PII: 0160-7383(94)00065-Z P e r g a m o n Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 119-134, 1995 Copyright © 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in the USA. All rights reserved 0160-7383/95 $9.50 + .00 0160- 7383(94)00065 -4 E N T R E P R E N E U R I A L T R A I N I N G I N D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S C h a r l o t t e M . E c h t n e r U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l g a r y , C a n a d a Abstract: This paper advocates a three-pronged approach to tourism education consisting of professional, vocational, and entrepreneurial training. I n the past, the debate on appropriate tourism education in developing countries has centered on the relative merits of two of these approaches--professional education and vocational training. This discussion, however, focuses on the third component: entrepreneurial development. The importance of entrepreneurship in the tourism industry is discussed and some examples of existing programs are provided. Four criteria for the design of a successful entrepreneurial development program are outlined. Finally, the special economic, political, and social issues facing the educators of tourism entrepreneurs in developing, countries are addressed. K e y w o r d s : Entrepreneurship, tourism education, develop- ing countries. R6sum~: La formation de l'esprit d'entreprise dans les pays en voie de d6veloppement. L'article pr6conise une triple formation en tourisme: p o u r d6velopper une compr6hension th6orique, des comp6tences pratiques et u n esprit d'entreprise. D a n s le pass6, le d6bat sur la formation en tourisme dans les pays en voie de d6veloppement a tourn6 sur la formation th6orique et la formation pratique. La pr6sente discussion se concentre sur le but d'animer u n esprit d'initiative. O n discute l'importance de cet esprit dans l'industrie touristique, et on en pr6sente quelques exemples actuels. O n fait la liste de quatre critbres p o u r u n p r o g r a m m e r6ussi p o u r d6velopper resprit d'entreprise. O n rink par aborder les questions 6conomiques, politiques et sociales aux- quelles doivent faire face les 6ducateurs en tourisme aux pays en voie de d6veloppement. Mots- cl~s: esprit d'entreprise, formation en tourisme, pays en vole de d6veloppement. I N T R O D U C T I O N It is evident that the v o l u m e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l tourists visiting the developing countries is on the rise. In the last decade, the average a n n u a l increase in the n u m b e r of tourist arrivals in the developing countries was 5 . 7 % , well above the worldwide average increase of 3 . 9 % . F u r t h e r m o r e , several developing countries, such as Mexico, Singapore, T h a i l a n d , a n d K o r e a , are a m o n g the world's top 20 tourism earners (World T o u r i s m O r g a n i z a t i o n 1992). T h e c h a n g i n g travel p a t t e r n is due to m a n y interrelated factors. Obviously, some developing countries are now m o r e accessible to tour- ists due to e x p a n d i n g a n d m o r e efficient air t r a n s p o r t a t i o n networks. Several have been actively e n c o u r a g i n g t o u r i s m by b u i l d i n g the re- quired facilities a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d by e l i m i n a t i n g e n t r y barriers, such as visa a n d c u r r e n c y controls. As a result, m a n y now offer a Charlotte Echtner is a doctoral student (tourism major) in the Faculty of Management, University of Calgary (Calgary T 2 N 1N4, Canada. E-mail: "echtner@acs.calgary.ca'). H e r research interests include tourism issues in developing countries, destination image, and the use of symbolism/semiotics in tourism marketing. 119 120 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES readily accessible, inexpensive, alternative to the m o r e traditional des- tinations in the developed world. T h e i r p o p u l a r i t y is f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d because t h e y are unspoiled, a d v e n t u r o u s , a n d exotic. T h e s u d d e n a n d r a p i d g r o w t h o f t o u r i s m in certain developing coun- tries has c r e a t e d an i m m e d i a t e d e m a n d for the facilities a n d personnel r e q u i r e d to serve tourists. I n m a n y cases, developing countries have initially c o n c e n t r a t e d on p r o v i d i n g the " h a r d w a r e " o f the industry: buildings a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e such as hotels a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n (Cullen 1988:76). I n this rush to develop t o u r i s m facilities, the "software"-- t r a i n e d personnel n e e d e d to deliver t o u r i s m s e r v i c e s - - h a s often been given a lower priority. As a result, there is n o w a n acute shortage o f properly t r a i n e d local personnel. As the v o l u m e o f t o u r i s m to the developing countries continues to grow in the f u t u r e , the need for appropriate t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g b e c o m e s increasingly im- p o r t a n t a n d u r g e n t . But what does "appropriate t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n a n d training" entail? W h a t is the blend o f skills a n d knowledge n e e d e d to e n s u r e the success- ful d e v e l o p m e n t o f local h u m a n resources? This p a p e r advocates a "three-pronged" a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n in developing coun- tries. This a p p r o a c h involves the cultivation o f three types o f skills: professional, vocational, a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l (Figure 1). A b r i e f over- view of the professional a n d vocational c o m p o n e n t s is discussed first. H o w e v e r , since the relative m e r i t s o f the these two c o m p o n e n t s have b e e n d e b a t e d at length elsewhere (Blanton 1981; C o o p e r a n d Westlake 1989; H a w k i n s a n d H u n t 1988; Howell a n d Uysal 1987; J a f a r i a n d Ritchie 1981; J e n k i n s 1980; Ritchie 1988; T h e u n s a n d R a s h e e d 1983), this p a p e r focuses on the third, largely overlooked c o m p o n e n t o f tour- ism education: e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . Existing types o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are diverse, differing greatly in d u r a t i o n , content, a n d context. H o w e v e r , t h e y can, in gen- eral, be g r o u p e d into two basic categories: professional e d u c a t i o n a n d vocational skills. T h e y comprise the first two c o m p o n e n t s o f the pro- posed t h r e e - p r o n g e d a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n . T h e first c o m p o n e n t , professional e d u c a t i o n , is generally typified by Professional i Education Vocational Skills Entrepreneurial Development Figure 1. A T h r e e - P r o n g e d Approach to T o u r i s m E d u c a t i o n in the T h i r d World CHARLOTTE ECHTNER 121 being m o r e a c a d e m i c in n a t u r e . Such e d u c a t i o n is best accomplished at a t e r t i a r y (university) level. T h i s type o f e d u c a t i o n provides theoretical concepts a n d develops students' ability to i n t e r p r e t , evaluate, a n d ana- lyze ( C o o p e r a n d Westlake 1989:72). T h e result is a b r o a d e r a n d d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the n a t u r e a n d i m p a c t o f tourism. As such, professional t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o d u c e s the qualified m a n p o w e r n e e d e d at the strategic level in both the public a n d private sector. I n developing countries, there is a n increasingly u r g e n t n e e d for local individuals possessing a holistic b a c k g r o u n d . T h e accelerating growth o f t o u r i s m has, in m a n y cases, b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y inept p l a n n i n g a n d severe social, e c o n o m i c , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts on host c o m m u n i t i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f private-sector t o u r i s m initiatives with public-sector goals for d e v e l o p m e n t a n d social progress has often b e e n i g n o r e d (Jenkins 1980:240). Professionals, pre- p a r e d with the k n o w l e d g e a n d skills to u n d e r s t a n d t o u r i s m in its total- i t y - t h e interrelationships involved a n d the various impacts on the host c o m m u n i t y - - a r e n e e d e d to r e d u c e i n a p p r o p r i a t e forms o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t (Howell a n d U y s a l 1987:63). T h e m a i n objective o f the second type o f training, vocational, is to teach skills that c a n be applied to specific positions, such as chef, travel counsellor, o r h o u s e k e e p i n g supervisor. T h e c o n t e n t o f such p r o g r a m s is highly practical, focusing on specific on-the-job tasks ( C o o p e r a n d Westlake 1989:72). Such t r a i n i n g is critical in o r d e r to effectively de- liver the products a n d services r e q u i r e d b y the t o u r i s m industry. How- ever, in most developing countries, there is a chronic shortage o f t r a i n e d local individuals, both on the front line a n d the supervisory levels ( H e g a r t y 1988). As a result, senior personnel are often attracted from a b r o a d a n d the locals a r e relegated to the most unskilled, a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lowest p a y i n g , positions. T h e foreign personnel can be p r o b l e m a t i c as there is often a n insensitivity to the local social a n d cultural f r a m e w o r k . T h e r e f o r e , vocational t r a i n i n g is essential for the e m p l o y m e n t a n d the a d v a n c e m e n t o f local inhabitants a n d for the p r e v e n t i o n o f u n n e c e s s a r y cultural frictions. T h e d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g the c o n t e n t a n d a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m educa- tion p r o g r a m s has c e n t e r e d on the relative m e r i t s o f professional educa- tion versus vocational skills. T h e s e two types o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n are m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d with c r e a t i n g the h u m a n resources n e e d e d to work for others, either in the public or the private sectors o f tourism. I n developing countries, m a n y o f these p r o g r a m s have focused on provid- ing the t r a i n e d m a n p o w e r n e e d e d to efficiently r u n large scale t o u r i s m enterprises, particularly hotels ( T h e u n s a n d G o 1991:341). T h e third c o m p o n e n t o f the proposed t h r e e - p r o n g e d a p p r o a c h , the d e v e l o p m e n t o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p o r the initiative to work for oneself, has been largely i g n o r e d in the t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n debate. This is a signifi- cant oversight. By n o t e n c o u r a g i n g a n d cultivating local t o u r i s m entre- p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , a n i m p o r t a n t p o r t i o n o f the h u m a n resource potential is n o t being tapped. I n fact, it has b e e n suggested that one o f the most critical needs o f the d e v e l o p i n g countries is the fostering o f both e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d a n e n v i r o n m e n t within which e n t r e p r e n e u r - ship can flourish ( N e h r t 1987:76). T h e third a p p r o a c h m a k e s the a s s u m p t i o n that e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p can 122 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES b e taught. H o w e v e r , s o m e w o u l d a r g u e that e n t r e p r e n e u r s are b o r n , not m a d e . C e r t a i n l y , it is difficult to d e n y that s o m e individuals s e e m to have innate e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l flair, j u s t as others h a v e n a t u r a l talents for mathe- matics o r music. Nevertheless, success in a n y e n d e a v o r requires the ap- p r o p r i a t e mix o f i n g r a i n e d characteristics a n d l e a r n e d skills. Aspiring e n t r e p r e n e u r s n o t only n e e d certain b e h a v i o r a l traits b u t also n e e d to acquire k n o w l e d g e o f the v e n t u r e creation process, including an u n d e r - standing o f specific m a n a g e m e n t tools ( L o u c k s 1988b:53-54). W h i l e m a n y innovative individuals w o u l d like to b e c o m e e n t r e p r e n e u r s , they often lack the t e c h n i q u e s a n d skills n e e d e d to succeed. T h e role o f e d u c a t i o n can b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d b y b r e a k i n g entre- p r e n e u r s h i p into several c o m p o n e n t s . E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p can b e envis- aged as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f creativity a n d / o r i n n o v a t i o n , u n c e r t a i n t y a n d / o r risk taking, a n d m a n a g e r i a l a n d / o r business capabilities ( M c - M u l l a n a n d L o n g 1990:168-170). I n n o v a t i o n a n d risk taking are attri- b u t e s that are difficult to learn or change. I n fact, H a r p e r (1984:112) c o m m e n t s that it is unlikely that risk averse, n o n i n n o v a t i v e individuals can be t r a i n e d to b e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l . T h e r e f o r e , it is often recom- m e n d e d that the presence or a b s e n c e o f these two personal attributes b e u s e d to screen a n d select potential e n t r a n t s to e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l devel- o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . H o w e v e r , the third c o m p o n e n t , m a n a g e r i a l a n d business capability, can be d e v e l o p e d a n d e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n . In o t h e r words, the role o f an e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m is to p r o v i d e business a n d m a n a g e m e n t tools to persons that h a v e b e e n screened for the a p p r o p r i a t e p e r s o n a l i t y traits. T h r o u g h the t r a i n i n g c f such individuals, the n u m b e r o f successful e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l e n d e a v o u r s can b e substantially increased. "Since n e w v e n t u r e success is foremost a function o f k n o w l e d g e a n d k n o w - h o w , e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p e d u c a t i o n is an u n a v o i d a b l e c o m p o n e n t o f m o d e r n e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t strategy" ( M c M u l l a n a n d L o n g 1990:485). P r o o f o f the success o f well-designed e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s in India, Africa, a n d o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g areas is p r o v i d e d b y G u p t a (1989), D a i n o w (1988), a n d L o u c k s (1988b). E N T R E P R E N E U R I A L D E V E L O P M E N T I N T O U R I S M Enterprises in the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y r a n g e from large t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s (usually foreign o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d ) , to m e d i u m - s i z e d facilities (either foreign o r locally o w n e d ) , to small scale busineses (usually locally o w n e d ) . O n e o f the m o s t c o m m o n criticisms o f t o u r i s m in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s concerns the negative social, e c o n o m i c , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f the larger scale t o u r i s m projects. It has b e e n shown that large, t r a n s n a t i o n a l enterprises are often n o t as effective as originally believed in increasing foreign e x c h a n g e earnings a n d j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s ( R o d e n b u r g 1989). T h i s is b e c a u s e there is significant e c o n o m i c leakage d u e to the p u r c h a s e o f foreign supplies a n d l a b o r a n d to the c h a n n e l i n g o f profits o u t o f the d e v e l o p i n g countries. O n the o t h e r h a n d , locally-owned enterprises, albeit usually smaller in scale, offer greater direct e c o n o m i c p a y b a c k a n d control. "Local o w n e r s h i p implies that e c o n o m i c success for the e n t r e p r e n e u r results in benefits to the local c o m m u n i t y " ( R o d e n b u r g 1989:219). In o t h e r CHARLOTTE ECHTNER 123 words, such d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e m u c h m o r e likely to rely on local sources o f supplies a n d labor a n d are m u c h less likely to p r o d u c e the negative sociocultural effects associated with foreign ownership. Local tolerance to tourist activities is significantly e n h a n c e d if opportunities exist for active resident i n v o l v e m e n t in the o w n e r s h i p a n d o p e r a t i o n o f facilities ( D ' A m o r e 1983:146). M e d i u m - a n d small-scale operations c a n also r e s p o n d m o r e effectively to c h a n g e s in the m a r k e t p l a c e a n d fill gaps overlooked b y larger, m o r e b u r e a u c r a t i c organizations. I n sum, it has been a r g u e d that smaller-scale, locally-owned enterprises t e n d to en- h a n c e c o m m u n i t y stability, do less h a r m to the physical e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d generally raise the level o f p o p u l a r participation in the e c o n o m y (Loucks 1988b:2). E n t r e p r e n e u r s , in general, m a k e significant contributions to the de- v e l o p m e n t process o f the T h i r d W o r l d . T h e s e contributions include raising productivity; c r e a t i n g e m p l o y m e n t ; r e s t r u c t u r i n g a n d diversi- fying the e c o n o m y ; r e d u c i n g the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r t h r o u g h a w i d e r dispersal o f i n d u s t r y ownership; r e d u c i n g m a r k e t inef- ficiencies b y m a k i n g the m a r k e t p l a c e m o r e d y n a m i c a n d competitive; i m p r o v i n g the social welfare o f a c o u n t r y b y h a r n e s s i n g d o r m a n t , pre- viously overlooked talent; c o m m e r c i a l i z i n g innovative products a n d services; a n d c r e a t i n g n e w m a r k e t s ( R a y 1988:1-2). Overall, e n t r e p r e - n e u r s h i p is t o u t e d as a low-cost strategy o f e c o n o m i c a n d social devel- o p m e n t . It has b e e n d e t e r m i n e d that the p a y b a c k is v e r y large relative to each unit o f g o v e r n m e n t assistance, w h e t h e r such assistance is in the form o f t r a i n i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s o r the provision o f low interest loans ( R a y 1988:2). Obviously, it w o u l d be difficult, a n d p e r h a p s even undesirable, to eliminate large-scale, f o r e i g n - o w n e d t o u r i s m projects in developing nations. H o w e v e r , t h e r e is still a n e e d to e n c o u r a g e local e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d to provide the t r a i n i n g necessary for these individuals to develop a n d o p e r a t e their t o u r i s m businesses. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this type o f resident-responsive, c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t is in- creasing as tourists d e m a n d m o r e a u t h e n t i c "alternative, grass-roots" forms o f tourism. T h e r e are m a n y types o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l activity that can be encour- aged in the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y . T h e n e w v e n t u r e m a y be the p r o p e r t y o f one individual o r a cooperative effect. S o m e examples o f smaller scale opportunities include selling handicrafts, e i t h e r from the h o m e o r a small shop; g u i d i n g service; h o m e s t a y o r b e d a n d breakfast; food ser- vices, such as tea stalls, small cafes, a n d r e s t a u r a n t s ; short distance s h u t t l e / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n service, for e x a m p l e , f r o m resorts to towns or attractions; tours o f the local area; rentals, for e x a m p l e , o f sporting e q u i p m e n t a n d bicycles; m e d i u m - s i z e d hotels o r guesthouses; souvenir stalls o r shops; folk e n t e r t a i n m e n t , such as d a n c e t r o u p e s a n d musi- cians; o p e n i n g o f traditional villages, h o m e s , o r p r i v a t e l y - o w n e d cul- t u r a l / n a t u r a l sites to tourists; opportunities to observe local activities, such as seeing p r o d u c t i o n o f handicrafts, pottery, baskets, a n d metal works; a n d opportunities to participate in local festivals a n d activities. This list, t h o u g h incomplete, provides some indications o f the large v a r i e t y o f options that are available to local e n t r e p r e n e u r s interested in the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y . T h e p r o b l e m in the m a j o r i t y o f developing countries is that the 124 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES private sector is small a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l experience in m a n y areas, including t o u r i s m , is lacking ( J e n k i n s 1980: 239). I n o r d e r to develop an i n d i g e n o u s business sector, k n o w l e d g e o f the skills n e e d e d to set u p and o p e r a t e t o u r i s m businesses is n e e d e d . T h i s is w h y the third a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n , e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , is so essential. Examples of Existing Programs It w o u l d be useful, at this point, to i n t r o d u c e s o m e existing pro- grams as e x a m p l e s o f the successful i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the e n t r e p r e - neurial a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , consultations with n u m e r o u s organizations, including the W o r l d T o u r i s m O r g a n i z a t i o n ( W T O ) , Pacific Asia T r a v e l Association ( P A T A ) , I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o r Office ( I L O ) , a n d C o u n c i l on H o t e l , R e s t a u r a n t a n d Institutional Ed- ucation ( C H R I E ) , s e e m to indicate that, to date, no t o u r i s m entrepre- n e u r s h i p t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s have b e e n developed. T h e t o u r i s m sector could be i n c o r p o r a t e d into the existing U n i t e d States Association for I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( A I D ) e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t pro- gram, particularly in E g y p t , the C a r i b b e a n , a n d C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . H o w e v e r , u p to this point, no action has b e e n t a k e n in this direction. O n e p i o n e e r i n g effort is a p r o p o s e d j o i n t effort b e t w e e n C a p i l a n o College in C a n a d a a n d the R a j a m a n g a l a T e c h n i c a l Institute in T h a i - land ( W h i t e 1990). Special e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l courses d e v e l o p e d at this C a n a d i a n college are to b e m o d i f i e d for use in T h a i l a n d . T h e courses include small business skills, a d v e n t u r e t o u r i s m , t o u r i s m p r o d u c t de- v e l o p m e n t , small resort m a n a g e m e n t , a n d events a n d attractions m a n - a g e m e n t . E m p h a s i s is on " e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a n d small business m a n a g e - m e n t skills suitable for smaller scale, rural a n d c o m m u n i t y b a s e d t o u r i s m operators" ( W h i t e 1990:3). T h e R a j a m a n g a l a T e c h n i c a l Insti- tute is to be actively involved in the a d a p t a t i o n , revision, a n d creation o f n e w materials a n d case studies to e n s u r e a strong sense o f o w n e r s h i p o f the p r o g r a m . After p r o g r a m s have b e e n a d e q u a t e l y modified, fac- ulty f r o m C a n a d a will b e individually p a i r e d with T h a i c o u n t e r p a r t s in a highly personalized "train the trainer" p r o g r a m . W h i l e not strictly dealing with the t o u r i s m industry, m o r e generic forms o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are in place in certain d e v e l o p i n g countries. T h e s e include the E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p D e v e l o p - m e n t P r o g r a m in India, P r o g r a m a de I n c e n t i v o s y Soportes a l a s Mi- c r o e m p r e s a s ( P R I S M A ) in Bolivia, a n d I m p r o v e Y o u r Business (IYB) in various African countries. T h e first o f these p r o g r a m s , the E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p D e v e l o p m e n t Pro- gram, was d e v e l o p e d in the 1980s a n d is offered t h r o u g h the Entrepre- n e u r s h i p D e v e l o p m e n t I n s t i t u t e o f India. T h e d u r a t i o n o f the p r o g r a m can v a r y from 15 to 90 days, d e p e n d i n g u p o n the degree o f detail a n d c o m p l e x i t y desired. T r a i n i n g focuses on a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n , busi- ness o p p o r t u n i t y guidance, a n d m a n a g e m e n t skills ( G u p t a 1989:68). T h e second p r o g r a m , P R I S M A , was d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h the M e n - nonite E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t Associates. It is a 2 0 - h o u r course, de- signed o v e r a 2-week t i m e frame. O n e o f the features o f this p r o g r a m is the p r o m i n e n t role o f the c o n s u l t a n t / m e n t o r . I n a d d i t i o n to the regular instructor, a business p e r s o n is individually m a t c h e d to each C HARLOTTE EC HTNER 125 s t u d e n t in the p r o g r a m a n d provides support a n d practical advice. T h e c o n t e n t o f the p r o g r a m s centers a r o u n d the business skills necessary to develop a n d m a n a g e an e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e n t u r e ( M e n n o n i t e Eco- n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t Associates 1989). T h e third p r o g r a m , I m p r o v e Y o u r Business (IYB), was originally designed in S w e d e n in the late 1970s b y the I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o r O r - ganization a n d the Swedish I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A u t h o r i t y . It was s u b s e q u e n t l y a d a p t e d for use in various d e v e l o p i n g countries. T h e typical IYB delivery is a 5-day residential s e m i n a r , covering general e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l business skills. Besides courses for aspiring e n t r e p r e - neurs, the p r o g r a m also offers individual counselling to existing entre- p r e n e u r s a n d "training o f trainers" workshops ( D a i n o w 1988:51). I n countries w h e r e generic e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s a r e a l r e a d y available, c u s t o m i z e d i n d u s t r y specific m o d u l e s c a n easily be devel- oped from the existing f r a m e w o r k . F o r instance, the I n d i a n E n t r e p r e - neurship D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m has, in the past, b e e n tailored to the specific r e q u i r e m e n t s o f certain industries o r target groups. I n these cases, the basic core c o m p o n e n t s o f the p r o g r a m w e r e retained, b u t illustrations a n d cases w e r e replaced b y i n d u s t r y specific examples. I n addition, n e w m o d u l e s were often developed to address u n i q u e indus- try issues. T h e modifications o f p r o g r a m c o n t e n t were m a d e using the expertise o f individuals in the p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r y , i n c l u d i n g a c a d e m - ics, g o v e r n m e n t a l officials, a n d private sector business practitioners ( G u p t a 1989:67). A l t h o u g h such existing generic e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s have n o t yet b e e n c u s t o m i z e d for the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y , this is a readily available, inexpensive option for the future. I n countries w h e r e such generic e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t pro- g r a m s are not yet available, o n e alternative is to i m p o r t a n d a d a p t successful p r o g r a m s a l r e a d y established in o t h e r nations. As m e n t i o n e d previously, the IYB p r o g r a m was originally developed in S w e d e n b u t was later a d a p t e d for use in 11 countries in Africa. I n each case, the materials h a d to be r e d e s i g n e d to o v e r c o m e the cultural a n d literacy differences b e t w e e n S w e d e n a n d the A f r i c a n countries. A h a n d b o o k was p r o d u c e d ; it p r e s e n t e d the t h e o r y in simple, practical t e r m s a n d used m a n y illustrations, graphics a n d local examples. I n addition, a customized workbook, specifically tailored to each set o f users, pro- vided exercises to apply the concepts ( D a i n o w 1988:58-59). I n o r d e r to be most effective in t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , such im- p o r t e d p r o g r a m s m u s t be a d a p t e d both for the p a r t i c u l a r cultural set- ting a n d specifically for use in the t o u r i s m industry. Designing a Program A n alternative to a d a p t i n g existing courses is to design a c u s t o m i z e d t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m . I n this case, it is useful to note four criteria central to the success o f such a p r o g r a m : p r o g r a m c o n t e n t a n d style, identification a n d selection o f trainees, follow-up, a n d qualified instructors. A detailed discussion o f the design o f entre- p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s can be f o u n d in Loucks (1988b) a n d H a r p e r (1994). 126 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 1. Program content and style. T r a d i t i o n a l business e d u c a t i o n addresses m a n a g e m e n t issues t h r o u g h the s t u d y o f s t a n d a r d i z e d functional areas such as m a r k e t i n g , finance, a c c o u n t i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n systems, a n d or- ganizational behavior. I n general, this functional a p p r o a c h provides the skills n e e d e d b y m a n a g e r s in l a r g e r organizations. T h e r e f o r e , it has b e e n suggested that business m a n a g e m e n t in the context o f entre- p r e n e u r i a l t r a i n i n g should be a p p r o a c h e d chronologically r a t h e r t h a n cross-sectionally ( M c M u l l a n a n d L o n g 1990:491-492). I n o t h e r words, the d y n a m i c s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n the functional areas, b e c o m e the central t h e m e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l business m a n a g e m e n t education. I n this m a n n e r , the e n t r e p r e n e u r is p r o v i d e d with the specific skills a n d techniques that are necessary to guide the n e w v e n t u r e t h r o u g h the earliest stages o f strategic d e v e l o p m e n t : o p p o r t u n i t y identification, feasibility analysis, initial financing, p r o d u c t design, a n d m a r k e t devel- o p m e n t . As a result, e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s are s o m e w h a t u n i q u e in t e r m s o f c u r r i c u l u m design a n d delivery w h e n c o m p a r e d to the m o r e traditional forms o f business m a n a g e m e n t edu- cation. Topics generally c o v e r e d b y e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l p r o g r a m s include moti- vation a n d b e h a v i o r training, o p p o r t u n i t y assessment, v e n t u r e devel- o p m e n t , strategic decision m a k i n g , a n d general m a r k e t i n g skills. T h e level of detail r e q u i r e d for each o f these topics varies, d e p e n d i n g on the scale of the proposed e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e n t u r e s , the sophistication o f the m a r k e t , the d e g r e e o f competition, a n d the b a c k g r o u n d o f the students. I n the case o f m a n y o f the existing p r o g r a m s discussed ear- lier, the level o f detail is quite basic. F o r the most part, these p r o g r a m s have dealt with small scale v e n t u r e s in fairly unsophisticated m a r k e t s a n d with students w h o have little o r no b a c k g r o u n d in business m a n - a g e m e n t . N o r m a l l y , the m a j o r p o r t i o n o f the p r o g r a m includes such topics as u n d e r s t a n d i n g credit, financial p l a n n i n g , m a r k e t i n g , p r o d u c t i o n , sales techniques, a n d success evaluation. It has b e e n shown that the most i m p o r t a n t factor in a successful e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t pro- g r a m is the r e q u i r e m e n t that students collect a n d analyze d a t a a n d d e f e n d the feasibility o f the start u p a n d o p e r a t i o n o f their o w n business (Loucks 1988b:87). T h e r e f o r e , most p r o g r a m s assist participants in completing a feasibility analysis, business plan, a n d financial proposal. A customized e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m should retain these core c o m p o n e n t s b u t should a d d m a t e r i a l relevant to a p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r y a n d to the cultural setting. F o r e x a m p l e , a t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e - neurial d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m in Nepal should include the traditional core c o m p o n e n t s a n d also m o d u l e s that address the u n i q u e issues of the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y a n d the cultural setting o f the c o u n t r y . All illustra- tions, examples, a n d cases included in the course should also be custo- mized to the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y a n d to the specific national setting. As m e n t i o n e d previously, this c u s t o m i z a t i o n process is best accomplished by the use o f t o u r i s m experts f r o m the developing c o u n t r y , such as academics, g o v e r n m e n t a l officials, a n d private sector business prac- titioners ( G u p t a 1989). W i t h r e g a r d s to t e a c h i n g style, e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t pro- grams should e n c o u r a g e the d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d e p e n d e n t , self-reliant C HARLOTTE EC HTNER 127 individuals. T h e r e f o r e , a p p r o a c h e s such as case studies, real-life proj- ects, a n d experiential exercises are p r e f e r r e d to the traditional lecture style format. U s e f u l t e c h n i q u e s include m a n a g e m e n t games, field trips to existing businesses, role-play situations (for e x a m p l e , practice pre- sentations to b a n k e r s ) , a n d individual c o u n s e l i n g / m e n t o r i n g b y suc- cessful e n t r e p r e n e u r s ( L o u c k s 1988a:14). E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l "mentors" h a v e b e e n s h o w n to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t as t h e y often serve as role models for the s t u d e n t s ( N e h r t 1987:77). T h e ability to b u i l d a strong w o r k i n g relationship with existing local industries is an integral factor to the success o f the smaller e n t r e p r e - neur. T h e r e f o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t that the p r i v a t e sector is e n c o u r a g e d to a s s u m e an active a n d p a r t i c i p a t o r y role in the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m . O n e o f the m e a n s to stimulate such i n v o l v e m e n t , n a m e l y e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l m e n t o r i n g , was n o t e d earlier. H o w e v e r , there are n u m e r o u s o t h e r possibilities o f pri- vate sector c o o p e r a t i o n that should b e considered. T h e s e include in- d u s t r y a d v i s o r y b o a r d s ; guest speakers a n d / o r instructors from indus- try; field trips to v a r i o u s industries; provision o f "real life" projects for s t u d e n t course work; p a r t i c i p a t i o n in role p l a y situations; a n d involve- m e n t in counselling a n d c a r e e r p l a n n i n g ( C o o p e r a n d W e s t l a k e 1989: 141; M i d d l e t o n a n d D e m s k y 1989:9,38). 2. Identification and selection of trainees. T h e careful screening a n d selec- tion o f trainees is f u n d a m e n t a l to the success rate o f the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m . As m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , individuals that lack the ability to i n n o v a t e o r that h a v e an aversion to risk are n o t likely to be e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l , e v e n with the a p p r o p r i a t e training. T h e r e f o r e , in m o s t existing p r o g r a m s , selection o f the trainees is b a s e d on certain p e r s o n a l i t y traits. Characteristics such as the n e e d for a c h i e v e m e n t , capacity for risk-taking, originality, a positive self-concept, p r o b l e m - solving ability, a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e are good indicators o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l potential ( G u p t a 1989:67). T h e s e a t t r i b u t e s are usually assessed t h r o u g h a series o f informal a n d formal interviews, r a t h e r t h a n b y m o r e rigid forms o f m e a s u r e m e n t , such as w r i t t e n tests. A n o t h e r factor that c o u l d b e t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n in choosing trainees is p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e with e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . A n individual that has a l r e a d y o p e r a t e d an e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e n t u r e , or b e e n e x p o s e d to one t h r o u g h w o r k i n g for relatives or friends, has a b e t t e r u n d e r - standing o f w h a t is involved in the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l process. S u c h a p e r s o n is likely to e n t e r the p r o g r a m with m o r e clearly defined goals a n d objectives a n d to h a v e a m o r e realistic p e r c e p t i o n o f w h a t is neces- sary to succeed. A final factor that is s o m e t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d is the individual's net- w o r k o f a c q u a i n t a n c e s . I n m o s t business v e n t u r e s , the likelihood o f success increases if an individual has an existing n e t w o r k o f contacts to d r a w u p o n for business leads, financial backing, a n d e v e n advice. 3. Follow-up. W i t h r e g a r d to follow-up, o n g o i n g c o u n s e l i n g a n d advi- sory services should b e readily available to the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l gradu- ate. F o r instance, in s o m e p r o g r a m s , the i n s t r u c t o r a n d / o r the m e n t o r 128 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES r e m a i n involved with the g r a d u a t e t h r o u g h o u t the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the e n t r e p r e n e u r ' s business idea ( G u p t a 1989:68). 4. Qualified instructors. O n c e the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l courses have b e e n de- veloped, suitable instructors m u s t be recruited. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in m a n y developing countries, there is a chronic lack o f e x p e r i e n c e d edu- cators a n d trainers. Such shortages o f faculty a n d expertise c a n result in curricula that a r e diluted a n d that t e n d to lack focus ( C u l l e n 1988: 77). A n initial solution is to e m p l o y foreign instructors f r o m institutions that c u r r e n t l y deliver e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s in o t h e r developing countries. F o r example, a n u m b e r o f e x p e r i e n c e d trainers f r o m the Philippines a n d I n d i a h a v e c o n d u c t e d effective e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p devel- o p m e n t p r o g r a m s in o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g countries ( H a r p e r 1984:108). H o w e v e r , such instructors n e e d to d r a w on local experts to provide the s u p p l e m e n t a r y knowledge relevant to t o u r i s m a n d to the n e w cultural setting. E v e n with such assistance, the use o f foreign trainers is often not desirable, or possible, d u e to various linguistic, cultural, o r social barriers. E v e n w h e n feasible, foreign instructors a r e only a n i n t e r i m solution. T h e l o n g - t e r m goal should be the indigenization o f the teach- ing staff. T h e r e f o r e , a p r o g r a m o f "training the trainers" needs to be established so that foreign t e a c h i n g staff is e v e n t u a l l y m i n i m i z e d . Some existing e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s offer t r a i n i n g courses that are useful for establishing a core o f instructors in a n e w a r e a or c o u n t r y . E x p e r i e n c e d trainers should be assisted b y practicing e n t r e p r e n e u r s . W h e r e a s the trainers are specialists in knowledge f o r m a t i o n a n d dis- semination, the practitioners b r i n g expertise in "real-life" situations a n d c o m m u n i t y practices. T h e b a l a n c e d t e a c h i n g a p p r o a c h , trainers plus practitioners, is facilitated t h r o u g h such techniques as t e a m teach- ing, e n t r e p r e n e u r s in residence, a n d guest lecturers ( M c M u l l a n a n d L o n g 1990:492-493). Special Issues and Problems T h e issues a n d problems associated with the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d imple- m e n t a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e t o u r i s m t r a i n i n g policy c a n be quite complex. T h e design o f e d u c a t i o n policy at a national level is d e p e n d e n t u p o n several factors, i n c l u d i n g the state o f the p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l system, the i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d to the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y , a n d the availability o f resources (Fletcher a n d L a t h a m 1989:164). Effective i m p l e m e n t a t i o n requires the cooperation a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n o f various public a n d private organizations a n d institutions. Since developing countries f r e q u e n t l y face unstable conditions, the resources a n d cooperation necessary for designing a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g effective t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n policy are often difficult to h a r n e s s a n d control. C o n d u c i v e e c o n o m i c , political, a n d social conditions are r e q u i r e d for the success o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . I n some developing countries, issues such as i n a d e q u a t e financial assistance for n e w v e n t u r e s , complex b u r e a u c r a c i e s , a n d traditional social barriers m a y inhibit small scale e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . T h e s e barriers m u s t be ad- CHARLOTTE ECHTNER 129 dressed a n d resolved in o r d e r for the t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s to b e effective. 1. Economic barriers. A lack o f financial r e s o u r c e s is the o v e r r i d i n g issue that faces the m a j o r i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s in designing a n d imple- m e n t i n g t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . I n almost all cases, there are no or v e r y limited f u n d s available to d e v e l o p a d e q u a t e teaching materials and to train instructors. In view o f this, it b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t that careful c o n s i d e r a t i o n should b e given to the e x p e n d i t u r e o f scarce re- sources so that highly cost effective t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are p r o d u c e d . T o address a lack o f teaching materials, it is t e m p t i n g to i m p o r t existing p r o g r a m s o f e d u c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , al- t h o u g h this course o f action is inexpensive in t e r m s o f initial expendi- tures for p r o g r a m d e v e l o p m e n t , it can b e costly in t e r m s o f inefficiency a n d ineffectiveness. P r o g r a m s d e s i g n e d in the First W o r l d are b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n o f sophisticated business, distribution, a n d techno- logical systems. T h e s e are rarely p r e s e n t in d e v e l o p i n g countries. Fur- t h e r m o r e , differences in the culture, l e a r n i n g styles, c o m p o s i t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d o f the s t u d e n t b o d y , existing attitudes a b o u t t o u r i s m a n d j o b roles, a n d qualifications o f the trainers m a y seriously affect the usefulness o f externally d e v e l o p e d materials (Blanton 1981). T h u s , existing p r o g r a m s o f e d u c a t i o n , course materials, a n d styles o f teaching m a y n o t be a p p r o p r i a t e in a p a r t i c u l a r T h i r d W o r l d setting. In fact, it c a n n o t e v e n b e a s s u m e d that a m o d e l d e v e l o p e d within one d e v e l o p i n g region can b e t r a n s f e r r e d w i t h o u t modifications a n d a d a p t a t i o n s to a n o t h e r . Local, regional, a n d national factors, b o t h e c o n o m i c a n d sociocultural, m u s t b e t a k e n into consideration in de- signing the c o n t e n t a n d delivery o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . R a t h e r t h a n s u c c u m b to the seemingly "quick a n d cheap" solution o f the direct a d o p t i o n o f foreign course materials a n d instructors, a c o o p e r a t i v e p r o g r a m such as that p r e v i o u s l y outlined b e t w e e n Capi- lano College in C a n a d a a n d the R a j a m a n g a l a T e c h n i c a l Institute in T h a i l a n d could b e followed. T h i s kind o f effort provides a m o r e custo- m i z e d p r o g r a m a n d a pool o f well-trained i n d i g e n o u s instructors. It also f r e q u e n t l y results in increased access to f u n d i n g t h r o u g h the "sis- ter" c o u n t r y a n d v a r i o u s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e n d i n g agencies. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r that the potential students themselves m a y face financial b a r r i e r s that m u s t be a d d r e s s e d in o r d e r for the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m to b e successful. I f tuition costs are too high, this will p r o h i b i t m e m b e r s o f l o w e r socioeconomic groups f r o m participating. In t e r m s o f the b r o a d e r issues o f social d e v e l o p m e n t , these are often the groups that should b e t a r g e t e d r a t h e r than excluded. U p o n c o m p l e t i n g the p r o g r a m , m o s t students will r e q u i r e "start up" loans a n d o t h e r financial assistance. G o v e r n m e n t s , o r o t h e r private organizations/institutions, m u s t b e p r e p a r e d to offer s o m e special fi- nancial concessions to e n c o u r a g e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l growth. F o r exam- ple, the 1988 N a t i o n a l T o u r i s m Policy in I n d i a r e c o m m e n d e d to the federal g o v e r n m e n t that t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r s b e g r a n t e d loans at l o w e r interest rates. I n response, the T o u r i s m Financial C o r p o r a t i o n of I n d i a was established to p r o v i d e loans exclusively to the t o u r i s m 130 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES industry. As a further incentive, it was also r e c o m m e n d e d that t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r s b e allowed to d e d u c t 5 0 % o f their foreign-exchange earnings from taxable i n c o m e ( A h m e d 1991:76). 2. Political barriers. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s can be h a m p e r e d b y the degree o f stability in the existing political system. L a c k o f stability, a n d alternatively political stagnation, are c o m m o n p r o b l e m s in the d e v e l o p i n g world. In o t h e r words, m a n y T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s are either r u l e d b y a series o f f r e q u e n t l y chang- ing individuals a n d parties (instability) or are subject to l o n g - t e r m rule b y one individual or p a r t y (stagnation). Either scenario can create complexities in the design a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n policies. I n the case o f lack o f stability, p r o g r a m s a n d policies d e s i g n a t e d as priorities b y one g o v e r n m e n t m a y b e d o w n scaled or a b a n d o n e d b y the succeeding a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , l o n g - t e r m projects, such as the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s , m a y b e initially ap- p r o v e d only to b e altered o r rejected b y s u b s e q u e n t g o v e r n m e n t s . A l t h o u g h changes o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e r e b y changes in priorities a n d policies, are also a p r o b l e m in d e v e l o p e d countries, T h i r d W o r l d nations are often characterized b y m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d severe swings in politics. I n d e e d , if political u n r e s t b e c o m e s too serious, the entire tour- ism i n d u s t r y m a y b e at j e o p a r d y . Political stagnation, in the f o r m o f dictatorships o r one p a r t y sys- tems, can also be d e t r i m e n t a l . I f the g o v e r n m e n t in control has little interest or initiative in t o u r i s m , it is unlikely that t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n will b e p u r s u e d to a n y great extent. Public sector participation in the f o r m u l a t i o n o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s should not b e limited to the national level o f g o v e r n m e n t . E a c h region should b e e n c o u r a g e d to f o r m u l a t e its o w n policies, a n d training facilities a n d p r o g r a m s should b e a d a p t e d to suit these local objectives. F o r e x a m p l e , in o r d e r to p r o v i d e easier local access to t o u r i s m p r o g r a m s , especially in e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , it m a y b e necessary to decentralize training. As a result, o u t r e a c h p r o g r a m s m a y b e offered in v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s , r a t h e r t h a n courses only b e i n g offered at a central institutional location. B u t this t y p e o f c o o r d i n a t e d effort b e t w e e n the v a r i o u s levels o f g o v e r n m e n t is often fraught with difficulty, d u e to conflicts o f interests a n d chronic infighting. Political o r i e n t a t i o n can also influence the design a n d c o n t e n t o f the p r o g r a m s . F o r e x a m p l e , in C o m m u n i s t / M a r x i s t countries, p r o g r a m s in e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p are c o u n t e r to the existing political a n d social ideologies. I n d e e d , in m a n y o f the d e v e l o p i n g regions o f the world, the past scarcity o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s can b e attrib- u t e d to c o m m u n i s t o r M a r x i s t policies. H o w e v e r , in view o f the dra- matic political shifts o c c u r r i n g in several regions, including the E a s t e r n C o m m u n i s t Bloc, C h i n a , C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , a n d Africa, there should be greatly increased future interest a n d potential for e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p e d u c a t i o n in the d e v e l o p i n g world. I n t e r m s o f the aspiring e n t r e p r e n e u r s themselves, c u m b e r s o m e b u - reaucracies, c o r r u p t i o n , a n d lack o f a p p r o p r i a t e "connections" can b e m a j o r obstacles to b u s i n e s s start-up. Since such t y p e s o f p r o b l e m s are CHARLOTTE ECHTNER 131 pervasive in m a n y d e v e l o p i n g countries, it follows that there is no point in t r a i n i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s if these issues c a n n o t b e addressed. W o r k i n g closely with, a n d gaining the s u p p o r t of, local i n d u s t r y m e m - bers a n d officials is a g o o d place to start. U s i n g the "mentor" p r o g r a m discussed earlier can p r o v i d e the b u d d i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r with advice from an individual e x p e r i e n c e d in dealing with s o m e o f these p r o b - lems. It is i m p o r t a n t to note, h o w e v e r , that these t y p e s o f issues are often q u i t e t e n a c i o u s a n d , therefore, the t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m u s t pro- vide the e n t r e p r e n e u r s with the k n o w - h o w (the "street smarts") o f op- erating within a n d dealing with the existing system. 3. Social barriers. T h e aspiring e n t r e p r e n e u r often faces traditional so- cial barriers. In a s t u d y o f t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , D i n ( 1 9 9 2 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) c o n c l u d e d that business o w n e r s h i p in m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies is usually controlled b y one or two ethnic groups. T h i s ethnic d o m i n a n c e in business v e n t u r e s is often b a s e d on factors such as historical o w n e r s h i p o f territory, religious p h i l o s o p h y , o r a high d e g r e e o f internal cohesion a n d c o o p e r a t i o n ( M i c h a u d 1991:615-617). As a result, the d o m i n a n t ethnic g r o u p s h a v e the e c o n o m i c , social, a n d political a d v a n t a g e s to i m m e d i a t e l y exploit a n y n e w business o p p o r t u n i t i e s that might arise. In addition to these ethnic groups, foreign investors, state agencies, local w e a l t h y speculators, a n d g o v e r n m e n t officials also h a v e distinct a d v a n t a g e s in exploiting lucrative business o p p o r t u n i t i e s . In contrast, s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p s m a y n o t e v e n possess the c a p a c i t y to appreciate e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , let alone capitalize on them. Since t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t should relate to a n d h a r m o n i z e with a country's overall social d e v e l o p m e n t plan, it is i m p o r t a n t to recognize a n d deal with these social inequities. In s o m e cases, sociocultural con- cerns should take p r e c e d e n c e o v e r the e c o n o m i c rate o f r e t u r n ( G o 1989:12). F o r e x a m p l e , e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s m a y be offered to d i s a d v a n t a g e d m i n o r i t y g r o u p s (specific tribal m e m b e r s , ethnic groups, w o m e n ) e v e n t h o u g h the success rate m i g h t be higher if offered to the p o p u l a t i o n in general. In a similar vein, p r o g r a m s m a y b e offered in e c o n o m i c a l l y d e p r e s s e d areas, e v e n t h o u g h the m o s t cost- effective strategy w o u l d b e to c o n c e n t r a t e elsewhere. It is also i m p o r t a n t to m o n i t o r the m e t h o d s o f screening u s e d to e n s u r e that e n t r y to the p r o g r a m s is b a s e d as m u c h as possible on individual m e r i t versus social class o r ethnic b a c k g r o u n d . As a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , screening should b e b a s e d m a i n l y on desirable personality traits, such as the n e e d for a c h i e v e m e n t a n d capacity for risk-taking. O t h e r f r e q u e n t l y u s e d screening factors, n a m e l y p r e v i o u s experience with e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p a n d existing business contacts, should b e ap- plied with c a u t i o n , as t h e y m a y w o r k in favor o f the d o m i n a n t ethnic group(s). C O N C L U S I O N S A l t h o u g h a d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n should ideally i n c o r p o r a t e all c o m p o - nents o f the three p r o n g e d a p p r o a c h into its t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n pro- g r a m , u l t i m a t e l y w h e t h e r o r n o t all are included, a n d the degree to which each is e m p h a s i z e d , d e p e n d s on the c o u n t r y ' s overall social a n d 132 TRAINING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s . I n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , t h e f u n d a m e n - tal goals o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n n o t o n l y s h o u l d b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i m - p r o v i n g t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e t o u r i s m s e c t o r , b u t also s h o u l d a d d r e s s t h e n e e d to i n c r e a s e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s in t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , " n e e d led" p r i o r i t i e s s h o u l d o f t e n t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e t r a d i - t i o n a l " m a r k e t led" a p p r o a c h ( T h e u n s a n d G o 1 9 9 1 : 3 3 5 ) . G o v e r n m e n t s m u s t strike a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n w h a t is e s s e n t i a l , w h a t is d e s i r a b l e , a n d w h a t is p o s s i b l e ( H e g a r t y 1 9 9 0 : 4 1 ) . E a r l y o n in t h e t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s , b u s i n e s s f o r m a t i o n will b e t a k i n g place. E n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , o f c o u r s e , will o c c u r at t h e t o p o f t h e social s y s t e m t h r o u g h t h e i n d i g e n o u s e c o n o m i c elite a n d t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l s , b u t it will also b e a t t e m p t e d in o t h e r l a y e r s o f t h e social s t r a t a ( R a y 1988:12). I f local r e s i d e n t s a r e to h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e m e a n s m u s t b e f o u n d t o t a r g e t m o r e o f t h e m in t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n . T h r o u g h o u t this p a p e r , it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s m a y b e o n e o f t h e m o s t cost e f f e c t i v e m e a n s o f r e a c h i n g , e d u c a t i n g , a n d , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , e m p o w e r i n g local i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n y c o u n t r y d e p e n d s o n t h e e f f e c t i v e a n d p r o p e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f h u m a n r e s o u r c e s . A n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m m u s t b e c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g to t h e i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t ; it m u s t also b e c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p r o b l e m o f d e p e n d e n c y ( H e g a r t y 1 9 9 0 : 4 1 ) . B y u t i l i z i n g a n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l ap - p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n , a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y c a n b u i l d t h e h u - m a n r e s o u r c e s it n e e d s to e n s u r e w e l l - q u a l i f i e d , i n d i g e n o u s e n t r e p r e - n e u r s . I n this w a y , t o u r i s m c a n o c c u r w i t h l o c a l l y - o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d b u s i n e s s e s at t h e h e l m . 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