e r r a d i c a l l y from c u l t u r e t o c u l t u r e , from p l a c e t o p l a c e and f r o m one h i s t o r i c a l epoch t o t h e n e x t . R e a l i t i e s such as t h e p a d d l e - s t e a m e r and t h e w r i t t e n word, w h i c h n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y N o r t h A m e r i c a n W h i t e s a c c e p t as e n t i r e l y o r d i n a r y , seem t o o p r e p o s t e r o u s t o be b e l i e v e d by Maskepetoon's p e o p l e . Wiebe r e g i s t e r s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and b i a s e s o f s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s , such as Low German ("which has no a b s t r a c t v o c a b u l a r y beyond ' s i n ' and 'decent' [ 9 1 ] ) , E n g l i s h ( w i t h i t s b i - p o l a r s e p a r a t i o n o f t h i n g s from a c t i o n s [ 1 3 6 ] ) , Nootka (a " m o n i s t i c " language [ 2 2 6 ] ) , H o p i ( w h i c h makes no d i s t i n c t i o n between p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e [ 2 2 6 ] ) , Greek (which "cannot say ' f o r e v e r ' [226]) and German (which "has 306 no word and so no c o n c e p t f o r 'goodbye'" [ 2 2 7 ] ) . Wiebe a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p l u r a l i t y o f speech g e n r e s w h i c h o p e r a t e w i t h i n any g i v e n n a t i o n a l language by c o n s t a n t l y " t w i s t i n g " o r r e - t r a n s l a t i n g key words i n t h e t e x t . Puns, w o r d - p l a y , r a p i d s h i f t s between speech g e n r e s , and s h i f t s o f g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n pervade t h e t e x t o f My L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe's a r t i s t i c p r a c t i c e t h u s c o r r o b o r a t e s G i l l i a n ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t "There i s no u n i v e r s a l n a t u r a l l o g i c f u n d a m e n t a l t o language w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e w o r l d t o everyone i n e x a c t l y t h e same way. E v e r y language i s i t s own p e r s o n a l l o g i c . Our language makes us t h i n k i n one p e r s o n a l way, and we cannot see a n o t h e r . " (227) The l i n g u i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y and s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y o f t h e t e x t embodies a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t p o s t u l a t e s c o n c e r n i n g o r d i n a r y r e a l i t y , u n i t a r y language and l i t e r a l , c o r r e c t meaning. F u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h i n k i n g c o n f u s e s f i g u r a t i v e w i t h l i t e r a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n , p r o p o s i n g a n a t u r a l , u n c h a n g i n g , one- to-one e q u a t i o n between s i g n i f i e r and s i g n i f i e d . In h i s d i a l o g u e w i t h James i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y , J e s u s s u g g e s t s t h a t a l l language use i n v o l v e s some degree o f f i g u r a t i o n : " A l l words a r e image, s p e a k i n g i s t h e o n l y way human b e i n g s can h a n d l e l a r g e r e a l i t y . But t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e image and t h e r e a l i t y has t o be c l e a r . " (141) No l i v i n g human language has a t t a i n e d t h e s t a t e o f a f o r m a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l system w h i c h e l i m i n a t e s f i g u r a t i v e usages 307 e n t i r e l y . J e s u s i n t i m a t e s t o James t h a t human b e i n g s have no o t h e r way o f d e s c r i b i n g God t h a n by making i m p l i c i t a n a l o g i e s between "Him" and t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e i r known m i l i e u . Not even t h e A p o s t l e s e n j o y exemption from t h i s human l i m i t a t i o n : c o n v e n t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g a t . t h e t i m e t h e y wrote t h e G o s p e l s caused them t o remain s i l e n t on t h e m a t t e r of J e s u s ' s e x u a l i t y , and on o t h e r " p r i v a t e " b o d i l y m a t t e r s such as e x c r e t i o n . A t t h e P a l l i s e r , Wiebe's J e s u s t e l l s James, "'You l i m i t God's b r e a t h t o o much, t o one custom's way o f d o i n g and t h i n k i n g ' " ( 8 4 ) . James's d i a l o g u e s w i t h J e s u s draws p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l , c u l t u r a l and i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s s h a p i n g a l l v e r b a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f God, a b s o l u t e t r u t h and m o r a l law. J e s u s s u g g e s t s , f o r example, t h e "awesome g u l f between s p i r i t and m a t t e r " (135) r e s u l t e d from t h e i n f l u e n c e o f n e o - p l a t o n i s m on C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . God's maleness, t o o , d e r i v e s from t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and v a l u e s p r e v a i l i n g i n " m i d d l e - e a s t e r n p a t r i a r c h a l " (140) s o c i e t y i n which t h e image o f a f a t h e r connoted r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and c o n c e r n f o r "the whole c l a n , a l l r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r t h r o u g h him" ( 1 4 1 ) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Wiebe's own i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e p r o c e s s he w r i t e s about i s c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t t h r o u g h o u t My L o v e l y Enemy.2 5 Some o f t h e same s o c i a l v a l u e s as p r e v a i l e d i n 308 " m i d d l e - e a s t e r n p a t r i a r c h a l " s o c i e t y a r e p e r p e t u a t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g o f a t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y Mennonite Canadian m a l e . 2 6 F o r example, one o f t h e s e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s Wiebe's J e s u s o f f e r s f o r God's m a s c u l i n e gender not o n l y has a d i s t i n c t male b i a s b u t i s a l s o couched i n o v e r t l y and c o v e r t l y s e x i s t language: "When man speaks o f 'God as Mother' her a c t s u s u a l l y become so c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h n a t u r e . . . t h a t he f o r g e t s t h e image-ness and b e g i n s t o t h i n k t h e words as p h y s i c a l a c t u a l i t y . . . [ a n d ] s t a r t s a c t i n g out c o p u l a t i o n and b i r t h i n g and b e g i n s t o t h i n k he's God w h i l e he's d o i n g i t . . . . They b e g i n t o w o r s h i p N a t u r e . . . . and t h a t ' s i d o l a t r y , w o r s h i p p i n g t h e t h i n g made r a t h e r t h a n t h e maker o f i t . But God subsumes and i s f a r beyond b o t h N a t u r e and Image. So i t i s b e t t e r t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e c o n c e p t o f GOD THE FATHER.... You a r e t h e n f o r c e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d not as t h e a c t o f p h y s i c a l b i r t h out o f God's womb, b u t r a t h e r as t h e a c t o f b e i n g spoken i n t o e x i s t e n c e by Words coming out o f God's mouth." (141-42) B e s i d e s e m p l o y i n g "man" r a t h e r t h a n "human," and u s i n g "Nature" t o evade t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a c t t h a t o n l y females a r e as y e t c a p a b l e o f g i v i n g b i r t h , Wiebe grounds t h e l o g i c o f J e s u s ' argument on an u n s t a t e d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t o n l y males a r e c a p a b l e o f s p e e c h ! 2 7 Wiebe does not deny t h a t h i s — i n d e e d e v e r y p e r s o n ' s — a t t e m p t s t o d e c o l o n i z e t h e Word i n e v i t a b l y c o l o n i z e i t anew. 2 8 My L o v e l y Enemy r e p l i e s , i n a sense, t o Menno Simons, who urged h i s f o l l o w e r s t o obey t h e Word o f God r a t h e r t h a n t h e words o f humankind. Wiebe c h a l l e n g e s t h i s c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e between human and d i v i n e words by p o i n t i n g out t h a t t h e S c r i p t u r e s — t h e r e v e a l e d Word o f G o d — 309 have been refracted, sometimes many times over, through the voices of human beings. God's Word, as humankind has access to i t i n the Scriptures, i s i n e v i t a b l y "adulterated" or c r e a t i v e l y "corrupted" by i t s human mediators. By drawing attention to t h i s i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n i n the Word, and by accentuating the gaps, evasions, ambiguities, contradictions, and the wealth of unexplored semantic p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n the Bible, Wiebe warns against unthinking, passive acceptance of the received, l i t e r a l version of the God's Word. Only through a process of constant reappropriation and semantic renewal does the Word avoid o s s i f i c a t i o n , and r e t a i n i t s potency as the " l i v i n g Word." The novel i d e n t i f i e s three stages i n the evolution of James's view of the Word. During his childhood, James must learn large portions of the Bible verbatim. Church and family require him to know the Scriptures by rote, or "by heart," but i t remains a language "understood but never t r u l y spoken" (253), and therefore a contravention of the Anabaptist i d e a l of free, responsible choice to accept C h r i s t i a n i t y . James moves into a second phase when he reacts against t h i s oppressive imposition of the Word. Having been a f f l i c t e d with t o t a l r e c a l l , James cannot expunge the Bible from his memory,29 but he can express his contempt for the a u t h o r i t i e s who imposed i t upon him by r e c i t i n g i t i n a parodic manner. Throughout the novel, whenever James quotes 310 fragments from t h e B i b l e o r from hymns, he a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y g i v e s them a s h a r p i r o n i c t w i s t . However, he comes t o see h i s i r o n y as a manner o f c o n s o r t i n g w i t h "the enemy": t h e p a r o d i c i m p u l s e i m p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i s e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e v o i c e a g a i n s t w h i c h i t r e a c t s : I r o n y i s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a t t i t u d e o f s l a v e s ; o f t h o s e who r e a c t t o t h e i r w o r l d b u t who a r e not s t r o n g enough t o d e t e r m i n e o r c r e a t e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . They l i v e t h e m o l l u s c ' s l i f e o f w a i t i n g and r e a c t i o n , t h e o n l y s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n a s u p p o s e d l y s u p e r i o r s n e e r — w h o s a i d t h a t ? Perhaps I t h o u g h t i t m y s e l f . (167) J e s u s u r g e s James t o " f o r g e t t h e q u o t a t i o n marks" (142) around t h e word " l o v e , " t o renounce t h e i r o n y w h i c h p r o c l a i m s t h e S c r i p t u r e s as " o t h e r . " P a r a d o x i c a l l y , James can f r e e h i m s e l f from t h e human a u t h o r i t i e s who o p p r e s s e d him i n t h e p a s t o n l y by e m b r a c i n g "the enemy" Word as h i s own. He t h e r e b y e n t e r s a t h i r d phase, t h a t o f a c t i v e , d i a l o g i c , p e r s o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Word. B a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e word and t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between James's i n i t i a l and f i n a l a t t i t u d e s o f a c c e p t a n c e . E x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e language i s a s s i m i l a t e d by " r e c i t i n g i t by h e a r t " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 341). I t s a u t h o r i t y i s imposed from w i t h o u t r a t h e r t h a n g r a n t e d w i l l i n g l y from w i t h i n . The e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e word e n t i r e l y s u b j u g a t e s t h e v o i c e o f t h e p e r s o n a s s i m i l a t i n g i t . By c o n t r a s t , i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e d i s c o u r s e amounts t o a " r e t e l l i n g i n one's own words" ( B a k h t i n 1981, 341). The l i s t e n e r g r a n t s i t a u t h o r i t y v o l u n t a r i l y because t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word p r o v i d e s d i a l o g i c c o r r o b o r a t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g t h e l i s t e n e r a l r e a d y a c c e p t s as t r u e . " T i g h t l y i n t e r w o v e n w i t h 'one's own word,'... t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word i s h a l f - o u r s and half-someone e l s e ' s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 345). Whereas e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e s e g r e g a t e s i t s e l f from o t h e r d i s c o u r s e w h i c h might undermine o r c h a l l e n g e i t s a u t h o r i t y ( B a k h t i n 1981, 343), t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word " e n t e r s i n t o i n t e r a n i m a t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h new c o n t e x t s " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 345-46). James b e g i n s t o r e l a x h i s r i g i d l y i r o n i c a t t i t u d e by f i r s t e n g a g i n g w i t h t h e H o l y Sonnets o f John Donne: "'Death be not p r o u d , ' " he s a i d o v e r them [ L i v and Becca] i n t o t h e d a r k n e s s . "'Though some have c a l l e d t h e e / M i g h t y and d r e a d f u l , f o r thou a r t n o t s o ; / F o r t h o s e whom t h o u t h i n k ' s t t h o u d o s t o v e r t h r o w / D i e n o t , poor d e a t h , nor y e t c a n s t t h o u k i l l me.'" "Don't say t h a t u n l e s s you mean i t , " L i v a m o t i o n l e s s l e n g t h s u d d e n l y . "He means i t , " B e c c a s a i d . " I do," he s a i d . "Yes." " I t h e l p s i n t h a t language, eh?" L i v s a i d , not i r o n i c a l l y . " K i n g James." ( 2 4 7 ) 3 0 Donne's sonnet o f f e r s a c r e a t i v e , d i a l o g i c r e v o i c i n g o f I C o r i n t h i a n s 15: 22, 25-26, w h i c h Young A a r o n , James's nephew, r e a d s o v e r Ruth Dyck's c o f f i n a t h e r f u n e r a l : "'For as i n Adam a l l d i e , even so i n C h r i s t s h a l l a l l be made a l i v e . F o r he must r e i g n t i l l he h a t h p u t a l l enemies under h i s f e e t . And t h e l a s t enemy t h a t s h a l l be d e s t r o y e d i s d e a t h . ' " (250) 312 James's a d u l t b a p t i s m — t h e r a i n which f a l l s on h i s f a c e o u t ' o f t h e c l e a r b l u e sky--comes a t a moment o f d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n between t h r e e e l e m e n t s : Aaron's r e a d i n g o f t h e passage from C o r i n t h i a n s , Donne's sonnet r e v e r b e r a t i n g i n James's i n n e r speech, and a n o n - v e r b a l s i g n o f l o v e i n t h e m o r t i c i a n ' s l o o k of " p r o f o u n d t e n d e r n e s s " (251) towards O l e n a , w h i c h i t s e l f becomes a v a r i e t y o f w r i t i n g ( t h e t h o u g h t m a t e r i a l i z e d i n h i s [James's] head as i f t h e l o o k had w r i t t e n i t : o n l y l o v e can so d e s t r o y " [ 2 5 2 ] ) . 3 1 A t t h e moment o f baptism,, words " m a t e r i a l i s i n g " w i t h i n James's psyche r e a c h a d i a l o g i c "consensus f i d e l i u m " ( L i t t e l l 66) w i t h t h e Word e n t e r i n g James's psyche from w i t h o u t . James's p h y s i c a l l o v e f o r G i l l i a n s t a r t s him on "a t r a i l f a r beyond words" ( 5 8 ) . But a t t h e end o f t h a t t r a i l , he r e t u r n s t o t h e Word, " l i k e a r e d i s c o v e r y o f a known l a n d " ( 1 1 7 ) . V i s i o n , i m a g i n a t i o n a l o n e i s not enough. Nor, by i t s e l f , i s t h e Word. The two must combine d i a l o g i c a l l y t o engender what Wiebe r e g a r d s as genuine b e l i e f . James' and Maskepetoon's s t o r i e s b o t h i l l u s t r a t e t h i s d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e . James l e a r n s t h e Word by r o t e as a c h i l d , b u t cannot b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d what t h e B i b l e says about t h e power and m y s t e r y o f God's l o v e u n t i l he e x p e r i e n c e s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f p a s s i o n a t e s e x u a l l o v e w i t h G i l l i a n . Maskepetoon t r a v e l s t o t h e same s p i r i t u a l p l a c e 3 1 3 from t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . He r e c e i v e s h i s v i s i o n o f p e a c e — h i s arm, s w o l l e n t o g i g a n t i c s i z e , s i t t i n g l i k e a w a l l between h i s p e o p l e and t h e i r e n e m i e s — b u t he does not know what t h a t v i s i o n means, u n t i l t h e M e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r y , Rundle, g i v e s him a Cree s y l l a b i c B i b l e and t e a c h e s him t o r e a d . Maskepetoon can r e a d i l y embrace C h r i s t i a n i t y o n l y because "Rundle's t e a c h i n g seems l a r g e l y t o c o r r o b o r a t e what Maskepetoon h i m s e l f has a l r e a d y come t o u n d e r s t a n d about l i f e " (156). James r e t u r n s t o t h e Word, where he s t a r t e d , t o f i n d he knows i t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . No l o n g e r t h e r i g i d m o n o l o g i c code of laws w h i c h H i l d e b r a n d t propounded, t h e B i b l e i s composed of "words you have t o keep l e a r n i n g t h e meaning o f a g a i n and a g a i n " ( 7 4 ) . A t each r e - r e a d i n g one d i s c o v e r s "theme" and "meaning," t h e b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new. Wiebe's d e s c r i p t i o n o f Young Aaron's B i b l e i n t h e f i n a l scene of t h e n o v e l 3 2 p o i n t s t o t h e p e r t i n e n t q u a l i t i e s o f t h e d i a l o g i z e d Word w h i c h y e t forms a common o r i e n t a t i o n p o i n t f o r C h r i s t i a n s : "The b l a c k book u n f o l d e d l i m p o v e r h i s hand as f i n e used l e a t h e r " ( 2 4 9 ) . 3 3 F l e x i b l e r a t h e r t h a n s t i f f , b e a r i n g s i g n s o f f r e q u e n t use r a t h e r t h a n s e q u e s t r a t i o n from t h e wear and t e a r o f d a i l y l i f e , t h i s book makes c o n c r e t e t h e i d e a o f t h e l i v i n g Word. Wiebe i m p l i e s i n My L o v e l y Enemy t h a t t h e l o c u s o f t h e r e a l i z e d Word i s not i n t h e p h y s i c a l pages of t h e p r i n t e d t e x t , nor i n t h e mouth o f any s i n g l e human a u t h o r i t y on B i b l i c a l e x e g e s i s , b u t i n "the space between" b e l i e v e r s who s t r i v e t o d i s c o v e r i t s meaning d i a l o g i c a l l y t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y . 3 4 The B i b l e p r o v i d e s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e C h u r c h , a s i t e where many d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f i n t e r s e c t . God emerges i n t o v i e w not o n l y i n e x t r a - v e r b a l space ( t h r o u g h v i s i o n o r r e v e l a t i o n ) , b u t i n i n t e r l o c u t o r y space i n t h e n o v e l . On b o t h o c c a s i o n s on which J e s u s appears t o James, he s t a n d s i n i n t e r s t i t i a l s p a c e s . A t t h e P a l l i s e r H o t e l , J e s u s " s t a n d s between t h e bed and t h e w a l l , t h e w a l l a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e bed i s t i g h t " ( 7 8 ) . I n t h e R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s s e c t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y , J e s u s s t a n d s "between books" (135) w h i c h c o n t a i n "the g r o p i n g wisdom o f man m o i l e d from ages" ( 1 3 6 ) . As w e l l as r e t u r n i n g t o t h e Word, James a l s o r e t u r n s t o t h e c h u r c h . James's i m a g i n a t i o n has no monopoly o v e r God, whose p o s s i b i l i t i e s , Wiebe i m p l i e s , exceed t h e sum o f a l l human i m a g i n i n g s . U n l i k e E m i l y D i c k i n s o n , who " c o u l d w r i t e w i t h complete c o n f i d e n c e , 'The s o u l s e l e c t s her own s o c i e t y [ G o d ] — / T h e n — s h u t s t h e Door'" ( 1 3 4 ) , James cannot e n t e r i n t o s o c i e t y w i t h God w i t h o u t a l s o r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g d i a l o g u e w i t h o t h e r b e l i e v e r s . He does n o t e n t e r t h e same k i n d o f c h u r c h he knew as a c h i l d w i t h a l l i t s i n t i m i d a t i n g m o r a l c o n t r o l s , b u t a f r e e s o c i e t y o f t h e f a i t h f u l made up o f 315 e q u a l i n t e r l o c u t o r s e n d e a v o u r i n g t o r e a c h a "consensus f i d e l i u m . " The f i n a l p a r a g r a p h o f t h e n o v e l p r e s e n t s an image o f James l i s t e n i n g and s p e a k i n g , an image o f harmonious d i a l o g u e w i t h humanity and w i t h God: He wanted t o l i s t e n h i s l o v e d ones i n t o l i f e , now, even t h e ones who were no l o n g e r h e r e . . . . and he p r a y e d t o see them a l l a t once and know them a l l , not d i s t i n c t l y and s e p a r a t e , even h i m s e l f , b u t a l l one. F o r he u n d e r s t o o d t h e y a l l t o g e t h e r had t o speak o r he c o u l d never say what was r e a d y t o be i f o n l y i t would be spoken. So he opened h i s mouth t o make t h a t . And much more. (261-2) V As f a r back as Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many, Wiebe e x p r e s s e s h i s awareness o f t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s own r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s . By t h e t i m e he p u b l i s h e s My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe has i n t e l l e c t u a l l y r e j e c t e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i e t y , no m a t t e r how s t r o n g t h e i r f a i t h , can be c e r t a i n o f p o s s e s s i n g t h e one and o n l y v a l i d , d e f i n i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . Because t h e S c r i p t u r e s cannot be d i v o r c e d from t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e i r own becoming, t h e y t h r e a t e n t o d i s s o l v e i n t o an p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d , c o n t e x t u a l l y - c o n d i t i o n e d r e a d i n g s . From t h i s p r e m i s e , i t f o l l o w s t h a t Wiebe's Word c a n n o t c l a i m more v a l i d i t y t h a n any o t h e r r e a d i n g o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . No r e a d i n g , i n c l u d i n g h i s own, can exempt i t s e l f from t h e 316 s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s whereby meaning comes i n t o b e i n g . To p r e v e n t h i s r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s c o l l a p s i n g under t h e w e i g h t o f h i s own l o g i c , Wiebe must a p p e a l t o an e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l a u t h o r i t y . Hence, i n My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe opens up a gap between T r u t h and human knowledge. I n so d o i n g , he e f f e c t i v e l y d o u b l e s t h e Word. Wiebe d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between God's a b s o l u t e , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l , m o n o l o g i c Word w h i c h e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f humankind's c a p a c i t y t o p e r c e i v e i t , and t h e d i a l o g i z e d W o r d - u n d e r - c o n s t r u c t i o n , as human b e i n g s can know i t . A l t h o u g h Wiebe may have r e j e c t e d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m a t an i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l , t h e f a c t t h a t he needs t o d o u b l e t h e Word, and s e t one p a r t on h i g h e r , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l ground, a t t e s t s t o h i s l i n g e r i n g n o s t a l g i a o r y e a r n i n g f o r t h e " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " (133) o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t o u t l o o k . Wiebe's t h e o l o g y o f t h e d o u b l e d Word poses an i m p l i c i t c h a l l e n g e b o t h t o M e n n o n i t e and t o Romantic a s s u m p t i o n s about a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y . I n her r e v i e w o f My L o v e l y Enemy i n t h e Conrad G r e b e l Review, Magdalene Redekop r e f l e c t s t h a t I t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t we [ M e n n o n i t e s ] have many h i s t o r i a n s i n our m i d s t . Our i n h i b i t i o n s about sex a r e as n o t h i n g compared t o our h o s t i l i t y t o t h e power o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , b u t b o t h d e r i v e from a common P u r i t a n s o u r c e . Sex, a f t e r a l l , produces c h i l d r e n b u t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n p r o d u c e s what my f a t h e r used t o c a l l "uetaedochte G e s c h i c h t e " (thought-up s t o r i e s ) . L i k e P l a t o , we have f i g u r a t i v e l y b a n i s h e d p o e t s from our c o m m o n w e a l t h — e x c e p t , o f c o u r s e , i n s o f a r as f i c t i o n and imagery a c t as d e c o r a t i o n on a d i d a c t i c message. (59) I n Mv L o v e l y Enemy. Wiebe d i s p u t e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Mennonite 317 v i e w t h a t human c r e a t i v i t y tampers h u b r i s t i c a l l y w i t h God's p r i m o r d i a l c r e a t i o n . A number o f h i s t o r i c a l and l i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t "thought-up s t o r i e s " a r e n o t , i n f a c t , "new," b u t a r e r e t r i e v e d by t h e w r i t e r from t h e v a s t domain o f God's c r e a t i o n t h a t e x i s t s o u t s i d e t h e sphere o f e x i s t i n g human awareness. Wiebe l i k e n s t h e " f a n t a s t i c new w o r l d " (72) c r e a t e d by a computer's " t r u l y i n v e n t i v e e x p l o s i o n " (72) t o C h r i s t o p h e r Columbus' d i s c o v e r y o f t h e Bahamas. (The Bahamas were not new; t h e l i m i t e d knowledge o f Europeans made them seem so.) S i m i l a r l y , Wiebe's a l l u s i o n t o t h e J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s ' s t o r y o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e i m a g i n a r y p l a n e t T l o n removes any a x i o m a t i c d i v i d i n g l i n e between f a n t a s y and f a c t , i n v e n t i o n and d i s c o v e r y : "Whatever p l a c e t h o s e b r i l l i a n t men t h o u g h t t h e y were d i s c o v e r i n g a c t u a l l y a l r e a d y e x i s t e d " ( 1 5 ) . And Maskepetoon's t r a v e l s , w h i c h b r i n g him i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a w o r l d as y e t undreamed o f i n h i s c u l t u r e , s u g g e s t s t h a t c a t e g o r i e s such as " f a n t a s y " and " r e a l i t y , " upon w h i c h t h e n o t i o n o f i m a g i n a t i v e " c r e a t i o n " depends, have no autonomous e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l e x i s t e n c e , b u t r e m a i n c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e s t a t e o f human knowledge i n any g i v e n t i m e and p l a c e . By p o s i t i n g a w o r l d new t o humanity b u t a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r t o God, Wiebe n o t o n l y c h a l l e n g e s t h e M e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l " h o s t i l i t y t o t h e power o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , " he a l s o d i s p u t e s t h e r o m a n t i c myth t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i c 318 i m a g i n a t i o n c r e a t e s from n o t h i n g . Wiebe s u g g e s t s i n My L o v e l y Enemy t h a t o n l y God can c r e a t e ex n i h i l o ; a n y t h i n g humanity can " c r e a t e , " i m a g i n e o r i n v e n t a l r e a d y e x i s t s , because i t has a l r e a d y been pre-empted by God. 3 5 I f God has a l r e a d y "thought o f e v e r y t h i n g , f i n a l l y and f o r e v e r and from t h e b e g i n n i n g and a l l t i m e " ( 8 0 ) , s h o u l d not t h e s o - c a l l e d " c r e a t i o n s " o f t h e human i m a g i n a t i o n be more a c c u r a t e l y be d e s c r i b e d as " d i s c o v e r i e s " ? And i f i m a g i n a t i v e " c r e a t i o n " i n v o l v e s d i s c o v e r i n g r e a l i t i e s w h i c h God has a l r e a d y c r e a t e d by t a l k i n g , does i t not f o l l o w t h a t human " c r e a t i v e " d i s c o u r s e s must i n e v i t a b l y c o n t a i n an element o f t h e p r o p h e t i c ? 3 6 My L o v e l y Enemy g i v e s a new t w i s t t o Wiebe's f a m i l i a r q u e s t i o n "Where i s t h e v o i c e coming f r o m ? " . 319 NOTES TO CHAPTER 7: MY LOVELY ENEMY 1. Unless otherwise indicated, page numbers appearing p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n Chapter 7 r e f e r My Lovely Enemy (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1983). 2. Robert Kroetsch describes Wiebe's manner of handling language as e r o t i c i n the l i g h t of Roland Barthes' notion of " b l i s s . " See "Mirror, mirror, show us a l l , " Rev. of The Scorched-Wood People, Books i n Canada, 7/1 (Jan. 1978), 14. 3. Pierre Spriet discusses other ways i n which Wiebe v i o l a t e s while at the same time endorsing the discourse of realism. See "Structure and Meaning i n Rudy Wiebe's My Lovely Enemy," i n Robert Kroetsch and Reingard M. Nischik, eds. Gaining Ground: European C r i t i c s on Canadian L i t e r a t u r e (Edmonton: Newest Press, 1985), 53-63. 4. Wiebe edited the Mennonite Brethren Herald from i t s f i r s t issue on January 19, 1962 u n t i l June 28, 1963. My Lovely Enemy contains themes and motifs included i n the following issues: the d i s t i n c t i o n between the laws and the s p i r i t of C h r i s t i a n i t y (May 18, 1962); g i v i n g the bride away at weddings (June 8, 1962); knowing the Bible by heart without accepting i t s truth personally (June 13, 1962); the necessity of constant re-evaluation of b e l i e f (July 20, 1962); people who turn the world upside down (August 17, 1962); the necessity of renewing t r u t h (October 5, 1962). 5. "The Black Bridge" i s the t i t l e of the short section between "May" and "September" i n My Lovely Enemy. 6. Pierre Spriet o f f e r s a comprehensive analysis of the obstacles to coherent reading i n "Structure and Meaning i n Rudy Wiebe's My Lovely Enemy," i n Robert Kroetsch and Reingard M. Nischik, eds. Gaining Ground: European C r i t i c s on Canadian L i t e r a t u r e (Edmonton: Newest Press, 1985), 53- 63. 7. Mv Lovely Enemy, of course, p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the c u l t u r a l construction of t h i s a l l e g e d l y "universal" human experience of sexual desire and g r a t i f i c a t i o n . See n.9 below, for a b r i e f discussion of sexism i m p l i c i t i n Wiebe's s i g n i f y i n g practices. 8. See Hildebrand (1982) for a thoroughgoing discussion of the i n t e r p l a y between r e a l i s t and a l l e g o r i c a l codes i n Wiebe's e a r l i e r writing. 320 9. From a feminist point of view, Wiebe also "consorts with the enemy." Although Wiebe challenges the notion of love which prevails i n male-dominated s o c i e t i e s , and dramatizes the appropriation of the female body and mind by p a t r i a r c h a l discourses, his aim i s not to release any repressed voice of feminine s u b j e c t i v i t y but to i n s e r t the term "woman" into an alternative p a t r i a r c h a l system of s i g n i f i c a t i o n . A feminist reading of My Lovely Enemy would f i n d ample evidence supporting the argument that Wiebe decolonizes the female body only to colonize i t anew. The women i n My Lovely Enemy remain objects of male perception. Mother, s i s t e r , wife, daughter, mistress, friend—Wiebe i d e n t i f i e s a l l the female characters i n r e l a t i o n to James Dyck. The women seem to stand i n a c i r c l e around James Dyck, illuminated s o l e l y by the l i g h t of his desires. P o l i t i c a l l y speaking, i t makes l i t t l e difference whether the women are products of James's or Wiebe's projected desires. My Lovely Enemy parodies but also reinforces p a t r i a r c h a l encodings of the r e a l . In the love-scenes, Wiebe's writing straddles the borderline between parody and approbatory i m i t a t i o n of the Harlequin Romance. Even when Wiebe unambiguously s a t i r i z e s James for his automatic, unconscious reversion to sexist attitudes, Wiebe's text consorts with i t s enemy by reaffirming "the maleness of the gaze" (Hutcheon 1989, 159). Ostensibly, Wiebe repudiates binary thought, and r e j e c t s p a t r i a r c h a l practices which turn women into a commodity (for example, g i v i n g away the bride, or f e e l i n g g u i l t y about entering into a sexual r e l a t i o n s h i p with another man's wife). Yet James and Wiebe both assert semiotic control over the female body, thus r e i n s c r i b i n g the p a t r i a r c h a l power structure they contest. Like VoloSinov's sign, the female body becomes a s i t e of struggle i n My Lovely Enemy. Wiebe wrests the power to decide i t s meaning from other men, only to subordinate i t to his own r h e t o r i c a l purposes. The textual p o l i t i c s at work i n My Lovely Enemy thus p a r a l l e l those i m p l i c i t i n The Temptations of Big Bear. The description of a s p e c i f i c a l l y male God speaking the universe into being (141-42) must also a t t r a c t what might be c a l l e d "the feminist gaze." This passage ostensibly parodies phallocentrism, and yet i t i s d i f f i c u l t to dismiss the p o s s i b i l i t y that i t functions also as a disguised form of d i r e c t authorial discourse. Wiebe gives contradictory signals as to the d i a l o g i c angle between his own voice and that of his narrator. He also leaves open the question of whether James dreams or hears Jesus' voice. By these means, Wiebe conceals his own p o s i t i o n very e f f e c t i v e l y : he makes i t impossible to decide the status i n the text of Jesus' description of God-as-Author-of-All. If one interprets the passage as a parody of phallocentrism, Wiebe s t i l l consorts with the enemy by hypostatizing the transcendent, monologic, 321 e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l Word ( d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n V o f t h i s c h a p t e r ) . A t many p o i n t s i n My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe r a i s e s i s s u e s c e n t r a l t o f e m i n i s t l i t e r a r y t h e o r y and c r i t i c i s m , however, h i s own a t t i t u d e s r e m a i n open t o q u e s t i o n . When a w r i t e r w o r k i n g i n an academic environment i n t h e 1980s names h i s p r o t a g o n i s t James Dyck, and p o s i t i o n s t h a t p r o t a g o n i s t between a f a i r g o d d e s s - f i g u r e ( L i v ) and a d a r k s e d u c t r e s s ( G i l l i a n ) , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine he w r i t e s u n s e l f c o n s c i o u s l y and w i t h o u t i r o n y . The g u e s t i o n i s , who i s t h e t a r g e t o f t h i s i r o n y ? Does Wiebe parody p h a l l o c e n t r i c n a r r a t i v e ? Or does he p a r o d y a c e r t a i n s c h o o l o f f e m i n i s t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e ? See a l s o Hutcheon (1990) f o r Wiebe's comments on s p e a k i n g f o r someone o f a d i f f e r e n t \ gender o r r a c e . 10. Wiebe does not p u r s u e t h e q u e s t i o n o f a c o l l u s i o n between " p a t r i a r c h y and p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e " ( 7 0 ) , f o r example. 11. Wiebe names b u s i n e s s , s c i e n c e and government as "the enemy" on page 73. 12. Wiebe a l l u d e s t o N i n e t e e n E i g h t y - f o u r on page 11; C e d r i c W h i t l i n g - H o l m e s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g r u e l l i n g work o f s h o v e l l i n g c o a l i s t a k e n from O r w e l l ' s e s s a y "Down t h e Mine 13. My L o v e l y Enemy a l s o r e p l i e s t o A n g l o - c e n t r i c i t y i n t h a t James s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t e n f o r c e r s o f B r i t i s h c u l t u r a l a u t h o r i t y such as t h e O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y , t h e tweedy O x f o r d g r a d u a t e H a r o l d Lemming, and t h e E n g l i s h a c c e n t o f C e d r i c W h i t l i n g - H o l m e s . 14. "The n o v e l t e n d s t o p e r t u r b and c o n f u s e t h e r e a d e r and a t t h e same t i m e t o s p u r him i n t o s e e k i n g a h i g h e r l e v e l o f awareness" ( S p r i e t 1985, 6 1 ) . 15. See V. N. V o l o S i n o v , Marxism and t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f Language, 67-71 f o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f " s i g n a l , " "theme," and "meaning." V o l o S i n o v ' s terms "theme" and "meaning" w i l l be p l a c e d between i n v e r t e d commas i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h them from t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e . 16. T h i s image would seem t o owe something t o t h e s h o r t poem w h i c h opens M a r g a r e t Atwood's Power P o l i t i c s : "You f i t i n t o me/ l i k e a hook i n t o an eye/ a f i s h hook/ an open eye." 322 17. The r e c i p i e n t o f a p r o p o s i t i o n does not i n d e e d make t h e i n i t i a l movement towards s e x u a l u n i o n , b u t u n l i k e t h e r a p e v i c t i m , she/he does have t h e r i g h t o f v e t o . W i t h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n , d e s i r e must be b i l a t e r a l b e f o r e s e x u a l u n i o n can t a k e p l a c e . 18. Wiebe w r i t e s i n My L o v e l y Enemy as i f always b e a r i n g i n mind R o b e r t L o u i s S t e v e n s ' remark t h a t " t o make o u r i d e a o f m o r a l i t y c e n t r e on f o r b i d d e n s t a t e m e n t s i s t o d e f i l e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . . . a n d t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o our judgements o f our f e l l o w - m e n a s e c r e t element o f g u s t o " ( 1 4 9 ) . 19. Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e W h i t e s ' e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s ' n a i v e a t t i t u d e t o t h e w r i t t e n word i n The Temptations o f B i g B e a r . 20. On b o t h o c c a s i o n s J e s u s appears i n t h e My L o v e l y Enemy. James must t w i s t t o see him. 21. "Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From?," F o u r t e e n S t o r i e s H i g h , eds. D a v i d H e l w i g and Tom M a r s h a l l (Ottawa: Oberon, 1971) 112-121; s u b s e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d i n The N a r r a t i v e V o i c e , ed. John M e t c a l f ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1972) ; Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From? ( T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1974); P e r s o n a l F i c t i o n s , ed. M i c h a e l O n d a a t j e ( T o r o n t o : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977); H o r i z o n : W r i t i n g s o f t h e Canadian P r a i r i e s . ed. Ken M i t c h e l l ( T o r o n t o : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977); Modern S t o r i e s i n E n g l i s h , eds. W. H. New and H. J . R o s e n g a r t e n (New York: C r o w e l l , 1975); F i c t i o n o f Contemporary Canada, ed. George B o w e r i n g ( T o r o n t o : Coach House P r e s s , 1980). 22. G i l l i a n ' s husband, t h e p e d a n t i c , s t a l e , tweedy H a r o l d Lemming, "the a r c h e t y p e o f r a t i o n a l man" ( S p r i e t 5 7 ) , l i v e s up t o s c i e n t i f i c p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c f a r more " s u c c e s s f u l l y " t h a n does James. 23. Wiebe s u r r o u n d s James' and G i l l i a n ' s f i r s t moments o f p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t w i t h a l l u s i o n s t o t h e f a l l o f Adam and Eve. James's f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n o f G i l l i a n a l l u d e s t o t h e nakedness o f Eve, "Between heads and s h o u l d e r s I saw a g i r l w i t h l o n g h a i r so d a r k i t a p p e a r e d b l a c k , so l o n g i t seemed m o m e n t a r i l y she was w e a r i n g n o t h i n g e l s e " ( 8 ) . More t h a n once he r e f e r s t o "the f a l l " o f her l o n g h a i r (12, 4 1 ) . T h e i r k i s s i n g i s d e s c r i b e d as " T a s t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e " ( 1 7 ) , and h a v i n g t a s t e d , t h e y f e e l " i n s t i n c t i v e l y s e c r e t i v e " ( 1 7 ) . 24. M e t a p h o r i c a l e q u a t i o n s between words and t h e f e m a l e body s u p p o r t such a r e a d i n g : "he h e l d b o t h G i l l i a n and L i v t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o each o t h e r " ( 1 9 3 ) ; " h i s hand r e s t e d on h e r back, c u r v e d l i k e a sensuous l e t t e r " (224). 323 25. T h i s argument assumes Wiebe, r a t h e r t h a n James, s h o u l d be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r J e s u s ' words. However, because Wiebe's d i a l o g i c a n g l e t o J e s u s words remains u n c l e a r , i t i s a l s o l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o argue t h a t J e s u s i s a f i g m e n t o f James's i m a g i n a t i o n , and t h a t J e s u s ' s e x i s t arguments and language d e r i v e from James' r a t h e r t h a n Wiebe's i d e o l o g y . 26. See n.9. 27. See n.9. 28. In h i s d e b a t e w i t h W. P. K i n s e l l a , Wiebe a d o p t s t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t some c o l o n i z a t i o n s ( o f I n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e , i n t h i s case) r e m a i n s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r s , b o t h m o r a l l y and w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h - v a l u e . See Rudy Wiebe, "Proud Cree N a t i o n D e s e r v e s Much More Than 'Funny' S t o r i e s , " Globe and M a i l . S a t u r d a y , Feb. 17, 1990. 29. Wiebe emphasizes James's " t o t a l r e c a l l " o f t h e B i b l e on pages 117-18. 30. The words w h i c h f o l l o w t h i s q u o t a t i o n i n t h e t e x t emphasize t h a t James r u n s from t h e Word i n H i g h German, b u t r e t u r n s t o i t i n E n g l i s h . 31. Aaron goes on t o quote Donne u n w i t t i n g l y as he r e i t e r a t e s t h e meaning o f t h e passage from C o r i n t h i a n s i n h i s own words: "death s h a l l be no more" ( 2 5 1 ) . 32. The image o f t h e B i b l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d o u b l e a c c e n t o f Wiebe's d i s c o u r s e . The B i b l e f u n c t i o n s as a t r i v i a l c i r c u m s t a n t i a l d e t a i l i n t h e r e a l i s t code, b u t c a r r i e s g r e a t w e i g h t i n t h e a l l e g o r i c a l code. 33. Wiebe a g a i n r e f e r s t o t h e " l i m p book" on page 253. 34. See A p p e n d i x I , " E a r l y H i s t o r y and D o c t r i n e s o f t h e Mennonite Church." 35. T h i s p r i n c i p l e w o u l d a l s o a p p l y t o t h e meanings c r e a t e d by r e a d e r s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e t e x t . 36. C f . Redekop's r e v i e w o f My L o v e l y Enemy, t h e Conrad G r e b e l Review ( F a l l 1983), p. 59. 324 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION Where I s Your V o i c e Coming From, Rudy Wiebe? 1 The q u e s t i o n , "where i s t h e t h e v o i c e coming from?" haunts a l l o f Wiebe's work. I r o n i c a l l y — a n d y e t p r e d i c t a b l y , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f a l l w o r d s — t h i s i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t i o n does not o r i g i n a t e w i t h Wiebe as i s commonly t h o u g h t . George H i l d e b r a n d i d e n t i f i e s i t s s o u r c e i n Denis de Rougemont's e s s a y " R e l i g i o n and t h e M i s s i o n o f t h e A r t i s t " : What P a u l V a l e r y c a l l s "the gods"...would be f o r c e r t a i n o t h e r p e o p l e t h e H o l y S p i r i t , and f o r o t h e r s s t i l l a message from t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . Sometimes, we i m a g i n e t h a t t h i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s v i s i o n has r e v e a l e d i n a l i g h t n i n g f l a s h t h e e x i s t e n c e of a s e c r e t way, w h i c h i t remains o n l y t o f o l l o w ; and sometimes we have t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t we i n v e n t t h e way w h i l e a d v a n c i n g upon i t . T h i s p r o b l e m . . . t o r m e n t s . . . t h e a r t i s t . . . . Do I i n v e n t . . . o r i s i t r a t h e r t h a t I d i s c o v e r a r e a l i t y ? Do I p r o j e c t i n t o t h e cosmos t h e forms o f my s p i r i t , o r i s i t r a t h e r t h a t I espouse by t h e s p i r i t some o f t h e o b j e c t i v e forms o f t h e r e a l ? . . . . Where does t h e v o i c e come from? Who speaks? M y s e l f , o r t h e O t h e r ? Such i s t h e p r e d i c a m e n t w h i c h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t c r e a t e s i n a man." ( g t d . i n H i l d e b r a n d 1977, 66) Wiebe e x p l o r e s a s p e c t s o f . t h i s "predicament" t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f h i s w r i t i n g c a r e e r . The Mennonites o f W a p i t i m i s t a k e Deacon B l o c k ' s v o i c e f o r God's i n Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. B i g Bear e x p e r i e n c e s c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e G r e a t S p i r i t ' s , t h e Queen's, and t h e 325 c o m m i s s i o n e r s ' v o i c e s . James Dyck cannot d i s t i n g u i s h between h i s own words and o t h e r p e o p l e ' s u t t e r a n c e s l o d g e d i n h i s memory: " f o r God i s not t h e God o f t h e dead b u t o f t h e l i v i n g . Who s a i d t h a t ? " ( 2 4 7 ) . Wiebe's r e a d e r s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s c o n f r o n t e d by p r e c i s e l y t h e same q u e s t i o n : "who s a i d t h a t ? " As t h e i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y o f Wiebe's t e x t s becomes more complex and p e r v a s i v e , t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f v o i c e becomes more p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t h e r e a d e r . From The B l u e M o u n t a i n s of C h i n a onwards, i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n Wiebe's r e l a t i o n t o t h e v o i c e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s / n a r r a t o r s , and i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s t o one a n o t h e r . I n "The V i e t n a m C a l l o f Samuel U. Reimer," Wiebe does not e n t i r e l y s e t t l e t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether Sam dreams o r h e a r s God's c a l l . Wiebe a l s o b l u r s t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e between R i e l ' s g e n u i n e l y p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e s , and t h o s e provoked by h i s a l l t o o human emotions and a s p i r a t i o n s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e "unending w o r d l e s s c r y " o f The A l m i g h t y V o i c e i n "Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From?" might i s s u e from t h e c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n - n a r r a t o r , o r t h e n a r r a t o r may m o m e n t a r i l y have escaped t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f l i n e a r t i m e , t o apprehend d i r e c t l y t h e sound- phenomenon o f The A l m i g h t y V o i c e as h e / i t once e x i s t e d i n o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y i n 1897. I n My L o v e l y Enemy, r e a d e r s 326 f r e q u e n t l y cannot a s c e r t a i n "who s p e a k s " : does James dream J e s u s ' u t t e r a n c e s , f o r example, o r do t h e y form p a r t o f Wiebe's m a g i c - r e a l i s t d i s c o u r s e ? 2 Wiebe c a s t s f u r t h e r doubt on t h e provenance o f v o i c e by u s i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f a n a c r i s i s — " e l i c i t i n g and p r o v o k i n g t h e words o f one's [ r e a d e r ] i n t e r l o c u t o r " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 110). As Wiebe r e s o r t s more and more t o a n a c r i s i s , i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e r e a d e r ' s v o i c e and Wiebe's: n e i t h e r m o n o p o l i z e s t h e r o l e o f "the a u t h o r . " In My L o v e l y Enemy, Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s James Dyck's d i s c o v e r y o f t h e d i a l o g i c r e l a t i o n between h i m s e l f and t h e B i b l e . A t t h e same t i m e , Wiebe p l a c e s h i s r e a d e r s i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same p r e d i c a m e n t as James. Wiebe's w r i t i n g becomes so c r y p t i c , so r i d d l e d w i t h gaps, d i s j u n c t i o n s and a m b i g u i t i e s , t h a t a t c e r t a i n moments, one cannot d e c i d e who i s " w r i t i n g " t h e t e x t . Wiebe b l u r s any c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e between f i n d i n g meaning i n t h e t e x t , and i m p o s i n g meaning on i t . L i k e James, one becomes c o n s c i o u s t h a t each a c t o f r e a d i n g r e - w r i t e s o r r e - v o i c e s t h e t e x t . "Wiebe's t e x t " e f f e c t i v e l y s h a t t e r s * i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f t e x t s " w r i t t e n " o r " v o i c e d " by a m u l t i t u d e o f r e a d e r - a u t h o r s . Where, now, i s "the v o i c e " coming from? Does i t come from Wiebe? From h i s r e a d e r s ? Which r e a d e r s ? Which o f t h e many v o i c e s w h i c h i n h a b i t t h e psyche o f any g i v e n r e a d e r ? 327 By many d i f f e r e n t p a t h s , t h e n , Wiebe g u i d e s h i s r e a d e r s a g a i n and a g a i n t o t h i s c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?" From Wiebe's e v a n g e l i c a l C h r i s t i a n p o i n t o f v i e w , i t i s a h i g h l y r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , an a n a c r i t i c d e v i c e d e s i g n e d t o make t h e r e a d e r c o n t e m p l a t e t h e u l t i m a t e provenance o f v o i c e . I f F r i e d a F r i e s e n a r t i c u l a t e s Wiebe's sense o f where t h e v o i c e comes, Wiebe i s t e l l i n g h i s r e a d e r s t h a t " i t a l l comes from God." F r i e d a q u i t e l i t e r a l l y r e g a r d s God as t h e A u t h o r o f A l l . Of h e r own story,, she says "What I t e l l I remember o n l y t h r o u g h God's g r a c e " (BMC 7 ) . The c o r o l l a r y o f such a b e l i e f i s t h a t Wiebe's own w r i t i n g — i n d e e d a l l human u t t e r a n c e — i s a form o f d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e , as much a p r o d u c t o f "God's g r a c e " as o f c o n s c i o u s and s u b c o n s c i o u s human v o l i t i o n . D a v i d L. J e f f r e y m a i n t a i n s t h a t " w i t h i n t h e s e l f [ o f Rudy Wiebe] a r e many v o i c e s , c o n t e s t i n g f o r t h e pen as f o r t h e h e a r t " ( 1 9 9 ) . Wiebe c e r t a i n l y e l u d e s easy c a t e g o r i z a t i o n by p e r m i t t i n g so many l a b e l s t o be a p p l i e d l e g i t i m a t e l y t o him: Mennonite (by b i r t h and by c h o i c e ) , R u s s l a n d e r , A n a b a p t i s t , P r o t e s t a n t , C h r i s t i a n , member o f an i m m i g r a n t f a m i l y , n a t i v e o f Western Canada, White man, male, s p e a k e r o f Low German, High German and E n g l i s h , member o f f a m i l y , l o c a l , r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s , as w e l l as o f academic, l i t e r a r y and c h u r c h c o m m u n i t i e s . Wiebe's n o v e l s d e a l p r e c i s e l y w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f o r d e r i n g 328 the many voices of the s e l f , and they a l l assert the same hierarchizing p r i n c i p l e . But "Where, i n the many-voiced s e l f , i s Wiebe's voice coming from?" This question can be answered by asking another question: "to whom does Wiebe think he i s speaking?" Wiebe's novels, a r t i c l e s , and e d i t o r i a l s i d e n t i f y several groups i n Canadian society who might l e g i t i m a t e l y be considered Wiebe's addressees. However, one may also argue that, l i k e Frieda Friesen, Wiebe remains, aware of a non-human i n t e r l o c u t o r . If Wiebe expresses his own view through the voice of David Epp III i n The Blue Mountains of China, he asserts that "[God's] ear hears each word f a l l " (137). The many voices of the s e l f assume an order which centres on t h i s postulated divine Addressee, t h i s Other who asks, as G i l l i a n Overton puts i t , "the question we're a l l answering, whether we know i t or not" (MLg 220). Bakhtin argues that Dostoevsky envisaged God as an interlocutor, a remark which would also seem highly pertinent to Wiebe: Dostoevsky seeks the highest and most authoritative orientation, and he perceives i t not as his own true thought, but as another authentic human being and his discourse. The image of the i d e a l human being or the image of Christ represents for him the resolution of i d e o l o g i c a l quests. The image of t h i s highest voice must crown the world of voices, must organize and subdue i t . P r e c i s e l y the image of a human being and his voice, a voice not the author's own, was the ultimate a r t i s t i c c r i t e r i o n for Dostoevsky: not f i d e l i t y to his own convictions themselves taken abstractly, but p r e c i s e l y a f i d e l i t y to the a u t h o r i t i v e image of a 329 human b e i n g . . . . A q u e s t i o n i s p u t t o t h e i d e a l image (how w o u l d C h r i s t have a c t e d ? ) , t h a t i s , t h e r e i s an i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o i t , not a f u s i o n w i t h i t b u t a f o l l o w i n g o f i t . (1984, 97-98) B a k h t i n m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l t h o u g h D o s t o e v s k y n e v e r l o s e s s i g h t o f "the t r u e word" (1984, 9 8 ) , he does not l e t i t " c o l o u r t h e work w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l i d e o l o g i c a l t o n e o f t h e a u t h o r " (1984, 9 8 ) . Wiebe d i f f e r s from D o s t o e v s k y i n t h i s r e s p e c t , f o r h i s r h e t o r i c a l i n t e n t i o n s p u l l a l l h i s n o v e l s back from t h e b r i n k o f f u l l p o l y p h o n y . As t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s o f t h i s s t u d y have endeavoured t o d e m o n s t r a t e , Wiebe i n t r o d u c e s speech d i v e r s i t y i n t o h i s t e x t s o n l y t o i n s e r t t h e many v o i c e s c o n c e r n e d i n t o a new m o n o l o g i c o r d e r , c e n t r e d on t h e v o i c e o f J e s u s , Wiebe's s o v e r e i g n O t h e r . I n D o s t o e v s k y ' s n o v e l s , "The c o g n i z a n t j u d g i n g ' I , ' and t h e w o r l d as i t s o b j e c t , a r e p r e s e n t not i n t h e s i n g u l a r b u t i n t h e p l u r a l " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 9 9 ) . I n Wiebe's work, by c o n t r a s t , t h i s p l u r a l i t y o f ' I ' s , and t h e p l u r a l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t w o r l d s t h e y b r i n g i n t o b e i n g , a l l r e m a i n s u b j e c t t o Wiebe's d i v i n e O t h e r , and t o t h e u l t i m a t e R e a l i t y encoded i n t h e S c r i p t u r e s . Each o f Wiebe's t e x t s t h u s becomes a m i c r o c o s m i c Utopia, i n w h i c h "the image o f t h i s h i g h e s t v o i c e must crown t h e w o r l d o f v o i c e s , must o r g a n i z e and subdue i t " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 9 7 ) . As w e l l as o r g a n i z i n g and s u b d u i n g t h e many v o i c e s which speak i n Wiebe's t e x t s , Wiebe i n v o k e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f "the h i g h e s t v o i c e " i n an a t t e m p t t o subdue t h e many 330 autonomous v o i c e s o f h i s r e a d e r s . Wiebe a l l o w s " t h e v o i c e o f t h e t e x t " t o d i s s o l v e i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f v o i c i n g s o r r e a d i n g s , o n l y t o r e a s s e r t m o n o l o g i c a u t h o r i t y and u n i t a r y meaning w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e d i v i n e word o r S i g n as deus ex machina. A t l e a s t , such i s Wiebe's i n t e n t i o n . I n p r a c t i c e , w h i l e C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s may a c c e p t Wiebe's c l a i m t o be c a p i t u l a t i n g t o G o d - t h e - A u t h o r - o f - A l l , n o n - b e l i e v e r s might s t i l l say t h a t Wiebe i s t h e a u t h o r o f God. Wiebe does not succeed i n d i s p e l l i n g a l l doubt about where t h e v o i c e comes from. Doubt a l s o remains as t o where Wiebe's v o i c e comes from on what i s commonly c a l l e d "the Canadian m o s a i c . " Many p o s i t i o n s have been l e g i t i m a t e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o Wiebe by c r i t i c s i n v o l v e d i n t h e o n g o i n g d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s o f mapping t h e many d i v i s i o n s and subdivisions of l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e . Dennis D u f f y views Wiebe as a h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l i s t , a descendant o f S i r W a l t e r S c o t t . He groups Wiebe w i t h w r i t e r s such as W i l l i a m K i r b y , G i l b e r t P a r k e r , S a r a J e a n n e t t e Duncan, Hugh MacLennan, Howard O'Hagan, P e t e r Such, and Timothy F i n d l e y . L e s l i e Monkman and T e r r y G o l d i e p r e s e n t Wiebe as a member o f a White i m p e r i a l i s t i c c u l t u r e which a s c r i b e s s e m a n t i c v a l u e t o — a n d a s s e r t s " s e m i o t i c c o n t r o l " o v e r — N a t i v e p e o p l e . L i n d a Hutcheon w r i t e s o f Wiebe as a m e t a f i c t i o n i s t , and a p o s t - m o d e r n i s t , w h i l e Ken McLean sees him as a w r i t e r o f e v a n g e l i c a l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l f i c t i o n . D a v i d L . J e f f r e y ' s "Post-War C a n a d i a n F i c t i o n , " c a t e g o r i z e s Wiebe a c c o r d i n g t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i o n , whereas c r i t i c s such as J . T h i e s s e n , M a r g a r e t Redekop, E l m e r F. Suderman, and H i l d e g a r d E. T i e s s e n p l a c e t h e emphasis on Wiebe's Mennonite c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and b e l i e f s . George H i l d e b r a n d argues t h a t Wiebe s h o u l d be v i e w e d not as a Mennonite b u t as a C h r i s t i a n a l l e g o r i s t . George Woodcock, L a u r e n c e R i c o u , and B r i a n Bergman group Wiebe w i t h o t h e r Canadian p r a i r i e w r i t e r s such as F r e d e r i c k P h i l i p G r o v e , M a r g a r e t L a u r e n c e , W. 0 . M i t c h e l l and S i n c l a i r Ross. A s h c r o f t , G r i f f i t h s and T i f f i n l o o k a t t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l a s p e c t s o f Wiebe's work, as does John Thieme's d i s c u s s i o n o f Wiebe's r e - v i s i o n a r y h i s t o r y . W. J . K e i t h p l a c e s Wiebe i n t h e same c a t e g o r y and T o l s t o y and o t h e r w r i t e r s o f " e p i c f i c t i o n , " w h i l e P a t r i c i a M o r l e y r e g a r d s him as a comedian. T h i s l i s t , a l t h o u g h by no means e x h a u s t i v e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i v e r s e t a x o n o m i c a l p r i n c i p l e s c r i t i c s have a p p l i e d t o l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e . The l i s t b e a r s some resemblance t o t h e a b s u r d taxonomy w h i c h i n t r i g u e s M i c h e l F o u c a u l t i n J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s ' C h i n e s e e n c y c l o p a e d i a , t h e taxonomy w h i c h " d i s t u r b [ s ] and t h r e a t e n [ s ] w i t h c o l l a p s e our a g e - o l d d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e Same and t h e O t h e r " ( F o u c a u l t x v ) . Wiebe's w r i t i n g , t o o , c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e dominant c r i t e r i a f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g S e l f from O t h e r , t h e c r i t e r i a commonly employed t o d e f i n e and o r d e r t h e component p i e c e s 332 o f "the Canadian m o s a i c . " Wiebe b r e a k s up "the v e r y s i t e " ( F o u c a u l t x v i ) upon w h i c h t h e p r o p i n q u i t y of t h e m o s a i c ' s p i e c e s u s u a l l y becomes p o s s i b l e . And by t h u s d e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p o s i t e d u n i t a r y p l a n e on w h i c h t h e p i e c e s o f t h e "Canadian mosaic" meet, Wiebe asks "whose v e r s i o n o f t h e mosaic i s THE C a n a d i a n m o s a i c " ? Wiebe w r i t i n g a s s e r t s t h a t "the Canadian mosaic" r e m a i n s "under c o n t r u c t i o n , " as G i l l i a n O v e r t o n would p u t i t . As t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s a t t e m p t t o show, Wiebe's n o v e l s draw t h e i r own m o r a l , s p i r i t u a l and l i n g u i s t i c maps o f Canadian s o c i e t y , e x p l o i t i n g t h e f a c t t h a t "the mosaic" cannot, f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g a t l e a s t , be d i v o r c e d from t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f i t s own becoming. The n o t i o n o f Canada as a u n i t a r y c u l t u r a l m o s a i c , l i k e Wiebe's q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?," b e a r s out Wiebe's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t "the t r u e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h problems i s e x p r e s s i n g them" (MLE 142). Both i n v o k e a s p a t i a l metaphor, a s y n c h r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e i n i m i c a l t o t h e purpose o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g Wiebe's a c u t e awareness o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f i d e o l o g y , c u l t u r e and language. I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e i t e r a t e not o n l y Wiebe's sense o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of t h e m o s a i c , b u t a l s o h i s p e r s i s t e n t t e n d e n c y t o s u b j e c t language t o a form o f p h i l o l o g i c a l e n q u i r y . I n an a l l e g e d l y p o s t - C h r i s t i a n s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , Wiebe's t e x t s attempt t o r e l e a s e s u p p r e s s e d S c r i p t u r a l meanings o f words such as "peace," "grace," "Jesus," "God," "Christ," "damn," "good," and "love," words heard i n the everyday speech of "average Canadians" (Wiebe 1963, 3). By re- accenting and re-valuing these words, Wiebe intervenes s e l f - consciously i n the unfinished history of human ideology and language. His evangelism involves an attempt to redeem the "'captial-W' Word i n the beginning was" (Neuman 236) from what might be c a l l e d i t s " f a l l e n " state i n the socio- h i s t o r i c a l world. Wiebe thus at once e x p l o i t s , and yet yearns to reverse, or terminate, or transcend "the h i s t o r i c a l process of Becoming" (Volo§inov 105) i n language.3 Wiebe's novels i m p l i c i t l y de-naturalize a number of assumptions and "methodological f i c t i o n s " commonly employed i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l discourse. By suggesting that the a r t i s t "unhides the hidden," 4 "unearths" intangible r e a l i t i e s that God has already created, Wiebe challenges the romantic myth that the a r t i s t ' s "creative" imagination makes new worlds e n t i r e l y independently and ex n i h i l o . 5 Wiebe's v i s i o n and his methods also contest t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l notions of "the author," "the reader," "the text," "the meaning," "the s t y l e , " "the language," and "the word." But again, i t i t e s s e n t i a l to r e i t e r a t e that Wiebe campaigns not to denounce monologic v i s i o n per se, but only monologic v i s i o n a r i s i n g out of human constructions of the true (other 334 t h a n h i s own). Wiebe a c t i v a t e s t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e immediate aim o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f s e c u l a r and o t h e r - C h r i s t i a n hegemonic d i s c o u r s e s . 6 Y e t beyond t h a t immediate aim l i e s a n o t h e r , u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e : t o d i s c o v e r t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t monologism o f an e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l T r u t h spoken by God and r e c o r d e d ( i n p a r t ) i n t h e S c r i p t u r e s . F o r Wiebe, God i s u l t i m a t e l y b o t h "The A u t h o r " and "The Reader"; t h e B i b l e i s "The T e x t , " t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c a u t h o r i t a t i v e "Word"; and "The Meaning" can o n l y be known t o humankind a t t h e t i m e o f t h e f i n a l R e v e l a t i o n . L i k e Wiebe, B a k h t i n and V o l o s i n o v r e s i s t t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l usages o f c e r t a i n key terms, b u t t h e i r r e a s o n s and t h e p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f t h e i r o b j e c t i o n s d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y from Wiebe's. B a k h t i n and V o l o i i n o v oppose not t h e l o w e r - c a s e d e s i g n a t i o n s employed i n common l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l usage, b u t t h e m o n o l o g i c o u t l o o k e n s h r i n e d i n t h e d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e and t h e s i n g u l a r form o f t h e noun: t h e y oppose "the a u t h o r , " "the r e a d e r , " "the t e x t , " "the meaning," "the s t y l e , " "the language," and "the word," a l l o f w h i c h i n s i d i o u s l y r e i n s t a t e t h e m o n o l o g i c a s s u m p t i o n s t h e y a t t e m p t t o o v e r t h r o w . Wiebe, by c o n t r a s t , would o b j e c t t o t h e s e terms on t h e grounds t h a t i n c o n v e n t i o n a l usage, t h e y p e r p e t u a t e t h e dominance o f " G o d - a l i e n a t e d language" (Wiebe 1962, 4) i n w e s t e r n s o c i e t y . 335 T h i s c o n t r a s t i s a b s o l u t e l y c r u c i a l because i t r e f l e c t s t h e r a d i c a l d i s c r e p a n c y w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e s u p e r f i c i a l s i m i l a r i t y between t h e w o r l d - v i e w s a r t i c u l a t e d by Wiebe on t h e one hand, and by B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v on t h e o t h e r . A l l t h r e e men e n v i s a g e t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d as a c e a s e l e s s c o n t e s t between c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . 7 Indeed, i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s s h a r e d model o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e w h i c h makes t h e t h e o r i e s o f B a k h t i n and Volo§inov so a p p r o p r i a t e a t o o l f o r a n a l y z i n g Wiebe's w r i t i n g . Y e t Wiebe's r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k r e m a i n s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a t odds w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y - g r o u n d e d w o r l d - v i e w a r t i c u l a t e d by B a k h t i n and Volo§inov. Wiebe acknowledges t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t r u t h as human b e i n g s can know i t , b u t he a l s o p o s i t s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an a b s o l u t e , a u t h o r i t a t i v e T r u t h w h i c h e x i s t s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e s t a t e o f human knowledge. Wiebe i n v o k e s t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s t o t h o s e B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v have i n mind. B a k h t i n and Volo§inov oppose a l l forms o f c e n t r a l i z e d v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e b e n i g n m o t i v e s o f i t s p e r p e t r a t o r s , whereas Wiebe, i n s t e a d o f condemning m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n p e r s e , w r i t e s a g a i n s t t h o s e s e c u l a r and p s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n a g e n c i e s o f i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l w h i c h i n t e r p o s e between God and human i n d i v i d u a l s . Nor does Wiebe v i e w v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y as an end i n i t s e l f . 336 For him, i t i s a n e c e s s a r y s t a g e i n a l a r g e r movement t o w a r d the i d e o l o g i c a l and s p i r i t u a l u n i f i c a t i o n o f humankind. W h i l e B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v espouse t h e d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l o f a f r e e , i d e o l o g i c a l l y - d i v e r s e , p o l y p h o n i c s o c i e t y , Wiebe s t r u g g l e s t o l i b e r a t e p e o p l e from what he sees as a s p u r i o u s , s p i r i t u a l l y d i s o r i e n t i n g form of freedom i n t o t h e " c e r t a i n bondage" of God's d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y . The w o r l d - v i e w s o f Wiebe and o f B a k h t i n and V o l o s i n o v are each c a p a b l e of subsuming t h e o t h e r . From Wiebe's p o i n t of v i e w , B a k h t i n and Volo§inov r e m a i n b l i n d t o t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a l i t i e s t h a t e x i s t beyond t h e h o r i z o n o f t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . C o n v e r s e l y , B a k h t i n and Volo§inov would p r o b a b l y number Wiebe amongst many p e o p l e who, t h r o u g h o u t human h i s t o r y , have i n v o k e d t h e power o f an i m a g i n a r y super-human b e i n g t o implement t h e i r own v a l u e s and o b j e c t i v e s . I f Wiebe c o u l d e n t e r i n t o d i r e c t d i a l o g u e w i t h B a k h t i n and V o l o i i n o v , he might ask "where do t h e a l l e g e d l y ' f r e e ' v o i c e s i n d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t i e s come from?" And B a k h t i n and V o l o S i n o v w o u l d r e p l y by a s k i n g "where does your v o i c e come from, Rudy Wiebe?" 337 NOTES TO CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION 1. Cf. Wayne T e f s , "Where I s Your V o i c e Coming From Rudy Wiebe?," Canadian Dimension 13/2 (1978) 51-2. 2. In " D i a l o g u e a t an E x h i b i t i o n , " P r a i r i e F i r e 11/2 (Summer 1990) 88-95, Wiebe's magic r e a l i s t mode c r e a t e s t h e same c o n f u s i o n . Does t h e n a r r a t o r imagine o r hear a l o u d t h e v o i c e of t h e shaman's dance garment? 3. Indeed, t h e s p a t i a l metaphor and p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e i n t h e q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?" e x p r e s s e s Wiebe's y e a r n i n g t o t r a n s c e n d d i a c h r o n i c i t y . 4. See R o b e r t K r o e t s c h , " U n h i d i n g t h e Hidden," J o u r n a l o f Canadian F i c t i o n 3/3 (1974) 43-45. The p r e s e n t argument d i f f e r s s u b s t a n t i a l l y from K r o e t s c h ' s a l t h o u g h i t a p p r o p r i a t e s K r o e t s c h ' s t e r m . F o r K r o e t s c h , " t h e h i d d e n " r e f e r s t o "a c o n c e a l e d o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e , sometimes B r i t i s h , sometimes A m e r i c a n " (43) c o n c e a l e d i n t h e C a n a d i a n word. F o r Wiebe, i t i s t h e u n d i s c o v e r e d p a r t of God's c r e a t i o n t h a t i s "hidden." 5. See Wiebe's r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s t o r y o f M i c h a e l a n g e l o ' s r e l e a s e ( r a t h e r t h a n c r e a t i o n ) o f t h e f i g u r e c a p t u r e d i n t h e m a r b l e , VL 133. 6. Wiebe acknowledges t h e h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s own T r u t h , y e t a t t h e end o f each n o v e l he a f f i r m s i t anyway. 7. T h i s s h a r e d v i s i o n perhaps has i t s s o u r c e i n S t a l i n i s t R u s s i a . The t h e o r i e s o f B a k h t i n and Volo§inov c o v e r t l y oppose t h e same t o t a l i t a r i a n p o l i c i e s as c a u s e d Wiebe's p a r e n t s t o f l e e from R u s s i a t o Canada i n 1930. L i k e thousands o f o t h e r s , Wiebe's p a r e n t s escaped b u t d i d not f o r g e t S t a l i n ' s o p p r e s s i v e r u l e . A l t h o u g h b o r n f o u r y e a r s a f t e r h i s p a r e n t s ' a r r i v a l i n Canada, Wiebe knew l i f e i n a t o t a l i t a r i a n R u s s i a i n d i r e c t l y , t h r o u g h s t o r i e s t o l d by h i s p a r e n t s , and o t h e r M e n n o n i t e s o f t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e s t o r i e s o f l i f e i n R u s s i a might have had a p r o f o u n d and l a s t i n g i n f l u e n c e on Wiebe's paradigms o f t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l w o r l d . 338 APPENDIX E a r l y H i s t o r y and D o c t r i n e s of t h e M e n n o n i t e Church The b e a r i n g o f Wiebe's t h e o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g on h i s w r i t i n g has been a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o v e r l o o k e d i n c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of h i s work. Y e t Wiebe's paradigms o f language, and hence h i s a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s and s t r a t e g i e s , emerge more c l e a r l y i n t h e l i g h t o f i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e h i s t o r y , p o l i t i c s and d o c t r i n e s o f t h e Mennonite c h u r c h . W i t h t h e a i d o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y one o f Wiebe's most i m p o r t a n t y e t l e a s t acknowledged a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s : t o t e s t Menno Simons' d o c t r i n e s o f t h e S c r i p t u r a l Word. Menno's d o c t r i n e s e v o l v e d i n r e s p o n s e t o a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d l e a d i n g up t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , 1 t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church had s e i z e d m o n o p o l i s t i c c o n t r o l o v e r t h e B i b l e . 2 The Church a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Word by assuming t h e r o l e o f s o l e m e d i a t o r between God and t h e p o p u l a c e , h a v i n g e r e c t e d and p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d a number o f b a r r i e r s between t h e S c r i p t u r e s and t h e p o p u l a c e . A l l c h u r c h s e r v i c e s were c o n d u c t e d i n L a t i n , and t h e V u l g a t e ( t h e L a t i n v e r s i o n 339 of t h e B i b l e ) was c o n f i r m e d by t h e Church a t t h e C o u n c i l o f T r e n t (1546) t o be t h e s o l e o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n . To c o n s o l i d a t e i t s a u t h o r i t y f u r t h e r , t h e Church s t r o n g l y opposed p r i n t i n g , f o r i f c o p i e s o f t h e B i b l e p r o l i f e r a t e d amongst t h e l a y community, t h e p r i e s t s w o u l d be r e n d e r e d redundant ( E i s e n s t e i n 157). Because so few o u t s i d e t h e c l e r g y knew how t o r e a d , t h e S c r i p t u r e s were f u r t h e r l o c k e d away from g e n e r a l v i e w . B e l i e v e r s had no o p t i o n b u t t o t r u s t i n t h e c l e r g y , who i n t u r n were s u b j e c t t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Pope, t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church b e i n g s t r i c t l y h i e r a r c h i c a l , w i t h t h e Pope a t t h e head, and a r i g i d c h a i n o f command e x t e n d i n g downwards t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . Because t h e Pope was b e l i e v e d t o be God's supremely a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on e a r t h , m o n o v o c a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e a b s o l u t e Word. The R e f o r m a t i o n l i b e r a t e d t h e B i b l e from t h e s e m u l t i p l e c o n s t r a i n t s . T h i s enormously complex and v i o l e n t u p h e a v a l w h i c h gave b i r t h t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t C h u r c h e s — i n c l u d i n g t h e A n a b a p t i s t s , among whom t h e Mennonites were n u m b e r e d — i n v o l v e d an a t t e m p t t o o v e r t h r o w Church-dominated C h r i s t i a n i t y , and r e p l a c e i t w i t h Book-dominated C h r i s t i a n i t y . The h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r l y M e n n o n i t e c h u r c h , and o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n g e n e r a l , cannot be d i v o r c e d from t h e h i s t o r y o f p r i n t t e c h n o l o g y , t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y , and t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e i n t o t h e v e r n a c u l a r l a n g u a g e s . 3 340 These t r e n d s had p r o f o u n d and f a r - r e a c h i n g s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l e f f e c t s : f o r one t h i n g , t h e y gave t h e l a i t y d i r e c t a c c e s s t o t h e S c r i p t u r e s . The r e s u l t s were c a t a c l y s m i c . Europe e x p l o d e d i n t o b i t t e r s e c t a r i a n c o n f l i c t ; t h e Word s h a t t e r e d i n t o f r a g m e n t s . Gone were t h e days when God had o n l y one v o i c e . The many f a c t i o n s o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m waged war not o n l y a g a i n s t t h e C a t h o l i c Church b u t a l s o a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r , each group s t r u g g l i n g t o a s s e r t t h e a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y o f i t s own r e a d i n g o f S c r i p t u r e s . The R e f o r m a t i o n movement wrenched t h e Word back i n t o t h e f i e l d o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , r e l e a s i n g t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s r e p r e s s e d f o r so l o n g by t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church. So t i g h t was t h e s e c u r i t y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e B i b l e p r i o r t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n t h a t even t h e lower r a n k s o f t h e c l e r g y were f o r b i d d e n t o r e a d t h e t e x t . 4 When Menno Simons was o r d a i n e d i n t o t h e C a t h o l i c p r i e s t h o o d i n 1524, he had never once been a l l o w e d t o open t h e B i b l e o r r e a d t h e t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s f o r h i m s e l f . Two y e a r s a f t e r Simons' o r d i n a t i o n i n t o t h e Roman C a t h o l i c P r i e s t h o o d , d o u b t i n g t h e C a t h o l i c dogma o f t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n , he " v e n t u r e d w i t h g r e a t t r e p i d a t i o n t o open t h e c o v e r s o f t h i s f o r b i d d e n book" (Bender 5) t o d i s c o v e r t h a t i t c o n t a i n e d n o t h i n g o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g o f t h e Church on t h e mass. By t h a t d i s c o v e r y h i s i n n e r c o n f l i c t was b r o u g h t t o a c l i m a x , f o r he was now c o m p e l l e d t o d e c i d e w h i c h o f t h e two a u t h o r i t i e s was t o be supreme i n h i s l i f e , t h e c h u r c h o r t h e H o l y S c r i p t u r e s . (Bender 5) 341 T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f Menno Simons' f i r s t l o o k i n t o t h e B i b l e p r o v i d e s a p a r a d i g m a t i c image o f t h e dilemma f a c i n g each one of Wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s : t h e y must a l l choose between t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e d i v i n e Word and t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e words of human b e i n g s . Wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between t h e s e two k i n d s o f a u t h o r i t y : God's Word i s a c c e s s i b l e t o human awareness o n l y as human v o i c e s speak i t and h e a r i t i n c o n c r e t e l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s . Amongst t h e v a r i o u s branches o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t movement, t h e A n a b a p t i s t groups c a r r i e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f B i b l i c i s m ( B i b l e - c e n t r e d n e s s ) t o i t s f u r t h e s t extreme. 5 I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e c r e a t e d t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l f o r r e l e a s i n g t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . By r e a d i n g t h e B i b l e , a l l l i t e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , no m a t t e r what t h e i r s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , c o u l d "hear" God s p e a k i n g t o them p e r s o n a l l y : W h i l e L u t h e r a n s and Reformed c l a i m e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f g o v e r n i n g c o u n c i l s and u n i v e r s i t y f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , and C a t h o l i c s o f a h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d h i e r a r c h y and t h e c h u r c h f a t h e r s , t h e A n a b a p t i s t s i n s i s t e d t h a t each i n d i v i d u a l must d e c i d e t h e B i b l e message f o r h i m s e l f . The g r e a t e s t degree o f l i b e r t y must be g r a n t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e i n s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . A n a b a p t i s m was t h e essence o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m . ( S m i t h 21) The problem was t h a t God s a i d d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , and who c o u l d a r b i t r a t e as t o w h i c h message was t h e most a u t h e n t i c and a u t h o r i t a t i v e ? 342 A l l Wiebe's n o v e l s d r a m a t i z e a s p e c t s o f t h i s q u e s t i o n . Wiebe f o l l o w s Menno Simons i n t h a t he r e c o g n i z e s t h e p o t e n t i a l dangers i m p l i c i t i n t h e more extreme a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e A n a b a p t i s t e t h o s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m : what would s t o p t h e v o i c e o f God from d i s i n t e g r a t i n g i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d human v o i c e s ? T h e o r e t i c a l l y , any c h a r i s m a t i c i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a w o r k i n g knowledge o f t h e B i b l e c o u l d s e t up shop as an a u t h o r i t y on r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , and c o u l d l e a d unwary f o l l o w e r s i n t o h e r e s y and b l o o d s h e d . Any i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e a d i n g o r v o i c i n g o f t h e B i b l e m i g h t be promoted by f o r c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y o r arms as THE d e f i n i t i v e meaning o f t h e Word. F a n a t i c a l , c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s such as Jan M a t t h y s , J a n o f L e i d e n and D a v i d J o r i s a t t e m p t e d p r e c i s e l y t h a t (as d i d L o u i s R i e l , as Wiebe p r e s e n t s him, i n The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e ) . The massacre o f t h e M i i e n s t e r i t e s a t t h e Oude K l o s t e r i n March and A p r i l 1535 (Bender 12), and D a v i d J o r i s ' s a t t e m p t t o s u p p l a n t t h e S c r i p t u r e s w i t h h i s own i n s p i r e d w r i t i n g s (Bender 2 1 ) , c o n f i r m e d Menno Simons' b e l i e f t h a t communal c o n t r o l s must check t h e power o f each i n d i v i d u a l member o f t h e c h u r c h . (Wiebe's r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f R i e l ' s v i o l e n t a t t e m p t t o f o u n d a New N a t i o n i n t h e C a n a d i a n North-West c o r r o b o r a t e s Menno Simons on t h i s p o i n t . ) A l t h o u g h Menno and h i s f o l l o w e r s b e l i e v e d i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e , t h e y f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o s e t • - 3 4 3 l i m i t s on t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e W o r d . U n r e s t r a i n e d , i t t h r e a t e n e d t o u n l e a s h r e l i g i o u s a n a r c h y . 6 F r o m Menno S i m o n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e M e n n o n i t e C h u r c h showed t h a t t h e e x t r e m e d e c e n t r i n g o f t h e Word w h i c h p e r m i t t e d t h e r i s e o f f a n a t i c a l , c h a r i s m a t i c A n a b a p t i s t l e a d e r s was no l e s s d a n g e r o u s t h a n t h e e x t r e m e c e n t r i n g o f t h e Word e n f o r c e d b y C a t h o l i c c h u r c h . Menno Simons a t t e m p t e d t o a v o i d b o t h e x t r e m e s t o w h i c h G o d ' s Word c o u l d be p u s h e d , a n d W i e b e f o l l o w s h i m i n t h a t h i s w r i t i n g s e a r c h e s f o r a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m o n o l o g i c a n d t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e s . H o w e v e r , W i e b e ' s f i c t i o n s u b j e c t s M e n n o ' s d o c t r i n e s o f t h e Word t o r i g o r o u s t e s t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . Menno f o r m u l a t e d t h r e e m a i n p r i n c i p l e s f o r o f f s e t t i n g t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a r e l e a s e d b y t h e d o c t r i n e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e . 7 F i r s t , he e l i m i n a t e d c o u n t l e s s h e r m e n e u t i c o p t i o n s b y i n s i s t i n g t h a t o n l y l i t e r a l r e a d i n g s o f C h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s w e r e v a l i d . S e c o n d , he s t r e s s e d t h e d a n g e r s o f t a k i n g s h o r t s e c t i o n s o f t h e t e x t o u t o f t h e i r c o n t e x t a n d " d i s t o r t i n g " t h e i r m e a n i n g t h r o u g h r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n . E i t h e r o v e r t l y a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e m e , o r t a c i t l y a t a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l e v e l , W i e b e ' s n o v e l s ( a n d some s h o r t s t o r i e s 8 ) i n t e r r o g a t e t h e s e d o c t r i n e s . 344 Simons' t h i r d measure t o r e s t r a i n h e t e r o g l o s s i a c o n s i s t e d i n p r o m o t i n g r e g u l a r C h r i s t i a n f e l l o w s h i p : members o f t h e Church were r e q u i r e d t o engage i n d i a l o g u e , t o a i r t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h an u l t i m a t e v i e w t o r e c o n c i l i n g them. 9 A l t h o u g h Menno Simons c o u l d not a c c e p t t h e dogmatism and c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h , he d i d not oppose t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f c h u r c h p e r se. Menno b e l i e v e d t h a t "the d o c t r i n e o f t h e c h u r c h and i t s c o r r e c t o r g a n i s a t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e was one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t d o c t r i n e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y " (Bender 2 2 ) . He promoted l i t e r a c y amongst t h e common p e o p l e not i n o r d e r t o r e n d e r t h e c h u r c h redundant b u t "because o n l y a membership a b l e t o r e a d and d i s c u s s t h e B i b l e c o u l d s e r v e i n t h e c h u r c h " ( L i t t e l l 4 3 ) . By s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e p r a c t i c e o f p r i v a t e B i b l e r e a d i n g w i t h communal B i b l e s t u d y and group d i s c u s s i o n , Menno e f f e c t i v e l y s e t up a dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p e c u l i a r p r i v a t e c o n t e x t s and t h e s h a r e d p u b l i c c o n t e x t i n , w h i c h t h e S c r i p t u r e s c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d . In B a k h t i n ' s terms i t may be s a i d t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , and p r e v e n t s t h e B i b l e from d e t e r i o r a t i n g i n t o "a new t a b l e o f t h e law, a new w e i g h t l i k e a cement b l o c k " ( L i t t e l l 5 9 ) . F e l l o w s h i p , by c o n t r a s t , aims t o k n i t t h e m a n y - v o i c i n g s o f God's Word i n t o a c o h e r e n t u n i t y , t h e r e b y p r e v e n t i n g i t from d i s s o l v i n g i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f d i s p a r a t e b u t e q u a l l y v a l i d 345 human v o i c e s . Menno's p o l i c i e s i m p l y t h a t t h e Word " l i v e s " t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y i n t h e mouths o f p e o p l e t a l k i n g t o each o t h e r , e n d l e s s l y r e a p p r a i s i n g t h e meaning o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . T h i s i s not t o say t h a t t h e Mennonite. Church eschews t h e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s , b u t r a t h e r t h a t i t g e n e r a t e s and r e g e n e r a t e s such d o c t r i n e s d i a l o g i c a l l y , as L i t t e l l s u g g e s t s : The A n a b a p t i s t s o u r c e s . . . p r e s u p p o s e a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e way t r u t h i s d i s c o v e r e d and a r t i c u l a t e d from t h a t o f t h e C a t h o l i c o r R e f o r m e r s ' p a r t i e s . F o r them t r u t h was g i v e n by t h e H o l y S p i r i t , t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e p e o p l e o f God. The s e t t i n g f o r i t s a r t i c u l a t i o n was b r o t h e r l y d i s c u s s i o n . T r u t h was n o t d e f i n e d by an e c c l e s i a s t i c a l monarch o r s e c u l a r p r i n c e . N e i t h e r was i t l a i d o u t by p r o f e s s i o n a l s c r i b e s r e a d i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g a book. I t was d i s c o v e r e d by t h e whole body o f t h e f a i t h f u l and r e p r e s e n t e d a consensus f i d e l i u m when s t a t e d . ( 6 6 ) A l l Wiebe's n o v e l s c o n t a i n an image o f consensus f i d e l i u m . an image o f i n d i v i d u a l v o i c e s j o i n i n g i n song, o r s p e a k i n g f r e e l y as one. L i k e Menno Simons, Wiebe grounds h i s p r a c t i c e s on a b e l i e f t h e Word must c o n t i n u a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o a v a r i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l r e a d i n g s and a t t h e same t i m e c o n t i n u a l l y r e c o n s t i t u t e i t s e l f anew t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e between c h u r c h members, (under t h e g u i d a n c e o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t ) . The meaning o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s i s t h e r e b y c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g r e n e g o t i a t e d i n a space where c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s c o - e x i s t . Through t h e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e s e two o p p o s i n g f o r c e s , t h e S c r i p t u r e s r e t a i n a degree o f s e m a n t i c i n t e g r i t y w i t h o u t o s s i f y i n g i n t o dogma, 346 and r e t a i n t h e i r s a c r e d s t a t u s and a b s o l u t e t r u t h - v a l u e , w i t h o u t c e a s i n g t o f u n c t i o n as "a s o c i a l phenomenon t h a t i s becoming i n h i s t o r y " ( B a k h t i n 1981, 326). Wiebe c e r t a i n l y p r o c e e d s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e " L i v i n g Word" must r e m a i n i n t h e arena o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e — o r d i e . I n h i s a r t i c l e s and i n h i s f i c t i o n , he i n s i s t s t h a t t h e w o r l d Mennonite community must be f r e e t o " l i v e i n t o " 1 0 an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Word because, as L i t t e l l p u t s i t , "the [ B i b l i c a l ] canon i s c l o s e d , b u t t h e h i s t o r y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e B i b l e , t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l works o f God, a r e by no means f i n i s h e d " ( 5 9 ) . Wiebe contends i n "For t h e Mennonite Churches: A L a s t Chance," t h a t S c r i p t u r e s must n o t be a l l o w e d t o o s s i f y i n t o a f i x e d , m o n o l o g i c code o f l a w s : F o r t h e A n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n t o s u r v i v e a t a l l , i t must be r e i n t e r p r e t e d by p e o p l e who w i l l not f e a r t o l e a v e b e h i n d t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t d e s e r v e t o be l e f t t h e r e . . . . The main t h r u s t o f t h e c h u r c h e s as such must be t o r e a p p l y t h e B i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e A n a b a p t i s t s — a n d t h e B i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w h i c h we can now see t h e y l a c k e d — t o our t i m e . As t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e s i x t e e n t h , so w i l l o u r e x p r e s s i o n t a k e d i f f e r e n t forms from t h o s e of t h e o r i g i n a l A n a b a p t i s t s . . . . (VL 28, 27) I n t h e same a r t i c l e , Wiebe makes a case f o r r e l e a s i n g h e t e r o g l o s s i a on t h e s y n c h r o n i c as w e l l as t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e . He a c c e p t s t h a t s i n c e Mennonites a r e s c a t t e r e d i n p o c k e t s a c r o s s t h r e e c o n t i n e n t s , i n w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g s o c i a l and n a t u r a l c o n t e x t s , s u b j e c t t o d i s s i m i l a r laws and d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s , t h e w o r l d Mennonite community's r e a d i n g o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s i s s u b j e c t t o an u n r e l e n t i n g 347 a s s a u l t by d i v i s i v e f o r c e s . Wiebe urges fellow-members not t o p r a c t i c e e t h n o c e n t r i c C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t t o t r u s t i n t h e power o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t t o p r e s e r v e t h e s e m a n t i c i n t e g r i t y o f t h e Word: In A f r i c a , C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , Japan, I n d o n e s i a , and I n d i a , t h e work o f m i s s i o n a r i e s from v a r i o u s Mennonite churches has shown t h a t C h r i s t i N a c h f o l a e [ f o l l o w i n g C h r i s t ] depends on no way whatever upon b l o o d s t r a i n o r t y p e o f c l o t h e s ( i f a n y ) . In N o r t h A m e r i c a t o o , t h e r e a r e c o n g r e g a t i o n s o f a l l major Mennonite c h u r c h e s w h i c h have Negroes, I n d i a n s , and Mexicans as members, but t h e s e a r e not t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n s t h a t have much say a t c o n f e r e n c e l e v e l . 1 1 (VL 27-8) Wiebe's n o v e l s a r t i c u l a t e t h e paradox o f "a u n i f i e d t r u t h t h a t r e q u i r e s a p l u r a l i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s " ( B a k h t i n 1984, 8 1 ) . The W o r d — i n d e e d a l l w o r d s — m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n Wiebe's n o v e l s i n t h e p r o c e s s of t h e i r c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r i c a l "becoming" i n t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . And y e t Wiebe c o n c e i v e s o f s u c h "becoming" as humanity's communal, d i a l o g i c s e a r c h f o r "a l a r g e r meaning o f l i f e , a l a r g e r meaning o f t h e u n i v e r s e , w h i c h a l l t h e u n i v e r s e i s g o i n g towards" (Neuman 2 3 4 ) . I n " U n e a r t h i n g Language," Robert K r o e t s c h t e a s e s Wiebe f o r h i s n a i v e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b e l i e f i n " t h a t ' c a p i t a l - W ' Word i n t h e b e g i n n i n g was" (Neuman 236). But as Sam S o l e c k i p o i n t s o u t , "Wiebe i n s i s t s t h a t t h e word be i n c a r n a t e d i n h i s t o r y , t h a t h i s h e r o e s t r a n s l a t e i t i n t o p r a x i s " ("Giant F i c t i o n s , " 8 ) . By t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e as w e l l as t h r o u g h t h e s t o r i e s t h e y t e l l , Wiebe's n o v e l s s i t u a t e t h e Word i n 348 t h e m i d s t o f v a r i o u s f i e l d s o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , so t h a t i t never o s s i f i e s i n t o m o n o l i t h i c dogma, b u t i n s t e a d c o n t i n u o u s l y e v o l v e s and renews i t s power t o mean i n response t o t e s t i n g h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s and unprecedented l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t s . 1 2 Wiebe's n o v e l s t h u s e x p r e s s a p r o f o u n d sense o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e d i v i n e Word, i t s i n v o l v e m e n t i n an o n g o i n g d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s o f becoming. A t t h e same t i m e , K r o e t s c h i s r i g h t t o p o i n t t o t h e l e g a c y o f — o r n o s t a l g i a f o r — t h e u n i t a r y c e r t a i n t i e s o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h o u g h t and language w h i c h l i n g e r even i n Wiebe's most a r t i s t i c a l l y i n n o v a t i v e w r i t i n g . A paradox t h u s u n d e r l i e s a l l Wiebe's n o v e l s : t h e Word frames h i s t o r y i n t h a t t h e B i b l e d e f i n e s f o r Wiebe t h e u l t i m a t e o r " l a r g e r meaning" o f e v e n t s ; and y e t , h i s t o r y a l s o frames t h e W o r d — human b e i n g s have a c c e s s t o t h e " c a p i t a l - W Word" o n l y i n t h e form o f h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t i n g e n t , "small-w" human u t t e r a n c e s w h i c h p e o p l e apprehend i n s p e c i f i c s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s . 349 NOTES TO APPENDIX 1. Wiebe i n d i c a t e s h i s awareness o f t h e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n i n My L o v e l y Enemyf where i t c o n s t i t u t e s H a r o l d Lemming's s p e c i a l a r e a o f i n t e r e s t . 2. B a k h t i n ' s r e f e r e n c e s t o p a r o d i c v e r s i o n s o f B i b l i c a l and o t h e r C h r i s t i a n d i s c o u r s e s (1981, 70 f f . ) s u g g e s t t h a t Rome was not c o m p l e t e l y s u c c e s s f u l i n s u p p r e s s i n g t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e Word. 3. F o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e growth o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m and t h e s p r e a d o f p r i n t i n g and l i t e r a c y , see E i s e n s t e i n 145-84. 4. The f o l l o w i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l on Menno Simons i s t a k e n from Bender 4-29. 5. Smith a s s e r t s t h a t "The A n a b a p t i s t s r e l i e d more e x c l u s i v e l y and more d e v o t e d l y upon t h e B i b l e t h a n t h e o t h e r s as a g u i d e i n t h e i r s e a r c h a f t e r God... The B i b l e t o t h e s e p r o p h e t s o f a new w o r l d - o r d e r was t h e s o l e s o u r c e o f s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y " ( 2 1 ) . 6. See Smith 21-22. 7. See L i t t e l l 9-22 on Menno Simons' d o c t r i n e s o f t h e Word. 8. F o r example, " M i l l s t o n e f o r t h e Sun's Day." 9. I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h i s t h i r d p o l i c y , Menno u r g e d t h a t any i n d i v i d u a l who r e f u s e d r e p e a t e d l y t o r e c o n c i l e h i s o r her p o s i t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e m a j o r i t y s h o u l d be banned o r excommunicated from t h e c h u r c h . "They soon a c c u m u l a t e d a w e l l - d e f i n e d body o f b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s a g r e e d upon by c o n g r e g a t i o n s and c o n f e r e n c e s t o w h i c h t h e y i n s i s t e d a l l members o f t h e group must s u b s c r i b e , o r remove t h e m s e l v e s from t h e f e l l o w s h i p o f t h e body" ( S m i t h 2 2 ) . 10. Wiebe i n v o k e s t h e c o n c e p t o f " l i v i n g i n t o " an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f something i n The Temptations o f B i g Bear, where Edgar Dewdney says t h a t " B i g Bear has l i v e d i n t o h i s own u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t l a n d " ( 1 1 5 ) . 11. The " c o n f e r e n c e s " might be v i e w e d as t h e d e m o c r a t i c p a r l i a m e n t a r y s e s s i o n s o f t h e Mennonite c h u r c h . A t t h e s e y e a r l y m e e t i n g s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ( e l e c t e d d e m o c r a t i c a l l y by t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g ) d i s c u s s and v o t e on d o c t r i n a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s . 350 12. C f . D a v i d L. J e f f r e y , who argues t h a t i n Wiebe's n o v e l s " r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n s a r e always t e s t e d i n t h e c r u c i b l e o f p e r s o n a l c r i s i s " (1981, 180). 351 BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS CITED A s h c r o f t , B i l l , G a r e t h G r i f f i t h s and H e l e n T i f f i n . The Empire W r i t e s Back: Theory and P r a c t i c e i n P o s t - C o l o n i a l L i t e r a t u r e s . London and New York: R o u t l e d g e , 1989. B a k h t i n , M i k h a i l . The D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n . Ed. M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t . T r a n s . C a r y l Emerson and M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t . Ed. M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t . 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" A V o i c e i n t h e Land: E s s a y s By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J . K e i t h . Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981. 226-47. O r w e l l , George. N i n e t e e n E i g h t y - F o u r . 1949. Harmondsworth: P e n g u i n , 1966. P e i , M a r i o A. and F r a n k Gaynor. A D i c t i o n a r y o f L i n g u i s t i c s . Totowa: L i t t l e f i e l d , Adams and Co., 1980. P o l l o c k , Z a i l i g . "The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a : A S e l e c t i v e Genealogy." E s s a y s i n C a n a d i a n W r i t i n g 26 (Summer 8 3 ) : 70-3. Redekop, Magdalene F a l k . " T r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e P a s t : Language i n The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a . " A V o i c e i n t h e Land: E s s a y s Bv and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J . K e i t h . Edmonton: NeWest P r e s s , 1981. 97-123. 356 . Review o f My L o v e l y Enemy. Conrad G r e b e l Review ( F a l l 1983): 57-62. R i c o u , L a u r e n c e . 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"Rudy Wiebe's The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a : t h e P o l y p h o n y of a P e o p l e o r t h e L o n e l y V o i c e o f t h e F r i n g e ? " M u l t i p l e V o i c e s : Recent C a n a d i a n F i c t i o n . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I V t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium o f t h e B r u s s e l s C e n t r e f o r Canadian S t u d i e s . 29 November-1 December, 1989. Ed. Jeanne D e l b a e r e . Sydney: Dangaroo P r e s s , 1990. 59-68. Suderman, Elmer F. " U n i v e r s a l V a l u e s i n Rudy Wiebe's Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many." A V o i c e i n t h e Land: E s s a y s By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J . K e i t h . Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981. 69-78 T e f s , Wayne A. "Rudy Wiebe: M y s t e r y and R e a l i t y . " M o s a i c X I / 4 : 155-58. . "Where I s Your V o i c e Coming From Rudy Wiebe?" C a n a d i a n Dimension 13/2 (1978): 51-2. Thieme, John. "Scheherazade as H i s t o r i a n : Rudy Wiebe's 'Where i s t h e V o i c e Coming From?'" J o u r n a l o f Commonwealth L i t e r a t u r e 17 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 172-181. 357 T h i e s s e n , J . "Canadian Mennonite l i t e r a t u r e . " Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 52 (1972): 65-72. T i e s s e n , H i l d e g a r d E. "A M i g h t y I n n e r R i v e r : 'Peace' i n t h e F i c t i o n o f Rudy Wiebe." J o u r n a l o f C a n a d i a n F i c t i o n 2 ( F a l l 1973): 71-6. Volo§inov, V. N. Marxism and t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f Language. T r a n s . L a d i s l a v M a t e j k a and"I.-R. T i t u n i k . New York: Seminar P r e s s , 1973. Wenger, John C h r i s t i a n , ed. The Complete W r i t i n g s o f Menno Simons. T r a n s . L e o n a r d V e r d u i n . S c o t t d a l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1956. White, Hayden. M e t a h i s t o r y : The H i s t o r i c a l I m a g i n a t i o n i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y Europe. B a l t i m o r e and London: Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973. Wiebe, Rudy. Peace S h a l l D e s t r o y Many. T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1962. . " A c c i d e n t . " E d i t o r i a l . The Mennonite B r e t h r e n H e r a l d . J u l y 13, 1962. 4. . "Church P r o s p e c t 1963: W r i t i n g . " E d i t o r i a l . The M e n n o n i t e B r e t h r e n H e r a l d . J a n u a r y 11, 1963. 3. . F i r s t and V i t a l C a n d l e . T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1966. . The B l u e Mountains o f C h i n a . T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1970. . The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear. T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1973. . Where I s The V o i c e Coming From?. T o r o n t o M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1974. . "Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From?." Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From?. T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1974. 135-43. . " M i l l s t o n e f o r t h e Sun's Day." Where I s t h e V o i c e Coming From?. T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1974. 37-44. 358 —.-. The Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1977. , and T h e a t r e Passe M u r a i l l e . F a r As The Eye Can See. Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1977. . The Mad T r a p p e r . T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1980. . "The A r t i s t as a C r i t i c and a W i t n e s s . " A V o i c e i n t h e Land: E s s a y s By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J , K e i t h . Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981. 39-47. . "For t h e Mennonite Churches: A L a s t Chance." A V o i c e i n t h e Land: E s s a y s By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J . K e i t h . Edmonton: NeWest P r e s s , 1981. 25-31. . On t h e T r a i l o f B i g Bear." A V o i c e i n t h e Land: E s s a y s By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J , K e i t h . Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981. 132-41. . "Bear S p i r i t i n a S t r a n g e Land." A V o i c e i n t h e Land: Essays By and About Rudy Wiebe. Ed. W. J . K e i t h . Edmonton: Newest P r e s s , 1981. 143-49. . My L o v e l y Enemy. T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1983. . "The S k u l l i n t h e Swamp." J o u r n a l o f Mennonite S t u d i e s 5 (1987): 8-20. . P l a y i n g Dead: A C o n t e m p l a t i o n C o n c e r n i n g t h e A r c t i c . Edmonton: NeWest P r e s s , 1989. . " D i a l o g u e a t an E x h i b i t i o n . " P r a i r i e F i r e 11/2 (Summer 1990): 88-95. Woodcock, George. " P r a i r i e W r i t e r s and t h e M e t i s : Rudy Wiebe and M a r g a r e t L a u r e n c e . " C a n a d i a n E t h n i c S t u d i e s 14/1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 9-22. 359 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES BOOKS BY WIEBE Wiebe, Rudy. H a r r y Savage and Tom R a d f o r d . A l b e r t a / A C e l e b r a t i o n . Edmonton: H u r t i g , 1979. BOOKS EDITED BY WIEBE Wiebe, Rudy. The S t o r y - M a k e r s . T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1970. . S t o r i e s From Western Canada. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1972. , and Andreas S c h r o e d e r . S t o r i e s from P a c i f i c and A r c t i c Canada. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1974. . Double V i s i o n : An A n t h o l o g y o f T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y S t o r i e s i n E n g l i s h . T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1976. . G e t t i n g There: S t o r i e s S e l e c t e d by Rudy Wiebe. Edmonton: NeWest P r e s s , 1970. , and A r i t h a van Herk. More S t o r i e s From Western Canada. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1980. , and Bob B e a l . War i n t h e West: V o i c e s o f t h e 1885 R e b e l l i o n . T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1985. FICTION BY WIEBE IN BOOKS AND PERIODICALS Wiebe, Rudy. "The M i d n i g h t R i d e o f an A l b e r t a Boy." L i b e r t y 33 (September, 1956): 22, 64, 66. R e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d as "Scrapbook" i n WVCF. . "The Power." New V o i c e s : Canadian U n i v e r s i t y W r i t i n g o f 1956. Ed. E a r l e B i r n e y e t a l . T o r o n t o : Dent, 1956. 128-33. . "Tudor K i n g . " C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g 11 (December, 1964): 10-11, 31-32. Repr. i n WVCF. 360 " I n c i d e n t from a N o v e l i n P r o g r e s s . " F o o l s c a p [Goshen C o l l e g e , I n d i a n a ] 4 ( S p r i n g 1965). I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o FVC. " O o l u l i k . " I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o FVC. R e p r i n t e d i n The S t o r y - M a k e r s . Ed. Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1970. Repr. WVCF. "My L i f e : T h a t ' s As I t Was." C a n a d i a n Mennonite 15/24-32 (9 i n s t a l m e n t s : 13 June-15 August, 1967). I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o BMC. " B l a c k V u l t u r e . " The Mennonite 82/25 (20 June 1967): 410-15. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o BMC. " M i l l s t o n e f o r t h e Sun's Day." Tamarack Review 44 (Summer 1967): 56-64. Repr. WVCF. "Over t h e Red L i n e . " The Mennonite 82/28 (18 J u l y 1967): 464-67. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o BMC. "The W e l l . " The Mennonite 82/30 (15 August 1967): 502-5. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o BMC. " A l l On T h e i r Knees." The M e n n o n i t e 83/46 (17 December 1968): 778-783. R e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d i n WVCF. " D i d J e s u s E v e r Laugh?" F i d d l e h e a d 84 (March- A p r i l 1970): 40-52. R e p r i n t e d i n S t o r i e s From Western Canada. Ed. Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1972. Repr. WVCF. "Where I s The V o i c e Coming From?" F o u r t e e n S t o r i e s H i g h . Ed. D a v i d H e l w i g and Tom M a r s h a l l . Ottawa: Oberon, 1971. 112-21. WVCF 135-43. " B l u e c o a t s on t h e S a c r e d H i l l o f t h e W i l d Peas." The S t a r Spangled B e a v e r . Ed. John H. Redekop. T o r o n t o : P e t e r M a r t i n , 1971. 46-54. R e p r i n t e d WVCF. "The F i s h Caught i n t h e B a t t l e R i v e r . " White P e l i c a n 1/4 ( F a l l 1971): 33-7. Repr. i n WVCF. "The Grand P u r s u i t o f B i g B e a r . " F i d d l e h e a d 95 ( F a l l 1972): 3-12. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o TBB. "Along t h e Red Deer and t h e South Saskatchewan." P r i s m I n t e r n a t i o n a l 12/3 ( S p r i n g 1973): 47-56. Repr. i n WVCF. 361 " B u f f a l o Run." J o u r n a l o f Canadian F i c t i o n 2 ( S p r i n g 1973): 39-41. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o TBB. "How t h e P e o p l e Used t o Make T r e a t i e s . " White P e l i c a n 3/2 ( S p r i n g 1973): 58-64. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o TBB. "The Naming o f A l b e r t Johnson." Queen's Q u a r t e r l y 80 (Autumn 1973): 370-78. Repr. i n S t o r i e s from P a c i f i c and A r c t i c Canada. Ed. Andreas S c h r o e d e r and Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1974. Repr. WVCF. "At t h e Sand H i l l s . " N a t i v e P e o p l e i n C a n a d i a n L i t e r a t u r e . Ed. W i l l i a m and C h r i s t i n e Mowat. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1975. 38-9. P r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d i n TBB. "The L a s t B u f f a l o . " N a t i v e P e o p l e i n C a n a d i a n L i t e r a t u r e . Ed. W i l l i a m and C h r i s t i n e Mowat. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1975. P r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d i n TBB. "Games f o r Queen V i c t o r i a . " S a t u r d a y N i g h t 91 (March 1976): 60-7. R e p r i n t e d i n More S t o r i e s from Western Canada. Ed. Rudy Wiebe and A r i t h a van Herk. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1980. "Home f o r N i g h t . " NeWest Review 1 ( A p r i l 1976): 6-7, 9. " H u n t i n g M c D o u g a l l . " F i d d l e h e a d 108 ( W i n t e r 1976): 17-24. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o SWP. "Batoche. May 12, 1885." D i v i d e d We S t a n d . Ed. Gary Geddes. T o r o n t o : P e t e r M a r t i n , 1977. 26-30. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o SWP. "The Year We Gave Away t h e Land." Week-End Magazine [ T o r o n t o G l o b e and M a i n (9 J u l y 1977): 14, 16. R e p r i n t e d i n AC. " I n t h e Beaver H i l l s . " A u r o r a : New Canadian W r i t i n g 1978. Ed. M o r r i s W o l f e . T o r o n t o : Doubleday, 1978. 71-80. " A f t e r T h i r t y Y e a r s o f M a r r i a g e . " Canadian Forum 58 (Oct.-Nov. 1978): 36-40. R e p r i n t e d i n AC. "Chinook C h r i s t m a s . " NeWest Review 4 (December 1978), 8-9, 12. R e p r i n t e d i n AC. 362 . "The Good Maker," MBH 18 (16 F e b r u a r y 1979): 7-10. . "The O i l C a p i t a l s o f Canada." AC. . "Lake I s l e o f I n n i s f r e e . " AC. . "They J u s t Won't B e l i e v e . " AC. . "The House-Smashers." AC. . "A H i s t o r y o f t h e New World." AC. . "Growing Up i n Rosebud." AC. . "The Funny Money o f 1980." AC. . "The A n g e l o f t h e Tar Sands." AC. . "The Darkness I n s i d e t h e Mountain." AC. . "Bears, A l l t h e Time B e a r s . " AC. . "From M o n t r e a l , 1848." AC. . "An I n d i c a t i o n o f B u r n i n g . " Canadian F i c t i o n Magazine 32/3 (1979-80): 150-64. . "The Broken Arm." C a n a d i a n Forum 61 (March 1982): 24-29. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o MLE. . " P r o f e s s i o n a l P r a y e r . " NeWest Review 7/10 (Summer 1982): 4-5. I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o MLE. . " S e e i n g i s B e l i e v i n g . " K u n a p i p i 6/2 ( 1 9 8 4 ) : 1-14. . " S a i l i n g t o D a n z i g . " The M a l a h a t Review 76 ( S e p t , 1986): 64-73. . "The S h e l l s o f t h e Ocean." The M a l a h a t Review 86 (March 1989): 112-123. . "Except God Who A l r e a d y Knows." The New Q u a r t e r l y X / l - 2 (Spring-summer 1990): 224-238. 363 ARTICLES, ESSAYS, REVIEWS. ADDRESSES, AND POEMS BY RUDY WIEBE Wiebe, Rudy. "New Y e a r ' s Eve i n t h e R o c k i e s . " 4 (Feb, 1956): 9-12. [poem] . "Claude G a l l i n g e r and h i s K i l l e a r n S h o r t h o r n s . " Ts. G l e n b o w - A l b e r t a I n s t i t u t e , C a l g a r y . . " M u f f l e d R e t u r n . " F o o l s c a p 5 ( S p r i n g 1966): 3. [poem] . " F a l l Sunday i n Hyde P a r k . " F o o l s c a p 5 ( S p r i n g 1966): 3. [poem] . " V o i c e s . " F o o l s c a p 5 ( S p r i n g 1966): 4-1. [poem] . "An A u t h o r Speaks About H i s N o v e l . " C a n a d i a n Mennonite 11 (11 A p r i l 1963): 8. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. . "For t h e Mennonite Churches: A L a s t Chance." C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g 11 (June 1964): 26-8. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. . "Tombstone Community." Mennonite L i f e 19 ( O c t o b e r 1964): 150-53. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. . "The A r t i s t as a C r i t i c and a W i t n e s s . " C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g 12/3 (March 1965): 10-3, 40. Rev. and r e p r . as "The A r t i s t as W i t n e s s t o and C r i t i c o f S o c i e t y . " J o u r n a l o f Church and S o c i e t y . 1 ( F a l l 1965): 45-57. Repr. i n VL. . "Moros and Mennonites i n t h e Chaco o f Paraguay." Canadian Mennonite 14/47 (29 November 1966): 1, 7. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. . "The P e t e r N e u d o r f s o f F i l a d e l f i a , Paraguay." C h r i s t i a n L i v i n g 14/5 (May 1967): 4-6. . "The Meaning o f B e i n g Mennonite B r e t h r e n . " MBH 9/3 (17 A p r i l 1970): 2-4. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. . I n t r o d u c t i o n . The S t o r y - M a k e r s . Ed. Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1970. i x - x x x . 364 "The G h e t t o , t h e Launch Pad, t h e D e s e r t . " Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Study C o n f e r e n c e on t h e M i n i s t r y , March 5-6, 1970. MBH 10/2 (22 J a n . 1971): 23-6. "Passage By Land." Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 48 ( S p r i n g 1971): 25-7. Rev. and r e p r . i n The N a r r a t i v e V o i c e . Ed. John M e t c a l f . T o r o n t o : McGraw H i l l R y e r s o n , 1972. 257-60. "Pushed Back t o t h e R i d g e . " Review o f The Humback by Mort F o r e r . Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 48 ( S p r i n g 1971): 86-7. "Western Canadian F i c t i o n : P a s t and F u t u r e . " Western American L i t e r a t u r e 6 ( S p r i n g 1971): 21- 31. "A C l u t c h o f Books About I n d i a n s . " Review o f Red o r White by M a r t y Dunn, There i s My P e o p l e S l e e p i n g by S a r a i n Stump, and The T r e a t i e s o f Canada w i t h t h e I n d i a n s o f M a n i t o b a and t h e North-West T e r r i t o r i e s by A l e x a n d e r M o r r i s . White P e l i c a n 1/4 ( F a l l 1971): 61-3. "Guys Who S t a y Out i n t h e C o l d . " Review o f Seasons o f t h e Eskimo by F r e d Bruemmer, and Nunaaa: My Land. My C o u n t r y by Duncan P r y d e . Books i n Canada 1 (December 1971): 7-8. "Songs o f t h e Canadian Eskimo." Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 52 ( S p r i n g 1972): 57-69. "Womb W i t h a View." A d d r e s s g i v e n a t The L e a r n e d S o c i e t i e s C o n f e r e n c e , M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1972. I n t r o d u c t i o n . S t o r i e s from Western Canada. Ed. Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1972. i x - x i v . "A L i t e r a r y Mismatch." Review o f The S t y l e o f Innocence by F r a s e r S u t h e r l a n d . Books i n Canada 2/1 ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1973): 30-1. "More S t o r y t e l l e r s a r e Needed." Mennonite R e p o r t e r 3/4 (19 F e b r u a r y 1973): 10. "Wise and W i t t y Testaments." Review o f V o i c e s o f t h e P l a i n s Cree by Edward Ahenakew. Edmonton J o u r n a l (3 November 1973). 365 "On The T r a i l o f B i g Bear." J o u r n a l o f Canadian F i c t i o n 3/2 (1974): 45-8. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. "The Year o f t h e I n d i a n . " Review o f A c r o s s t h e M e d i c i n e L i n e by C. F r a n k T u r n e r , W i l d e r n e s s Man by L o v a t D i c k s o n , and Gone I n d i a n by R o b e r t K r o e t s c h . D a l h o u s i e Review 54 ( S p r i n g 1974): 164-67. I n t r o d u c t i o n . S t o r i e s From P a c i f i c and A r c t i c Canada. Ed. Andreas S c h r o e d e r and Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1974. 203-4. " R i e l : A P o s s i b l e F i l m Treatment." NeWest Review 1/1 (June 1975): 6. Repr. i n VL. " A l l That's L e f t o f B i g Bear." Maclean's 88 (September 1975): 53-5. Rev. and r e p r . i n VL. under t h e o r i g i n a l t i t l e "Bear S p i r i t i n a S t r a n g e Land." I n t r o d u c t i o n . Double V i s i o n : An A n t h o l o g y o f T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y S t o r i e s i n E n g l i s h . Ed. Rudy Wiebe. T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1976. i x - x i . " I n t h e West, S i r John A. i s a B a s t a r d and R i e l a S a i n t . E v e r Ask Why?." Toronto Globe and M a i l (25 March 1978):6. Repr. i n VL. "A N o v e l i s t ' s P e r s o n a l Notes on F r e d e r i c k P h i l i p Grove." U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o Q u a r t e r l y 47 ( S p r i n g 1978): 189-99. Repr. i n VL. Review o f F o l k l o r e o f Canada by E d i t h Fowke. U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o Q u a r t e r l y 47 (Summer 1978): 476-77. "The Death and L i f e o f A l b e r t Johnson: C o l l e c t e d Notes Toward a P o s s i b l e Legend." F i g u r e s i n a Ground: C a n a d i a n E s s a y s on Moden L i t e r a t u r e C o l l e c t e d i n Honour o f S h e i l a Watson. Ed. Diane B e s s a i and D a v i d J a c k e l . S a s k a t o o n : Western P r o d u c e r P r a i r i e Books, 1978. 219-46. "New Land, A n c i e n t Land." The New Land: S t u d i e s i n a L i t e r a r y Theme. Ed. R i c h a r d Chadbourne and H a l l v a r d D a h l i e . W a t e r l o o : W i l f r i d L a u r i e r U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1978. 1-4. "One S t r i n g e d L u t e s . " J o u r n a l o f Commonwealth L i t e r a t u r e 19 ( 1 9 8 4 ) : 142-3. 366 . "The S k u l l i n t h e Swamp." J o u r n a l o f Mennonite S t u d i e s 5 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 8-20. . "The Words o f S i l e n c e : P a s t and P r e s e n t . " S i l e n c e , t h e Word and t h e S a c r e d . Ed. E. D. B l o d g e t t and H. G. Coward. W a t e r l o o , Ont.: W i l f r i d L a u r i e r U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1989. 13-20. . "Proud Cree N a t i o n Deserves Much More t h a n Funny S t o r i e s . " T o r o n t o Globe and M a i l (17 Feb. 1990). CRITICISM A d a c h i , Ken. "Unusual a u t h o r l i v e s a l i f e o f Canadian example." T o r o n t o S t a r (4 November 1977). . "Wiebe a t t a c k s A r c t i c t r a p p e r movie." T o r o n t o Sunday S t a r (21 September 1980). B a i l e y , Nancy. " I m a g i n a t i v e and H i s t o r i c a l T r u t h i n Wiebe's The Mad T r a p p e r . " J o u r n a l o f C a n a d i a n S t u d i e s 20/ 2 (Summer 1985): 70-79. B a r b o u r , D o u g l a s . " O r i g i n a l P e o p l e . " Rev. o f TBB. Canadian L i t e r a t u r e 61 (1974): 82-4. . " B i g Bear speak w i t h awesome tongue." Rev. o f TBB. Edmonton J o u r n a l . (21 September 1973). . Rev. o f SWP. P a c i f i c Northwest Review o f Books (May 1978): 14. B a r k e r , Edna. Rev. o f SWP. Canadian Book Review A n n u a l . 1977. T o r o n t o : P e t e r M a r t i n , 1978. 120. Bergman, B r i a n . "An I n t e r v i e w w i t h Rudy Wiebe: S t o r y - M a k e r o f t h e P r a i r i e s . " Gateway [ U n i v e r - s i t y o f A l b e r t a ] (10 November 1977): 9, 11. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. . "Canadian C o n t r a d i c t i o n — T h e Scorched-Wood P e o p l e . " Gateway (10 Nov., 1977): 11. B e s s a i , D i a n e . "Canadian Docu-Drama." C a n a d i a n T h e a t r e Review 16 ( F a l l 1977):7-10. Bevan, A l l a n . I n t r o d u c t i o n . The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear. T o r o n t o : M c C l e l l a n d and S t e w a r t , 1973. New Canadian L i b r a r y E d i t i o n , i x - x v . 367 . Rev. o f TBB. D a l h o u s i e Review 54 (1974): 377- 79. B i l a n , R. P. "Wiebe and R e l i g i o u s S t r u g g l e . " C a n a d i a n L i t e r a t u r e 77 (Summer 1978): 50-63. . " F i c t i o n . " Review o f SWP. U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o Q u a r t e r l y 47 (Summer 1978): 335-38. R e p r i n t e d i n VL. B l o d g e t t , E. D. " F i c t i o n s o f E t h n i c i t y i n P r a i r i e W r i t i n g . " C o n f i g u r a t i o n : E s s a y s i n t h e Canadian L i t e r a t u r e s . T o r o n t o : M a c m i l l a n , 1982. Bowden, Deborah. " S q u a r i n g t h e C i r c l e : t h e Problem o f T r a n s l a t i o n i n The T e m p t a t i o n s o f B i g Bear." 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